Appendix.
(A.) Some Occasional Peculiarities of Verbs.
2300. In many cases where in English a verb like wish or try to have a thing done, can, must, or am allowed to, is used, the equivalent Latin verb is omitted. As this use generally extends through the entire system of the verb, examples of the nouns of the verb and of subordinate sentences thus used, are conveniently included here.
The Conative Use.
2301. A verb is sometimes used to denote action proposed, attempted, or begun, but not necessarily carried out. This is called the Conative Use of the verb: as,
ancillās dēdō, T. Hec. 773, I try to give, or I offer up the servant girls. sine ūllā dubitātiōne condemnant, Clu. 75, without a moment’s hesitation they vote to condemn. dum id inpetrant, Pl. Cap. 233, as long as they’re trying to get it. sī plācēs inlacrimābilem Plūtōna, H. 2, 14, 5, shouldst thou the stonyhearted Pluto strive to melt. sī discēdās, J. 7. 50, should you attempt to leave. in cūriam abiēcit, quam vīvus ēverterat, Mil. 90, he shoved the corpse into the senate house, which the man in his lifetime had done his best to overthrow. adsurgentem rēgem umbōne resupīnat, L. 4, 19, 5, with the boss of his shield he put the king flat on his back, when he tried to get up.
2302. This use is particularly common in the imperfect indicative: as,
nostrōs ingredī prohibēbant, 5, 9, 6, they tried to stop our people from getting in. Apellēs faciēbat, Plin. NH. praef. 26, Apelles undertook to do this, or an attempt of Apelles’s. sēdābant tumultūs, sēdandō interdum movēbant, L. 3, 15, 7, they tried to quell the riotings, but by trying they started them once in a while afresh. num dubitās id mē imperante facere, quod iam tuā sponte faciēbās? C. 1, 13, do you possibly hesitate to do at my command what you wanted to do, as it was, yourself? The conative use is not very common in old Latin, but more frequent from Cicero and Caesar on.
2303. When the conative use is to be expressed more distinctly, a form of volō or cōnor is used, or a frequentative, like vēnditō, try to sell, adventō, strive to come.
The Causative Use.
2304. A verb is sometimes used to denote not what the subject actually does himself, but what he has another do. This is called the Causative Use of the verb: as,
animī causā mihi nāvem faciam, Pl. R. 932, just for diversion I’ll build me a yacht. cum vellet sibī̆ ānulum facere, aurificem iussit vocārī, V. 4, 56, wanting to make him a ring, he ordered a goldsmith to be called. complūrēs pauperēs mortuōs suō sūmptū extulit, N. 5, 4, 3, he buried a good many poor dead people at his own expense, i.e. had them buried. Also in the passive: as, tondēmur, Quintil. 1, 6, 44, we get shaved. When greater exactness is required, having a thing done may be expressed more distinctly by faciō (1965), by cūrō (2250), or by iubeō.
The Potential Use.
2305. A verb is sometimes used to indicate action that can be done, and especially action that can be done at any time. This is called the Potential Use of the verb: as,
clārē oculīs videō, Pl. MG. 630, I can see distinctly. proptereā quod inter fīnēs Helvētiōrum et Allobrogum Rhodanus fluit isque nōnnūllīs locīs vadō trānsītur, 1, 6, 2, because the Rhone runs between the district of the Helvetians and Allobrogans, and the river in some places can be forded, or is fordable. Particularly with a negative: as, apertē adūlantem nēmō nōn videt, L. 99, an open flatterer anybody can see through. nōn facile dīiūdicātur amor vērus et fīctus, Fam. 9, 16, 2, real love and pretended love cannot easily be told apart. ubī̆ Crassus animadvertit, suās cōpiās nōn facile dīdūcī, nōn cunctandum exīstimāvit, 3, 23, 7, when Crassus saw that his forces could not easily be divided, he thought he ought to lose no time. quoniam prōpositum nōn tenuerat, Caes. C. 3, 65, 4, seeing that he had not succeeded in carrying out his plan. Sometimes this idea is expressed by the subjunctive (1554).
The Obligatory Use.
2306. A verb is sometimes used to denote obligatory action. This is called the Obligatory Use of the verb: as,
paulisper commorātus est, Mil. 28, he had to wait. aegra trahēbant corpora, V. 3, 140, they had to drag their sickly frames along. caruī patriā, Sest. 145, I had to keep away from the country of my birth. senātor populī Rōmānī pernoctāvit in pūblicō, V. 4, 25, a senator of Rome was fain to sleep in the streets. serēmus aliquid in dērelictō solō, Br. 16, we shall have to sow something in an abandoned field. erat summa inopia pābulī, adeō ut foliīs equōs alerent, Caes. C. 3, 58, 3, there was an utter lack of fodder, so that they were fain to feed their horses on leaves.
The Permissive Use.
2307. A verb is sometimes used to denote permitted action. This is called the Permissive Use of the verb: as,
Verrēsne habēbit domī suae candēlābrum Iovis? V. 4, 71, shall Verres be allowed to have at his house a candelabra of Jupiter? petit ut ipse dē eō statuat, 1, 19, 5, he asks to be allowed to sit in judgement himself on the man. Pīsō ōrāvit ut manēret, Ta. 2, 81, Piso asked to be allowed to stay.
(B.) Indirect Discourse.
(Ōrātiō Oblīqua.)
2308. The speech or thought of another, quoted in his own words, is called Direct Discourse (1723).
2309. The speech or thought of another, dependent on a verb of saying or thinking, is called Indirect Discourse (1723).
One may, of course, quote his own words or thoughts indirectly, as well as those of another (1726).
2310. The verb of thinking or saying is often not distinctly expressed, but only implied in the context (1725).
2311. The principles which govern the change of direct discourse into indirect discourse have been already set forth in the foregoing pages; but, for the convenience of the learner, they are here put together.
Mood.
(A.) Main Sentences.
2312. Declarative sentences of direct discourse are put in the accusative with the infinitive, and interrogative and imperative sentences of direct discourse are put in the subjunctive, in indirect discourse.
(a.) For examples of declarative sentences, see 2175-2184.
(b.) Interrogative (1773): quid vellet? cūr in suās possessiōnēs venīret? 1, 44, 7, what did he mean? why this movement into his property? from Ariovistus’s reply to Caesar. dictātor litterās ad senātum mīsit: deum benignitāte Vēiōs iam fore in potestāte populī Rōmānī; quid dē praedā faciendum cēnsērent? L. 5, 20, 1, the dictator sent this letter to the senate: through the bounty of the gods Vei would soon belong to the Roman nation; what did they think should be done about the booty?
(c.) Imperative (1547): Cicerō respondit: sī ab armīs discēdere velint, sē adiūtōre ūtantur lēgātōsque ad Caesarem mittant, 5, 41, 7, Cicero replied: if they wished to lay down their arms, let them take his advice and send envoys to Caesar. nūntius ē̆ī domō vēnit: bellum Athēniēnsēs et Boeōtōs indīxisse Lacedaemoniīs; quārē venīre nē dubitāret, N. 17, 4, 1, a message reached him from home: the Athenians and Boeotians had declared war on the Lacedaemonians; so he was to come without delay. See also 1707, 1708.
2313. Rhetorical questions (that is, declarations made for effect in the form of questions) in the first or third person in the direct discourse are put in the accusative with the infinitive in indirect discourse: as,
sī veteris contumēliae oblīvīscī vellet, num etiam recentium iniūriārum memoriam dēpōnere posse? 1, 14, 3, if he were inclined to disregard the old affront, could he also forget their fresh insults? from Caesar’s reply to the Helvetians. haud mīrum esse Superbō ē̆ī inditum Rōmae cōgnōmen: an quicquam superbius esse quam lūdificārī sīc omne nōmen Latīnum? cui nōn appārēre adfectāre eum imperium in Latīnōs? L. 1, 50, 3, no wonder Rome dubbed him ‘the Proud’: could there be a greater sign of pride than this mockery of the whole Latin nation? who did not see that he aspired to dominion over the Latins? This use is not found in old Latin. It occurs once or twice in Cicero’s letters and a few times in Caesar. In Livy and late writers, it is not uncommon. Such questions in the second person require the subjunctive (2312).
2314. Questions which are in the subjunctive in direct discourse retain the subjunctive in indirect discourse: as,
quod vērō ad amīcitiam populī Rōmānī attulissent, id iīs ēripī quis patī posset? 1, 43, 8, who could allow them to be stripped of what they had possessed when they became the friends of the Roman nation? (1565).
(B.) Subordinate Sentences.
2315. The verb of a subordinate sentence, introduced by a relative word or a conjunctive particle, stands in the subjunctive in indirect discourse (1722).
For the indicative with dum, in the time while, retained in indirect discourse, see 1995.
sapientissimum esse dīcunt eum, cui quod opus sit ipsī veniat in mentem; proximē accēdere illum quī alterīus bene inventīs obtemperet, Clu. 84, they say he is the wisest man who thinks out of himself what is expedient; and that the man who avails himself of the wise devices of another comes next. ad haec Ariovistus respondit: iūs esse bellī, ut quī vīcissent iīs quōs vīcissent, quemadmodum vellent imperārent, 1, 36, 1, to this Ariovistus answered: that it was the right of war for the conquerors to dictate to the conquered such terms as they pleased.
2316. Relative sentences equivalent to main sentences (1835) may be put in the accusative with the infinitive: as,
ūnum medium diem fuisse, quem tōtum Galbam in cōnsīderandā causā compōnendāque posuisse, Br. 87, that a single day intervened and that this whole day Galba employed in studying up and arranging the case. This use is found in Cicero, rarely in Caesar, in Livy, and a few times in other authors. Not in old Latin.
2317. So also sentences introduced by certain conjunctive particles are occasionally put in the accusative with the infinitive: as,
id quod saepe dictum est: ut mare ventōrum vī agitārī atque turbārī, sīc populum Rōmānum hominum sēditiōsōrum vōcibus concitārī, Clu. 138, the oft-repeated saying: as the sea is ruffled and tossed by the mighty winds, so the people of Rome are stirred up by the talk of agitators. honōrificum id mīlitibus fore, quōrum favōrem ut largitiōne et ambitū male adquīrī, ita per bonās artēs haud spernendum, Ta. H. 1, 17, that would be a mark of respect to the troops, and their good will, though usually won by bribery and corruption, was certainly no small gain if honourably come by. fugere senātum testēs tabulās pūblicās cēnsūs cuiusque, cum interim obaerātam plēbem obiectārī aliīs atque aliīs hostibus, L. 6, 27, 6, that the senate sought to avoid evidence of each man’s property through making public returns, while at the same time the commons lay bankrupt and at the mercy of one enemy after another. ut and quemadmodum are found with this infinitive in Cicero, Livy, and Tacitus; cum interim and sī nōn in Livy; quia in Livy and Seneca; quamquam in Livy and Tacitus; nisi forte in Tacitus. For quam with the infinitive, see 1898.
2318. Relative sentences which are not a part of the quotation, but an addition of the writer’s, or which are a circumlocution equivalent to a substantive, are marked by the indicative (1729): as,
Condrūsōs, Eburōnēs, Caeroesōs, Paemānōs, quī ūnō nōmine Germānī appellantur, arbitrārī ad XL mīlia, 2, 4, 10, that they reckoned the Condrusians, Eburonians, Caeroesians and Paemanians (who are all called by one name Germans) at forty thousand. For other examples of such sentences, see 1729.
2319. Sentences containing the thought of another, introduced by a relative pronoun or by causal, temporal, or other conjunctive particles, take the subjunctive, though not appended to the accusative with the infinitive (1725): as,
numquis, quod bonus vir esset, grātiās dīs ēgit umquam? DN. 3, 87, did anybody ever thank the gods ‘because he was a good man’? (1853). mihī̆ loquitur nec rēctē quia tibī̆ aurum reddidī et quia nōn tē dēfraudāverim, Pl. B. 735, he’s always pitching into me because I returned you the money and ‘because I didn’t do you out of it’ (1856, 1853). aedem Dīiovī vōvit, sī eō diē hostēs fūdisset, L. 31, 21, 12, he vowed a temple to infernal Jove, ‘if he should rout the enemy on that day.’ For other examples, see 1725, 1852, 1853, 1884, &c.
2320. Sometimes a verb of saying or thinking is added, and is itself irrationally put in the subjunctive. For examples, see 1727.
(2.) Tense.
(A.) Of the Infinitive.
2321. The tenses of the infinitive follow their usual law (2218), representing the action as present, past, or future, from the speaker’s point of view.
nūntiātum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontiōnem contendere trīduīque viam ā suīs fīnibus prōfēcisse, 1, 38, 1, it was reported that Ariovistus was pressing on (2219) to seize Vesontio, and that he had done a three days’ journey from his own borders (2226). fāma est āram esse in vestibulō templī, L. 24, 3, 7, rumour has it that there is an altar in the vestibule of the temple (2219). lēgāti haec sē ad suōs relātūrōs dīxērunt, 4, 9, 1, the envoys said they would report this to their countrymen (2232). For other examples, see 2175-2203; for the infinitive equivalent of the indicative imperfect and pluperfect, see 2226, 2227.
(B.) Of the Subjunctive.
2322. The tenses of the subjunctive follow the law of the sequence of tenses; see 1745.
The tenses are usually imperfect or pluperfect, as the verb introducing a quotation is usually past.
Sōcratēs dīcere solēbat, omnēs in eō quod scīrent, satis esse ēloquentēs, DO. 1, 63, Socrates used to maintain that all men were eloquent enough in a matter which they understood (1766). dīcēbam quoad metuerēs, omnia tē prōmissūrum, Ph. 2, 89, I said that as long as you were afraid, you would promise everything (1771). cōgnōvit Suēbōs posteā quam pontem fierī comperissent, nūntiōs in omnēs partēs dīmīsisse, 4, 19, 2, he ascertained that after the Suebans had learned of the building of the bridge, they had sent out messengers in every direction (1772). For other examples, see 1746-1772.
2323. But the present and perfect subjunctive are often used, especially when the main verb is present, or for vividness after a secondary tense.
Alexandrum Philippus accūsat quod largitiōne benevolentiam Macedonum cōnsectētur, Off. 2, 53, Philip accuses Alexander of courting the favour of the Macedonians by the use of money (1746, 1853). initium quod huic cum mātre fuerit simultātis audīstis, Clu. 17, you have heard the origin of the enmity which was between the defendant and his mother (1746). Ariovistus respondit: stīpendium capere iūre bellī quod victōrēs victīs imponere cōnsuerint, 1, 44, 1, Ariovistus answered that it was by the laws of war that he took the tribute which victors were wont to lay upon the vanquished (1755). For other examples, see 1746-1772.
2324. The future of direct discourse is represented in indirect discourse by the imperfect, and the future perfect by the pluperfect subjunctive.
sē quod ē rē pūblicā esset factūrum, L. 28, 45,3, that he would do what should be for the interests of the state (1766). sē nōn ante coeptūrum quam ignem in rēgiīs castrīs cōnspexisset, L. 30, 5, 5, that he would not begin before he saw fire in the royal camp (1766, 1921). The present or perfect subjunctive also is found when the main verb requires. For other examples, see 1746-1772.
(3.) Pronoun.
2325. ego and nōs, of direct discourse, are represented by sē in indirect discourse, and meus and noster by suus. tū and vōs, of direct discourse, are represented in indirect discourse by ille, or, when less emphatic, by is.
For the use of the reflexive pronoun, see 2338-2342.
sē prius in Galliam vēnisse quam populum Rōmānum, 1, 44, 7, that he came into Gaul before the Roman nation, said Ariovistus of himself. sē ā patribus maiōribusque suīs didicisse, 1, 13, 6, that they had learned from their fathers and ancestors, said the Helvetians of themselves. trānsīsse Rhēnum sēsē nōn suā sponte, 1, 44, 1, that he had crossed the Rhine not of his own accord, was the assertion of Ariovistus. quī nisi dēcēdat, sēsē illum nōn prō amīcō sed hoste habitūrum. quod sī eum interfēcerit, multīs sēsē prīncipibus populī Rōmānī grātum esse factūrum, 1, 44, 11, that unless he withdrew, he should consider him not a friend but a foe. Why, if he killed him, he should do a favour to numerous leading men in the Roman nation. Here Ariovistus is reported as speaking to Caesar.
Conditional Periods in Indirect Discourse.
(A.) Protasis.
2326. The protasis of every kind (2023, 2024) has the verb in the subjunctive in indirect discourse (2315).
2327. The tense of the protasis is generally imperfect or pluperfect (2322): as,
Ariovistus respondit: sī ipse populō Rōmānō nōn praescrīberet, nōn oportēre sēsē ā populō Rōmānō impedīrī, 1, 36, 1, Ariovistus answered: if he did not dictate to the Roman nation, no more ought the Roman nation to interfere with him (2026). quae sī fēcisset, Pompēium in Hispāniās itūrum, Caes. C. 1, 10, 3, if he did that, Pompey would go to the Spains (2061).
2328. But indeterminate protases (2023) are sometimes put in the present or perfect subjunctive in indirect discourse, even with a main secondary tense: as,
Ariovistus respondit: sī iterum experīrī velint, sē parātum esse dēcertāre, 1, 44, 1, Ariovistus answered that if the Romans wanted to try again, he was ready to fight it out (2026). quī nisi dēcēdat, sēsē illum prō hoste habitūrum, 1, 44, 11, that unless he withdrew, he should consider him an enemy (2054).
2329. Protases of action non-occurrent (2024) remain in the imperfect or pluperfect, even with a main primary tense.
licet Varrō Mūsās, Aelī Stilōnis sententiā, Plautīnō dīcat sermōne locutūrās fuisse sī Latīnē loquī vellent, Quintil. 10, 1, 99, though Varro, following Stilo’s dictum, may say that the Muses would have spoken in the style of Plautus, if they had wanted to speak Latin (2095). quaeret ab accūsātōribus quid factūrī essent, sī in eō locō fuissent, Cornif. 2, 22, he will ask the accusers what they would have done if they had been in that predicament (2099).
(B.) Apodosis.
2330. In indeterminate conditional periods (2023), the apodosis simply follows the general rule (2312): as,
Iovem sīc aiunt philosophī, sī Graecē loquātur, loquī, Br. 121, the philosophers say that this is Jove’s style of speaking, if Jove speaks Greek (2026). sīn bellō persequī persevērāret, reminīscerētur prīstinae virtūtis Helvētiōrum, 1, 13, 4, if he persisted in following them up with war, let him call to mind the old time valour of the Helvetians (2056). in prōvinciīs intellegēbant sī is quī esset cum imperiō emere vellet, fore utī quod quisque vellet quantī vellet auferret, V. 4, 10, in the provinces they saw that if a man clothed in authority should wish to be a buyer, he would carry off every time whatever he wished at what he wished (2233; 2054 or 2076). futūrum esse, nisi prōvīsum esset, ut Rōma caperētur, Div. 1, 101, that unless precaution was taken, Rome would be captured (2233, 2061). For other examples, see 2327, 2328.
2331. In conditional periods of action non-occurrent (2024), the future participle with fuisse, is used in apodoses of the active voice: as,
an Cn. Pompēium cēnsēs maximārum rērum glōriā laetātūrum fuisse, sī scīret sē in sōlitūdine Aegyptiōrum trucīdātum īrī, Div. 2, 22, do you suppose that Pompey would have taken any pleasure in the fame which his peerless exploits brought him if he had known that he was going to be butchered in the wilds of Egypt?
In one instance, found in Caesar, the future participle with esse occurs, representing the imperfect subjunctive of present time (2091):
Caesarem arbitrārī profectum in Ītaliam; neque aliter Carnūtēs interficiundī Tasgetiī cōnsilium fuisse captūrōs, neque Eburōnēs, sī ille adesset, ad castra ventūrōs esse, 5, 29, 2, that he thought Caesar was gone into Italy; otherwise, the Carnutes would not have formed their design of killing Tasgetius, and the Eburones, if he were at hand, would not be assaulting the camp. Here the context shows that ventūrōs esse represents the imperfect subjunctive. But ordinarily it might seem to represent the future indicative. Hence, to avoid ambiguity, the Romans generally did not try to express present time in apodoses of this class in indirect discourse.
2332. The perfect infinitive is exceptionally used; this is based upon the indicative in apodosis (2104).
memoriā teneō solitum ipsum nārrāre sē studium philosophiae ācrius hausisse, nī prūdentia mātris incēnsum animum coërcuisset, Ta. Agr. 4, I remember that he used to say that he had drunk in the study of philosophy with too great eagerness, had not his discreet mother checked his ardent soul (2105 or 2107).
2333. possum, in the apodosis of a conditional period of action non-occurrent (2101), is regularly put in the perfect infinitive in indirect discourse: as,
Platōnem exīstimō, sī genus forēnse dīcendī trāctāre voluisset, gravissimē potuisse dīcere, Off. 1, 4, I think that if Plato had only chosen to cultivate forensic eloquence, he might have been a most impressive speaker (2103). cum dīcerent sē potuisse in amplissimum locum pervenīre, sī sua studia ad honōrēs petendōs cōnferre voluissent, Clu. 153, saying they might have risen to the proudest position, if they had only chosen to apply their energies to a political career (2103).
2334. futūrum fuisse ut with the imperfect subjunctive is rarely used in apodoses of the passive voice (2331): as,
Theophrastus accūsāsse nātūram dīcitur quod hominibus tam exiguam vītam dedisset: quōrum sī aetās potuisset esse longinquior, futūrum fuisse ut omnī doctrīnā hominum vīta ērudīrētur, TD. 3, 69, it is said that Theophrastus took nature to task ‘for giving man such a short life; if the period could have been longer man’s life would have been informed with knowledge of every sort’ (2099). See also Caes. C. 3, 101, 2.
(C.) Pronouns.
The Personal Pronoun.
2335. For the use of the nominatives ego tū, nōs vōs, see 1029. The genitive plurals nostrū̆m and vestrū̆m are used as partitive, nostrī and vestrī as objective genitives: as,
nēmō nostrūm, RA. 55, not one of us (1242). ab utrīsque vestrūm, Fam. 11, 21, 5, by each of you (1243). grāta mihī̆ vehementer est memoria nostrī tua, Fam. 12, 17, 1, your remembrance of me is exceedingly agreeable to me (1260). nostrī nōsmet paenitet, T. Ph. 172, we’re discontented with our lot (1283). For the adjective instead of the possessive or objective genitive, see 1234, 1262.
The Reflexive sē and suus .
2336. The reflexive regularly refers to the subject of the verb: as,
fugae sēsē mandābant, 2, 24, 2, they betook themselves to flight. animō servit, nōn sibī, Pl. Tri. 308, he serves his passions, not his better self. est amāns suī virtūs, L. 98, virtue is fond of itself. dūcit sēcum ūnā virginem, T. Eu. 229, he is leading a girl along with him. Caesar cōpiās suās dīvīsit, Caes. C. 3, 97, 3, Caesar divided his forces. For sē ipse, see 2376; for sē or suus quisque, 2397.
2337. The reflexive sometimes refers to a word not the subject, when that word is specially emphasized or easily made out from the context. This holds chiefly of suus, which is used with great freedom: as,
Alexandrum uxor sua occīdit, Inv. 2, 144, Alexander was murdered by his own wife. dēsinant īnsidiārī domī suae cōnsulī, C. 1, 32, let them cease to waylay the consul in his own house and home. suās rēs Syrācūsānīs restituit, L. 29, 1, 17, he restored their property to the Syracuse people.
2338. In the construction of the accusative with the infinitive (2175), the reflexive is regularly used when the subject of the infinitive refers to the subject of the verb: as,
Vārus imperium sē habēre dīxit, Lig. 22, Varus said that he had authority. id sēsē effectūrōs spērābant, 7, 26, 2, they hoped to accomplish it (2235).
2339. The reflexive, in this construction, sometimes refers to an emphasized word not the formal subject of the verb: as,
canum custōdia quid sīgnificat aliud nisi sē ad hominum commoditātēs esse generātōs? DN. 2, 158, the watchfulness of the dog—does not it show that he was created for the convenience of man?
2340. When the subject of the infinitive is different from that of the verb, the reflexive sometimes refers to the subject of the verb, sometimes to that of the infinitive: as,
Ariovistus respondit omnēs Galliae cīvitātēs ad sē oppugnandum vēnisse, 1, 44, 1, Ariovistus answered that all the states of Gaul had come to attack him, i.e. Ariovistus. nēminem sēcum sine suā perniciē contendisse, 1, 36, 6, that no man had contended with him without his own undoing; sēcum refers to Ariovistus, the subject of the main verb respondit, suā to nēminem.
2341. In subordinate subjunctive clauses of purpose, indirect discourse, or indirect question, the reflexive refers to the subject of the main sentence: as,
huic mandat, ut ad sē quam prīmum revertātur, 4, 21, 2, he instructs him to come back to himself as soon as possible. excruciābit mē erus, quia sibī nōn dīxerim, Pl. MG. 859, my master’ll torture me ‘because I have not told him.’ Paetus omnīs librōs, quōs frāter suus relīquisset, mihī̆ dōnāvit, Att. 2, 1, 12, Paetus made me a present of all the books ‘that his brother left.’ For the use of is for sē, see 2370.
2342. The reflexive, in such subordinate clauses, sometimes refers to an emphatic word not the main subject: as,
identidem fēlīcem Priamum vocābat, quod superstes omnium suōrum exstitisset, Suet. Tib. 62, he was for ever calling Priam ‘Fortune’s darling, because he outlived all his kith and kin.’
2343. The reflexive referring to the main subject is sometimes irregularly used in subordinate indicative clauses.
Epamīnōndās ē̆ī, quī sibī̆ successerat, exercitum nōn trādidit, Inv. 1, 55, Epaminondas did not deliver the army to his successor. centum bovēs mīlitibus dōnō dedit, quī sēcum fuerant, L. 7, 37, 3, he gave a hundred oxen to the soldiers who had been with him.
Equivalents for a Reciprocal Pronoun.
2344. The place of a reciprocal pronoun, each other, is supplied by inter nōs, inter vōs, inter sē, or by alter or alius followed by another case of the same word: as,
inter nōs nātūrā cōniūnctī sumus, Fin. 3, 66, we are united with each other by nature. Cicerōnēs puerī amant inter sē, Att. 6, 1, 12, the Cicero boys are fond of each other. cum alius aliī subsidium ferret, 2, 26, 2, when they were helping each other. For uterque, see 2400. The reciprocal idea is sometimes expressed by the form of the verb: as, fulvā lūctantur harēnā, V. 6, 643, they wrestle with each other on the yellow sand (1487).
2345. From Livy on, invicem inter sē, invicem sē, or invicem alone, is often used in the expression of reciprocal relations: as,
invicem inter sē grātantēs, L. 9, 43, 17, mutually congratulating each other. invicem sē antepōnendō, Ta. Agr. 6, mutually preferring one another. ut invicem ardentius dīligāmus, Plin. Ep. 7, 20, 7, that we may love each other more ardently.
The Possessive Pronoun.
2346. The possessive of the personal and reflexive pronoun is regularly omitted, unless it is required for emphasis or contrast: as,
ōra manūsque tuā lavimus, Fērōnia, lymphā, H. S. 1, 5, 24, our hands and faces in thy rill, Feronia, we bathe. The possessive sometimes has the meaning of proper, appropriate, favourable; as, suō locō dīcam, Quintil. 1, 1, 36, I shall tell in the proper place. For the possessive pronoun used instead of the possessive or objective genitive, see 1234, 1262.
The Demonstrative Pronoun.
hīc.
2347. hīc points out what is near the speaker in place, time, or thought: as,
hī domum mē ad sē auferent, Pl. Men. 847, these fellows will hale me off to their house. nōn mē exīstimāvī in hōc sermōne usque ad hanc aetātem esse ventūrum, Br. 232, I did not think that in this discourse I should get down to the present generation. reliquum omne tempus huius annī, V. 1, 30, all the rest of this year.
2348. hīc sometimes points out the speaker with pathos, or with emphasis, particularly in comedy.
haec arma et hunc mīlitem propitiō flūmine accipiās, L. 2, 10, 11, receive these arms and this soldier in thy gracious stream, the prayer of Horatius Cocles to Father Tiber. tibī̆ erunt parāta verba, huic hominī verbera, T. Hau. 356, you’ll get a chiding, this child a hiding. fēcisset nī haec praesēnsisset canēs, Pl. Tri. 172, and he’d have done it, unless this dog had got scent of it in time, where the speaker means himself.
2349. The neuter plural haec sometimes means the realm, our country, our state, the [Roman] world: as,
haec, quae iam prīdem vastāre studēs, C. 1, 21, the realm which you have long sought to lay in ruins. quī haec dēlēre cōnātī sunt, C. 4, 7, who have tried to destroy the state. servus est nēmō quī nōn haec stāre cupiat, C. 4, 16, there lives no slave that wills not our country should abide.
2350. hīc, as expressing a familiar, every-day thing, occasionally has a shade of contempt, either alone, or with volgāris, cottīdiānus or the like: as,
mittit hominī mūnera satis largē, haec ad ūsum domesticum, V. 4, 62, he sent him some presents—pretty liberal ones, commonish things for household use. mittō hāsce artīs volgārīs, coquōs, pistōrēs, RA. 134, I’ll skip your everyday common occupations—such as cooks, bakers, &c., &c. taedet cottīdiānārum hārum fōrmārum, T. Eu. 297, I’m sick of your everyday beauties.
2351. When hīc relates to the words of a sentence, it points out what has preceded or is to follow, or emphasizes a word referred to by a preceding relative.
For hīc used to introduce a new sentence, see 2129.
haec habuī dē senectūte quae dīcerem, CM. 85, this was what I had to say on Old Age. sed haec hāctenus; nunc ad ostenta veniāmus, Div. 2, 53, so much for this; let us now go on to portents. fēcit pācem hīs condiciōnibus, N. 8, 3, 1, he made peace on the following terms. dīcitur locūtus in hanc ferē sententiam esse, L. 6, 40, 2, it is said that he spoke to somewhat the following effect. quaesierat ex mē Scīpiō quidnam sentīrem dē hōc quod duo sōlēs vīsōs esse cōnstāret, RP. 1, 19, Scipio had asked me what I thought about this, that it was generally agreed that two suns had been seen.
2352. hīc and ille are often opposed, particularly in contrasts of classes: as,
laudātur ab hīs, culpātur ab illīs, H. S. 1, 2, 11, one side praises him, the other condemns. illud est album, hoc dulce, canōrum illud, hoc bene olēns, hoc asperum, Ac. 2, 21, that is white, this is sweet, that sonorous, this fragrant, this rough. ōrātor, nōn ille volgāris sed hīc excellēns, O. 45, an orator, not of the common sort, but the superior one of whom we are speaking.
2353. In transitions, ille introduces a new thing, hīc denotes the aforementioned: as,
sed haec vetera; illud vērō recēns, Caesarem meō cōnsiliō interfectum, Ph. 2, 25, but this is all ancient history; here, however, is something new, that Caesar was killed at my suggestion.
2354. When hīc and ille refer to two different persons or things named in the sentence, hīc commonly refers to the nearer word, ille to the remoter word; or hīc sometimes refers to what is nearer the mind of the speaker, even though it be remoter in the sentence.
(a.) Caesar beneficiīs ac mūnificentiā magnus habēbātur, integritāte vītae Catō. Ille mānsuētūdine et misericordiā clārus factus, huic sevēritās dignitātem addiderat, S. C. 54, 2, Caesar was esteemed great for his liberality and generosity, Cato for his unsullied life. The former became famous through his humanity and mercy, the latter’s dignity was heightened by his austerity. (b.) cavē Catōnī antepōnās nē istum quidem ipsum quem Apollō, ut ais, sapientissimum iūdicāvit: huius enim facta, illīus dicta laudantur, L. 10, suffer not Cato to find a rival even in your man himself, whom, as you say, Apollo declared wisest of mankind; for our Cato is renowned for deeds, the other for doctrines.
2355. hīc and ille are used together, chiefly in poetry, to explain something past by a present thing: as,
hunc illum poscere fāta reor, V. 7, 272, this I think is he whom the fates require. hunc illum fātīs externā ab sēde profectum portendī generum, V. 7, 255, this was the man whom destiny foretold should fare from foreign home to be his son-in-law.
iste.
2356. iste points out something near to, belonging to, or imputed to the person addressed: as,
cum istā sīs auctōritāte, nōn dēbēs adripere maledictum ex triviō, Mur. 13, carrying the influence that you do, you ought not to take to street-corner abuse. multae istārum arborum meā manū sunt satae, CM. 59, many of the trees you see there were planted by my own hand. salem istum quō caret vestra nātiō, inrīdendīs nōbīs nōlītōte cōnsūmere, ND. 2, 74, do not waste in ridiculing us that wit which your fraternity sadly needs. Often with tuus or vester: as, īsdem hīc sapiēns dē quō loquor oculīs quibus iste vester intuēbitur, Ac. 2, 105, the sage of whom I speak will look with the same eyes as the sage you boast of.
2357. From its use in addressing opponents or in talking at them, iste is common in contemptuous phrases: as,
tū istīs faucibus, istīs lateribus, istā gladiātōriā tōtīus corporis firmitāte, Ph. 2, 63, you with that gullet of yours, those swollen flanks, that prizefighter’s bulky make-up. nōn erit ista amīcitia, sed mercātūra quaedam, ND. 1, 122, such a thing will not be a friendship, but a sort of traffic.
ille.
2358. ille points to what is remote in place, time, or thought: as,
ergō illī intellegunt quid Epicūrus dīcat, ego nōn intellegō? Fin. 2, 13, do those gentlemen then understand what Epicurus means and I not? populus Rōmānus nihil aequē atque illam veterem iūdiciōrum vim gravitātemque requīrit, Caecil. 8, the Roman people miss nothing so much as the ancient vigour and firmness attaching to public trials. hīs autem dē rēbus sōl mē ille admonuit ut brevior essem, DO. 3, 209, but on these topics yonder sun has warned me to be pretty brief. For other examples, see 2352-2355.
2359. ille is used to point out a celebrity, often one of the past. So, particularly without a proper name, in allusive style, referring to what is famed in story.
(a.) hīc est ille Dēmosthenēs, TD. 5, 103, this is the famous Demosthenes. Athēniēnsis ille Themistoclēs, DO. 2, 299, Themistocles the great, of Athens. illud Solōnis, CM. 50, Solon’s memorable words. Mēdēa illa, IP. 22, Medea famed in story. (b.) vīribus ille cōnfīsus periīt, J. 10, 10, the man in the story lost his life through confidence in his strength. illae rēgiae lacrimae, Plin. Ep. 3, 7, 13, the monarch’s historic tears, of Xerxes.
2360. Indicating change of subject, ille is this other man. In such cases it is often best expressed in English by a proper name or a descriptive word.
ad sē adulēscentem iussit venīre. at ille, ut ingressus est, cōnfestim gladium dēstrīnxit, Off. 3, 112, he gave orders to admit the young man. But this other, the moment he entered, drew his sword. rūsticus expectat dum dēfluat amnis: at ille lābitur et lābētur, H. E. 1, 2, 42, he is a peasant waiting for the river to go down: but the river flows and will flow on.
2361. In concessions, ille often precedes quidem; in translation no pronoun is required.
librī scrīptī incōnsīderātē ab optimīs illīs quidem virīs, sed nōn satis ērudītīs, TD. 1, 6, books rashly written by men respectable enough but of insufficient education. est tarda illa medicīna, sed tamen magna, TD. 3, 35, it is a powerful remedy, though slow in its working. hīc, is, and iste are used rarely in this way.
2362. In poetry ille may serve: (1.) To repeat a thing with emphasis: as,
arma virumque canō Trōiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs Ītaliam vēnit, multum ille et terrīs iactātus et altō, V. 1, 1, arms and the man I sing, from Troja’s shore the first to come to Italy, much tossed that man by land and sea.
2363. (2.) To emphasize the second of two ideas: as,
nunc dextrā ingemināns ictūs, nunc ille sinistrā, V. 5, 457, now with his right redoubling blows, now mighty with his left. nōn tamen Euryalī, non ille oblītus amōrum, V. 5, 334, still not Euryalus forgetting, no, not he his love!
2364. (3.) As a provisional subject, to anticipate the real subject, and keep the attention in suspense till the real subject comes with emphasis: as,
ac velut ille canum morsū dē montibus altīs āctus aper substitit, V. 10, 707, and e’en as he, goaded by bite of hounds from mountains high, the boar hath paused.
The Determinative Pronoun.
is.
2365. is refers to something named in the context. When some feeling is to be expressed, such as admiration, or oftener contempt, homō is often put for is.
(a.) petit ā rēge et eum plūribus verbīs rogat ut id ad sē mittat, V. 4, 64, he solicits the king and begs him at considerable length to send it to him. nōndum mātūrus imperiō Ascanius erat, tamen id imperium ĕ̄ī ad pūberem aetātem incolume mānsit, L. 1, 3, 1, Ascanius was not yet old enough for the throne, but that throne was kept safe for him till he came of age. (b.) ego hominem callidiōrem vīdī nēminem quam Phormiōnem. veniō ad hominem, ut dīcerem argentum opus esse, T. Ph. 591, a shrewder man than Phormio I never saw, not I! I went to him to tell him that I needed money. nēquam esse hominem et levem sciēbam, Sest. 22, I knew the fellow was worthless and frivolous.
2366. (1.) is refers to something named before or after: as,
eius omnis ōrātiō versāta est in eō, ut scrīptum plūrimum valēre oportēre dēfenderet, DO. 1, 244, his whole speech turned on the contention that the written word should be paramount. Melitēnsis Diodōrus est; is Lilybaeī multōs iam annōs habitat, V. 4, 38, Diodorus is from Melita; he has lived many years at Lilybaeum. For other examples of is used to connect sentences, see 2129.
2367. With a connective, is denotes an important addition: as,
vincula et ea sempiterna, C. 4, 7, imprisonment and that too perpetual. annum iam audientem Cratippum idque Athēnīs, Off. 1, 1, after a year’s study under Cratippus, and that too in Athens. erant in eō plūrimae litterae nec eae volgārēs, Br. 265, he was a man of very deep reading and that of no common sort either.
2368. (2.) is indicates something explained or restricted by a relative or indefinite, quī, quīcumque, sī quis: as,
haec omnia is fēcī, quī sodālis Dolābellae eram, Fam. 12, 14, 7, all this I did, I that was Dolabella’s bosom friend (1807). ūnus ex eō numerō quī ad caedem parātī erant, S. I. 35, 6, one of the number that were ready to do murder (1804). neque is sum quī mortis perīculō terrear, 5, 30, 2, but I am not the man to be scared by danger of death, no, not I (1818). quīcumque is est, ē̆ī mē profiteor inimīcum, Fam. 10, 31, 3, whoever he may be, I proclaim myself his enemy (1814). cum ipse Aliēnus ex eā facultāte, sī quam habet, aliquantum dētrāctūrus sit, Caecil. 49, seeing that even Alienus is to suppress some part of that eloquence, if any he may have. See also 1795, 1798. For id quod, see 1811.
2369. For the use of is instead of a relative repeated in a different case, see 1833.
2370. is sometimes is loosely used for the reflexive sē (2341); here the point of view of the writer shows itself.
Mīlēsiōs nāvem poposcit, quae eum Myndum prōsequerētur, V. 1, 86, he asked the Milesians for a ship to escort him to Myndus. suōs omnēs castrīs continuit ignēsque fierī prohibuit, quō occultior esset eius adventus, Caes. C. 3, 30, 5, he confined his troops to camp and forbade the kindling of fires, in order to keep his coming a greater secret.
The Pronoun of Identity.
īdem.
2371. īdem, the same, often connects two different predicates to the same person or thing. In this case, it may be variously rendered by likewise, also, all the same, on the other hand, at once, very, nevertheless.
ūtēbātur eō cibō quī et suāvissimus esset et īdem facillimus ad concoquendum, Fin. 2, 64, he made use of such food as was both very dainty and likewise very easy to digest. ita fīet ut nōn omnēs quī Atticē, eīdem bene dīcant, Br. 291, so it will be found that not all who speak Attic are also good speakers. multī quī ut iūs suum et lībertātem tenērent volnera excēpērunt fortiter et tulērunt, īdem omissā contentiōne dolōrem morbī ferre nōn possunt, TD. 2, 65, many who have met heroically and endured wounds, to preserve their rights and their freedom, are nevertheless, when no contest is involved, unable to bear the pain of a disease.
2372. īdem is often used with other pronouns, hīc, iste, istūc, ille: as,
haec eadem centuriōnibus mandābant, 7, 17, 8, they confided these same sentiments to their centurions. multae aliae idem istuc cupiunt, Pl. MG. 1040, many other ladies want just what you want.
2373. The same as is expressed by īdem followed by quī, atque or ac, ut, quasi, cum, sometimes in poetry by the dative.
īdem sum quī semper fuī, Pl. Am. 447, I’m the same man I’ve always been. pōmārium sēminārium ad eundem modum atque oleāgineum facitō, Cato, RR. 48, make your fruit-tree nursery in the same way as your nursery for olive-trees (1653). eīsdem ferē verbīs ut disputātum est, TD. 2, 9, in pretty much the same words as were used in the actual argument (1937). ut eōdem locō rēs sit quasi ea pecūnia lēgāta nōn esset, Leg. 2, 53, so that the position is the same as if the money had not been bequeathed (2120). tibī̆ mēcum in eōdem est pistrīnō vīvendum, DO. 2, 144, you must live in the same mill as I. Homērus eādem aliīs sōpītu’ quiētest, Lucr. 3, 1037, Homer sleeps the same sleep as others.
The Intensive Pronoun.
ipse.
2374. ipse, self, is used in contrasts.
2375. ipse may contrast the chief person with subordinates, or a person with any thing belonging to him.
Catilīna ipse pertimuit, profūgit; hī quid exspectant? C. 2, 6, Catiline, their head, has fled in abject terror; his minions here, what wait they for? ē̆ī mūnītiōnī, quam fēcerat, T. Labiēnum lēgātum praefēcit; ipse in Ītaliam magnīs itineribus contendit, 1, 10, 3, he put Labienus, his lieutenant, in charge of the fortification he had made; he hurried, himself, to Italy with forced marches. tēmētī nihil adlātum intellegō:: at iam adferētur, sī ā forō ipsus redierit, Pl. Aul. 355, I see there’s no wine brought:: but it soon will be, if the governor comes back from down town. ‘ipse dīxit;’ “ipse” autem erat Pȳthagorās, DN. 1, 10, ‘the old man said so;’ now “the old man” was Pythagoras. nāvis tantum iactūrā factā, incolumēs ipsī ēvāsērunt, L. 30, 25, 8, the vessel only was lost, and the sailors escaped in safety.
2376. ipse is often used with personals and reflexives agreeing with the emphatic word. But the nominative is usually preferred, especially when ipse stands before the other pronoun, or when it stands after per mē, per sē. After mēmet, nōbīsmet, nōsmet, &c., it agrees with these words.
(a.) neque enim potest exercitum is continēre imperātor, quī sē ipsum nōn continet, IP. 38, for no commander can keep his army under control who does not keep his own self under control. mīles frātrem suum, dein sē ipsum interfēcit, Ta. H. 3, 51, a soldier slew his own brother, then himself. (b.) ipse sē quisque dīligit, L. 80, every man loves himself. bellum per sē ipse, iniussū populī ac senātūs, fēcit, L. 1, 49, 7, he made war on his own responsibility, without orders from the people and senate. Iūnius necem sibī̆ ipse cōnscīvit, DN. 2, 7, Junius killed himself. nōn egeō medicīnā, mē ipse cōnsōlor, L. 10, I need no medicine, I am my own comforter. (c.) ut nōbīsmet ipsīs imperēmus, TD. 2, 47, that we should govern ourselves.
2377. ipse alone sometimes stands for an emphatic sē or suus: as,
pertimuērunt nē ab ipsīs dēscīsceret et cum suīs in grātiam redīret, N. 7, 5, 1, they were much afraid that he would abandon them and come into favour with his compatriots again. ea molestissimē ferre hominēs dēbent, quae ipsōrum culpā contrācta sunt, QFr. 1, 1, 2, people should be most vexed at things which are brought about through fault of their own.
2378. ipse is used in many combinations where self is an inadequate translation. It may sometimes be translated by:
2379. (1.) Actual, positive, even.
habet certōs suī studiōsōs, quōs valētūdō modo bona sit, tenuitās ipsa dēlectat, Br. 64, he has a clique of admirers, who are charmed by positive scragginess, provided the health be good. hōc ipsum ēlegantius pōnī meliusque potuit, Fin. 2, 100, even this might have been put more logically and better.
2380. (2.) Regular, proper, real.
flagrantem invidiā propter interitum C. Gracchī ipse populus Rōmānus perīculō līberāvit, Sest. 140, though greatly detested in consequence of the death of Gracchus, he was acquitted by the Roman people proper. cīvēs Rōmānī permultī in illō oppidō cōniūnctissimō animō cum ipsīs Agrigentīnīs vīvunt, V. 4, 93, a great many Romans live in that town in most friendly relations with the natives of Agrigentum.
2381. (3.) As well, likewise, too, for which, from Livy on, et ipse is used.
hoc Rīpheus, hoc ipse Dymās, omnisque iuventūs laeta facit, V. 2, 394, this Ripheus doth, this Dymas too, and all the youth alert. cōgitātiō Locrōs urbem recipiendī, quae sub dēfectiōnem Ītaliae dēscīverat et ipsa ad Poenōs, L. 29, 6, 1, a project for recovering the city of Locri, which, on the revolt of Italy, had likewise gone over to the Carthaginians.
2382. (4.) Alone, mere.
nōn sōlum adventus malī, sed etiam metus ipse adfert calamitātem, IP. 15, not only the coming of misfortune, but even the mere dread of it brings disaster.
2383. (5.) Exactly, just, with numerals and dates, or right, of place.
annīs LXXXVI ipsīs ante mē cōnsulem, Br. 61, exactly 86 years before my consulship. Kalendīs ipsīs Novembribus, C. 1, 8, on the 1st of November precisely. in ipsō vadō dēprehēnsus Indutiomarus interficitur, 5, 58, 6, right at the ford Indutiomarus is caught and killed. suprā ipsum balneum habitō, Sen. Ep. 56, 1, I live right over a bath.
2384. (6.) Of oneself, voluntarily, of one’s own motion.
valvae subitō sē ipsae aperuērunt, Div. 1, 74, the temple-door suddenly opened of itself. Catilīnam vel ēiēcimus vel ēmīsimus vel ipsum ēgredientem verbīs prōsecūtī sumus, C. 2, 1, we have driven Catiline out, or let him out, or, when he was going out of his own motion, wished him godspeed.
The Interrogative Pronoun.
uter and quis.
2385. uter, whether? which? is used in questions about two things; quis and quī, who? what? in questions about more than two, though sometimes loosely of two things.
uter est īnsānior hōrum? H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these is the greater crank? praeclārē apud eundem est Platōnem, similiter facere eōs quī inter sē contenderent uter potius rem pūblicam administrāret, ut sī nautae certārent quis eōrum potissimum gubernāret, Off. 1, 87, in the same Plato is the excellent saying that for people to fall out with one another about which of two men should manage a state, were just as if the crew of a ship should quarrel about which of them should be pilot. ut quem velīs, nesciās, Att. 16, 14, 1, so that you don’t know which to choose, as between Octavian and Antony.
2386. quis and quid ask to have a thing named; quī and quod to have it described. But see 685.
quis Diōnem Syrācosium doctrīnīs omnibus expolīvit? nōn Platō? DO. 3, 139, who refined Syracusan Dio with learning of every sort? was it not Plato? quid rīdēs, H. S. 2, 5, 3, why dost thou laugh? (1144). quis fuit igitur?:: iste Chaerea.:: quī Chaerea? T. Eu. 823, who was he then?:: your precious Chaerea.:: what Chaerea? quem frūctum petentēs scīre cupimus illa quō modō moveantur? Fin. 3, 37, with what practical end in view do we seek to know how yon bodies in the sky keep in motion?
The Relative Pronoun.
2387. The relative pronoun has already been treated; see 1792-1837.
The Indefinite Pronoun.
quis or quī; quispiam.
2388. quis or quī, a, some, somebody, always stands after one or more words of the sentence. quis or quī is used after sī (nisi, sīve), nē, num, utrum, an, quō, or quandō, in preference to aliquis, unless emphasis is intended.
dīxerit quis, Off. 3, 76, somebody may say. malum quod tibī dī dabunt, Pl. Am. 563, some curse the gods will bring upon thee. hī, sī quid erat dūrius, concurrēbant; sī quī equō dēciderat, circumsistēbant, 1, 48, 6, if there was ever any sharpish work, these men would rally; if a man fell from his horse, they would close round him. praecipit atque interdīcit ūnum omnēs peterent Indutiomarum, neu quis quem vulneret, 5, 58, 4, he charges them and forbids them; they were all to assail Indutiomarus alone; and nobody was to wound anybody (2402).
2389. quispiam, a, some, one or another.
forsitan quispiam dīxerit, Off. 3, 29, peradventure somebody may say. quispiam dīcet, V. 3, 111, somebody will say. cum quaepiam cohors impetum fēcerat, hostēs vēlōcissimē refugiēbant, 5, 35, 1, every time one or another cohort charged, the enemy fled back quick speed (2394).
aliquis.
2390. aliquis or aliquī some one, some one or other, has always some affirmative emphasis, and is opposed to the idea of all, much, none: as,
nōn enim dēclāmātōrem aliquem dē lūdō, sed perfectissimum quaerimus, O. 47, for it is not some spouter from school that we aim to find, but the ideal orator. omnēs ut aliquam perniciōsam bēstiam fugiēbant, Clu. 41, everybody avoided him, like some dangerous wild animal or other. audē aliquid Gyarīs dīgnum sī vīs esse aliquid, J. 1, 73, venture some deed that deserves transportation, if you care to be something grand. nōn sine aliquā spē, D. 7, not without some hope. quaerō sitne aliqua āctiō an nūlla, Caec. 33, I ask whether there is some ground for an action or none. num igitur aliquis dolor post mortem est? TD. 1, 82, is there, then, some sense of pain after death? With emphasis after sī (2388): sī aliquid dē summā gravitāte Pompēius, multum de cupiditāte Caesar remīsisset, aliquam rem pūblicam nōbīs habēre licuisset, Ph. 13, 2, if Pompey had sacrificed really something of his importance, and Caesar a good deal of his ambition, we might have had what would have been to some degree a commonwealth.
2391. aliquis is sometimes equivalent to aliquis alius: as,
cum M. Pīsōne et cum Q. Pompēiō aut cum aliquō, Br. 310, with Piso or Pompey or some other man. ea mihī cottīdiē aut tūre aut vīnō aut aliquī semper supplicat, Pl. Aul. prol. 23, she always offers me incense or wine or something else every day.
quīdam.
2392. quīdam, a, a certain, denotes a thing which we cannot describe or do not care to.
nōn inrīdiculē quīdam ex mīlitibus decimae legiōnis dīxit: plūs quam pollicitus esset, Caesarem facere, 1, 42, 6, one of the privates of the Tenth said a very dry thing: that ‘Caesar was doing more than he engaged to.’ accurrit quīdam nōtus mihi nōmine tantum, H. S. 1, 9, 3, up trots a man I knew by name alone. assimilis quīdam mūgituī sonus, Suet. Galb. 18, a mysterious sound like the lowing of a cow. vidēmus nātūram suō quōdam itinere ad ultimum pervenīre, DN. 2, 35, nature reaches perfection by a kind of road of her own. Often in translations from Greek: as, aliīs librīs ratiōnem quandam per omnem nātūram rērum pertinentem vī dīvīnā esse adfectam putat, DN. 1, 36, in other works he supposes ‘a kind of Reason pervading all nature and endowed with divine power, of Zeno’s doctrine.
2393. quīdam is often used to soften an exaggeration or a metaphor, sometimes to denote contempt.
ēloquentissimōs hominēs innumerābilīs quōsdam nōminābat, DO. 1, 91, great speakers he named, absolutely without number. ad omnīs enim meōs impetūs quasi mūrus quīdam bonī nōmen imperātōris oppōnitur, V. 5, 2, for against all assaults of mine the name of a good commander is set up, like a regular wall. sed aliud quoddam fīlum ōrātiōnis tuae, L. 25, but there is quite a different fibre to your speech. nōn est eōrum urbānitāte quādam quasi colōrāta ōrātiō, Br. 170, their language lacks the tinge of an indefinable metropolitan element. Theomnāstus quīdam, homo rīdiculē īnsānus, V. 4, 148, a person of the name of Theomnastus, an absurd, crack-brained creature.
quisque.
2394. quisque, each, each in particular, each by himself, applies what is stated of all to each several case, out of a number more than two.
laudātī prō cōntiōne omnēs sunt, dōnātīque prō meritō quisque, L. 38, 23, 11, they were collectively commended in assembly convened, and received presents, each in proportion to his deserts. quotiēns quaeque cohors prōcurrerat, magnus numerus hostium cadēbat, 5, 34, 2, as the cohorts successively charged, a great number of the enemy fell every time (2389). mēns cuiusque, is est quisque, nōn ea figūra quae digitō dēmōnstrārī potest, RP. 6, 26, the mind of a man is always the man, and not that shape which can be pointed out by the finger.
2395. quisque is sometimes used in a relative and demonstrative sentence both.
quod cuique obtigit, id quisque teneat, Off. 1, 21, let every man keep what he has got. id enim est cuiusque proprium, quō quisque fruitur atque ūtitur, Fam. 7, 30, 2, for that is always a man’s property which he has the enjoyment and use of.
2396. In a complex sentence, consisting of a main and a relative sentence, quisque is usually expressed but once, and then in the unemphatic relative sentence. In English, the equivalent of quisque goes with the main sentence.
nēmō fuit quī nōn surrēxerit, tēlumque quod cuique fors offerēbat, adripuerit, V. 4, 95, not a man but sprang from his bed, and seized in every instance such a weapon as chance threw in his way. theātrum cum commūne sit, rēctē tamen dīcī potest, eius esse eum locum, quem quisque occupārit, Fin. 3, 67, though the theatre is open to all, still it may be said with perfect propriety, that each spectator is entitled to the seat he has taken. Messānam ut quisque nostrūm vēnerat, haec vīsere solēbat, V. 4, 5, any Roman, who went to Messana, invariably went to see these statues (1939). eōrum ut quisque prīmus vēnerat, sub mūrō cōnsistēbat, 7, 48, 2, as they successively arrived, each man of them took his stand under the wall.
2397. quisque is often used with sē or suus, superlatives, and ordinals, holding an unemphatic place after these words: as,
ipse sē quisque dīligit, L. 80, a man always loves his own self. suos quoique mōs, T. Ph. 454, every man his own way. huic prō sē quisque nostrūm medērī velle dēbēmus, L. Agr. 1, 26, this evil we ought to wish to remedy, according to our several abilities. optimum quidque rārissimum est, Fin. 2, 81, ever the fairest is the rarest. nam in forō vix decumus quisquest, quī ipsus sēsē nōverit, Pl. Ps. 973, for in the marketplace there’s scarce one man in every ten that knows himself. quīntō quōque annō Sicilia tōta cēnsētur, V. 2, 139, at the end of every four years all Sicily is assessed. quamquam prīmum quidque explicēmus, Fam. 12, 1, 1, but stay—let me explain things successively; or, one thing after another. litterās mīsit, ut is ānulus ad sē prīmō quōque tempore adferrētur, V. 4, 58, he sent a letter directing said ring to be sent to him without delay.
2398. In old Latin quisque is sometimes equivalent to quīcumque or quisquis, whoever: as, quisque obviam huic occesserit īrātō, vāpulābit, Pl. As. 404, whoever meets him in his wrath will catch it. In cuiusque generis and cuiusque modī, it means any and every: as, tot hominēs cuiusque modī, V. 4, 7, so many people of every sort, i.e. cuicuimodī. The neuter quidquid for quidque is not uncommon: as, cum prōcessit paulum et quātenus quicquid sē attingat perspicere coepit, Fin. 5, 24, when it has progressed a little and has begun to discover how far each thing affects it. Masculine quisquis for quisque is doubtful (see Fam. 6, 1, 1).
uterque.
2399. uterque, each, is used of two individuals, and utrīque of two sets or parties. But sometimes utrīque is used of two individuals.
(a.) ut illa nātūra caelestis et terrā vacat et ūmōre, sīc utriusque hārum rērum hūmānus animus est expers, TD. 1, 65, even as the heavenly nature is free from the earthy and the humid, so the soul of man has no part in either of these qualities (1243). nūtū tremefactus uterque est polus, O. F. 2, 489, at his nod trembled each pole (1243). Aetōliōrum utraeque manūs Hēraclēam sēsē inclūsērunt, L. 36, 16, 5, both bands of the Aetolians shut themselves up in Heraclea. (b.) sex fīliī nōbīs, duae fīliae sunt, utraeque iam nūptae, L. 42, 34, 4, we have six sons and two daughters, both already married.
2400. Reciprocal relations (2344) are sometimes expressed by uterque followed by a different case of alter; rarely by uterque and a different case of the same word.
(a.) quōrum uterque contempsit alterum, Off. 1, 4, each of whom lightly esteemed the other. (b.) abdūcī nōn potest:: quī nōn potest?:: quia uterque utrīquest cordī, T. Ph. 799, she’s not to be taken from him:: why isn’t she?:: because they’re heart to heart. This doubling of uterque is found only half a dozen times; not in Cicero.
quīvīs and quīlibet; utervīs and uterlibet.
2401. quīvīs and quīlibet, any you please, are used either in affirmative or negative sentences. When two are spoken of, utervīs or uterlibet is used.
(a.) ut quīvīs intellegere posset, V. 5, 17, so that any fool might know. faciat quidlubet, T. Hau. 464, let him do anything he likes. (b.) quī utramvīs rēctē nōvit, ambās nōverit, T. Andr. prol. 10, who knows either well, knows both. utrumlibet ēlige, Quinct. 81, choose either you like.
quisquam and ūllus.
2402. quisquam (692), a single one, any one at all, and ūllus, any, are used chiefly in negative sentences or in interrogative, conditional, and comparative sentences implying negation, or with sine.
vēnī Athēnās, neque mē quisquam ibī̆ adgnōvit, TD. 5, 104, I came to Athens and not a person there knew me (1659). interdīcit omnibus, nē quemquam interficiant, 7, 40, 4, he warns them collectively against killing any man at all (2388). hunc suā quisquam sententiā ex hāc urbe expellet? Mil. 104, will anybody at all, by his vote, banish this man from Rome? quis hoc fēcit ūllā in Scythiā tyrannus? Pis. 18, what tyrant ever did this in any Scythia? sī quisquam est timidus, is ego sum, Fam. 6, 14, 1, if anybody is timid, I am the man. quī saepius cum hoste cōnflīxit quam quisquam cum inimīcō concertāvit, IP. 28, who has measured swords oftener with the enemy than anybody ever wrangled with an opponent in private life. sine ūllō metū in ipsum portum penetrāre coepērunt, V. 5, 96, without a bit of fear they began to make their way right into the harbour. nēmō quisquam and nihil quicquam are old and late: as, lepidiōrem uxōrem nēmō quisquam habet, Pl. Cas. 1008, nobody has a jollier wife. noster malī nīl quicquam prīmō, T. Ph. 80, our young master didn’t make any trouble at first.
2403. nēmō is generally used for nōn quisquam, nēmō umquam for numquam quisquam, nihil for nōn quicquam, and nūllus for nōn ūllus. If only two are spoken of, neuter is used. The plural neutrī is used of two parties.
nēmōst miserior mē, T. Hau. 263, no man’s unhappier than I. nēmō igitur vir magnus sine aliquō adflātū dīvīnō umquam fuit, DN. 2, 167, nobody who is a great man was ever without some divine inspiration. ab nūllō ille līberālius quam ā Cluentiō trāctātus est, Clu. 161, by no man has he been treated more generously than by Cluentius. neutrum eōrum contrā alterum iuvāre, Caes. C. 1, 35, 5, to help neither of them against the other. neutrī alterōs prīmō cernēbant, L. 21, 46, 4, neither party saw the others at first.
(D.) Numerals.
2404. Numerals are divided into Adjectives: Cardinal, ūnus, one, duo, two, &c.; Ordinal, prīmus, first, secundus, second, &c.; Distributive, singulī, one each, bīnī, two each, &c.; and Numeral Adverbs: semel, once, bis, twice, &c.
For the inflection of numerals, see 637-643.
2405.
List of Numerals.
| Arabic. | Cardinals. | Ordinals. | Distributives. | Numeral Adverbs. | Roman. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | ūnus, one (638) | prīmus, first (643) | singulī, one each (643) | semel, once | I |
| 2 | duo, two (639) | secundus, second | bīnī, two each | bis, twice | II |
| 3 | trēs, three (639) | tertius, third | ternī, trīnī, three each | ter, thrice | III |
| 4 | quattuor, four | quārtus, fourth | quaternī, four each | quater, four times | IIII or IV |
| 5 | quīnque, five | quīntus, fifth | quīnī, five each | quīnquiēns, five times | V |
| 6 | sex, six | sextus, sixth | sēnī, six each | sexiēns, six times | VI |
| 7 | septem, seven | septimus, seventh | septēnī, seven each | septiēns, seven times | VII |
| 8 | octō, eight | octāvus, eighth | octōnī, eight each | octiēns, eight times | VIII |
| 9 | novem, nine | nōnus, ninth | novēnī, nine each | noviēns, nine times | VIIII or IX |
| 10 | decem, ten | decimus, tenth | dēnī, ten each | deciēns, ten times | X |
| 11 | ūndecim, eleven | ūndecimus, eleventh | ūndēnī, eleven each | ūndeciēns, eleven times | XI |
| 12 | duodecim | duodecimus | duodēnī | duodeciēns | XII |
| 13 | tredecim | tertius decimus | ternī dēnī | terdeciēns | XIII |
| 14 | quattuordecim | quārtus decimus | quaternī dēnī | quater deciēns | XIIII or XIV |
| 15 | quīndecim | quīntus decimus | quīnī dēnī | quīndeciēns | XV |
| 16 | sēdecim | sextus decimus | sēnī dēnī | sēdeciēns | XVI |
| 17 | septendecim | septimus decimus | septēni dēnī | septiēns deciēns | XVII |
| 18 | duodēvīgintī | duodēvīcēsimus | duodēvīcēnī | octiēns deciēns | XVIII |
| 19 | ūndēvīgintī | ūndēvīcēsimus | ūndēvīcēnī | noviēns deciēns | XVIIII or XIX |
| 20 | vīgintī, twenty | vīcēsimus, twentieth | vīcēnī, twenty each | vīciēns, twenty times | XX |
| 21 | vīgintī ūnus or ūnus et vīgintī | vīcēsimus prīmus or ūnus et vīcēsimus | vīcēnī singulī or singulī et vīcēnī | vīciēns semel or semel et vīciēns | XXI |
| 22 | vīgintī duo or duo et vīgintī | vīcēsimus alter or alter et vīcēsimus | vīcēnī bīnī or bīnī et vīcēnī | vīciēns bis or bis et vīciēns | XXII |
| 28 | duodētrīgintā | duodētrīcēsimus | duodētrīcēnī | duodētrīciēns | XXVIII |
| 29 | ūndētrīgintā | ūndētrīcēsimus | ūndētrīcēnī | *ūndētrīciēns | XXVIIII or XXIX |
| 30 | trīgintā | trīcēsimus | trīcēnī | trīciēns | XXX |
| 40 | quadrāgintā | quadrāgēsimus | quadrāgēnī | quadrāgiēns | XXXX or Xↆ |
| 50 | quīnquāgintā | quīnquāgēsimus | quīnquāgēnī | quīnquāgiēns | ↆ |
| 60 | sexāgintā | sexāgēsimus | sexāgēnī | sexāgiēns | ↆX |
| 70 | septuāgintā | septuāgēsimus | septuāgēnī | septuāgiēns | ↆXX |
| 80 | octōgintā | octōgēsimus | octōgēnī | octōgiēns | ↆXXX |
| 90 | nōnāgintā | nōnāgēsimus | nōnāgēnī | nōnāgiēns | ↆXXXX or XC |
| 99 | ūndēcentum | ūndēcentēsimus | ūndēcentēnī | *ūndēcentiēns | ↆXXXXVIIII or XCIX |
| 100 | centum, one hundred | centēsimus, one hundredth | centēnī, a hundred each | centiēns, a hundred times | C |
| 101 | centum ūnus or centum et ūnus | centēsimus prīmus or centēsimus et prīmus | centēnī singulī | centiēns semel or centiēns et semel | CI |
| 200 | ducentī (641) | ducentēsimus | ducēnī | ducentiēns | CC |
| 300 | trecentī | trecentēsimus | trecēnī | trecentiēns | CCC |
| 400 | quadringentī | quadringentēsimus | quadringēnī | quadringentiēns | CCCC |
| 500 | quīngentī | quīngentēsimus | quīngēnī | quīngentiēns | D |
| 600 | sescentī | sescentēsimus | sescēnī | sescentiēns | DC |
| 700 | septingentī | septingentēsimus | septingēnī | septingentiēns | DCC |
| 800 | octingentī | octingentēsimus | octingēnī | octingentiēns | DCCC |
| 900 | nōngentī | nōngentēsimus | nōngēnī | nōngentiēns | DCCCC |
| 1,000 | mīlle, thousand (642) | mīllēsimus, thousandth | singula mīllia, a thousand each | mīlliēns, a thousand times | ↀ |
| 2,000 | duo mīllia | bis mīllēsimus | bīna mīllia | bis mīlliēns | ↀↀ |
| 5,000 | quīnque mīllia | quīnquiēns mīllēsimus | quīna mīllia | quīnquiēns mīlliēns | ↁ |
| 10,000 | decem mīllia | deciēns mīllēsimus | dēna mīllia | deciēns mīlliēns | ↂ |
| 50,000 | quīnquāgintā mīllia | quīnquāgiēns mīllēsimus | quīnquāgēna mīllia | quīnquāgiēns mīlliēns | ↇ |
| 100,000 | centum mīllia | centiēns mīllēsimus | centēna mīllia | centiēns mīlliēns | ↈ |
| 1,000,000 | deciēns centēna mīllia | deciēns centiēns mīllēsimus | deciēns centēna mīllia | deciēns centiēns mīlliēns | symbol |
Notation.
2406. Numbers are noted by combinations of the characters I = 1; V = 5; X = 10; ↆ, later symbol, symbol, or L = 50; C = 100; D = 500; ↀ or symbol, post-Augustan M = 1000.
2407. Of these signs, V seems to be the half of X, which may be Etruscan in origin. The original signs for 50 and 1000 were taken from the Chalcidian Greek alphabet (18, 19), in which they represented sounds unknown to early Latin. Thus, ↆ, in the Chalcidian alphabet representing ch (49), was used by the early Romans for 50, and became successively symbol, symbol, and L. The form ↆ, is found very rarely, symbol oftener, in the Augustan period; symbol is common during the last century of the republic and in the early empire; L, due to assimilation with the Roman letter, appears in the last century of the republic. The sign for 1000 was originally ↀ (Chalcidian ph); it became symbol (the common classical form), symbol, or symbol; the form M as a numeral appears in the second century A.D., although M is found much earlier as an abbreviation for mīllia in M · P, that is mīllia passuum. For 100, the sign symbol (Chalcidian th) may have been used originally; but C (the abbreviation for centum) came into use at an early period. The sign D, = 500, is the half of ↀ.
2408. To denote 10,000 the sign for 1000 was doubled: thus, ↂ, written also symbol, symbol, symbol. Another circle was added to denote 100,000: thus, ↈ, written also symbol, symbol, symbol. The halves of these signs were used for 5000 and 50,000: thus, ↁ and ↇ; variations of these last two signs are found, corresponding to the variations of the signs of which they are the halves.
2409. From the last century of the republic on, thousands are sometimes indicated by a line drawn above a numeral, and hundreds of thousands by three lines enclosing a numeral: as, V̅ = 5000; symbol = 1,000,000.
2410. To distinguish numerals from ordinary letters, a line is often drawn above them: as, V͞I = 6. This practice is common in the Augustan period; earlier, a line is sometimes drawn across the numeral, as, symbol = 2; symbol = 500.
2411. Of the two methods of writing the symbols for 4, 9, 14, 19, &c., the method by subtraction (IV, IX, XIV, XIX, &c.) is rarer, and is characteristic of private, not public inscriptions.
Some Forms of Numerals.
2412. quīnctus, the older form of quīntus (170, 4) is sometimes found in old and even in classical writers. Instead of septimus and decimus, the older septumus and decumus are not uncommon (28).
2413. In the ordinals from twentieth upwards, the older forms vīcēnsumus or vīcēnsimus, trīcēnsumus or trīcēnsimus, &c., &c., are not infrequently found instead of vīcēsimus, trīcēsimus, &c., &c. (63; 28).
2414. In the numeral adverbs from quīnquiēns upwards, later forms in -īēs (63) are often found: as, quīnquiēs, deciēs, &c., &c.
2415. In cardinals and ordinals from thirteen to seventeen inclusive, the larger number sometimes comes first, and in cardinals et is sometimes used, though rarely in Cicero.
decem trēs, L. 37, 30, 7, thirteen. fundōs decem et trēs relīquit, RA. 20, he left thirteen farms. Rarely the smaller number comes first with et: as, dē tribus et decem fundīs, RA. 99, of the thirteen farms.
2416. Numbers from 18 to 99 inclusive which end in 8 or 9 are usually expressed by subtraction, as in the list (2405); less frequently (not in Cicero, rarely in classical writers) by addition: as, decem et octō, 4, 19, 4; decem novem, Ta. H. 2, 58.
2417. In compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-seven inclusive, except those which end in eight or nine (2416), the smaller number with et usually comes first or the larger number without et, as in the list. But rarely the larger number comes first with et: as, vīgintī et septem, V. 4, 123, twenty and seven.
2418. In numbers from a hundred and one upwards, the larger number comes first, either with or without et; but with distributives et is not used. With cardinals and ordinals the smaller number sometimes comes first with et; as, iīs rēgiīs quadrāgintā annīs et ducentīs praeteritīs, RP. 2, 52, after these two hundred and forty years of monarchy were ended.
Some Uses of Numerals.
Cardinals and Ordinals.
2419. Dates are expressed either by cardinals with a plural substantive or by ordinals with a singular substantive: as,
dictātor factus est annīs post Rōmam conditam CCCCXV, Fam. 9, 21, 2, he was made dictator 415 U. C. (1393). annō trecentēsimō quīnquāgēsimō post Rōmam conditam, Nōnīs Iūnīs, RP. 1, 25, on the 5th of June, 350 U. C. (1350). The ordinal is also used with a substantive not used in the singular: as, mancipia vēnībant Sāturnālibus tertiīs, Att. 5, 20, 5, the slaves were sold on the third day of the Saturnalia. As the Romans, however, had no fixed official era, they had no dates in the modern sense, and marked the year by the names of the consuls.
Distributives.
2420. Distributives are used to denote an equal division among several persons or things, and in expressions of multiplication: as,
bīnī senātōrēs singulīs cohortibus praepositī, L. 3, 69, 8, two senators were put over every cohort: sometimes when singulī is added, the cardinal is used, thus: singulīs cēnsōribus dēnāriī trecentī imperātī sunt, V. 2, 137, every censor was assessed 300 denars. bis bīna, DN. 2, 49, twice two. Poets use multiplication freely, partly for variety, but mainly from metrical necessity.
2421. Distributives are also used with substantives which have no singular, or which have a different meaning in the singular; but in this use one is always ūnī, not singulī, and three is often trīnī, not ternī: as,
ut ūna castra iam facta ex bīnīs vidērentur, Caes. C. 1, 74, 4, so that one camp seemed now to have been formed out of two. trīnīs catēnīs vinctus, 1, 53, 5, in triple irons. Similarly with things in pairs, as: bovēs bīnī, Pl. Pers. 317, a yoke of oxen.
2422. Poets sometimes use the singular of distributives: as, centēnāque arbore flūctum verberat, V. 10, 207, and with a hundred beams at every stroke the wave he smites. duplicī nātūrā et corpore bīnō, Lucr. 5, 879, twynatured and of body twain. The plural is sometimes used in verse for the cardinal: centum bracchia... centēnāsque manūs, V. 10, 565, a hundred arms... and hundred hands.
Other Numerals.
2423. Other numerical adjectives are multiplicatives, ending in -plex; they are: simplex, onefold, simple, sēscuplex, one and a half fold, duplex, triplex, quadruplex, quīncuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex; and proportionals, used mostly in the neuter as substantives: duplus, twice as great, triplus, three times as great, quadruplus, septuplus, octuplus. Besides these there are other adjectives derived from numerals: as, prīmānus, soldier of the first: prīmārius, first rate: bīmus, twinter, two-year-old; &c., &c.
Expression of Fractions.
2424. One half may be expressed by dīmidium or dīmidia pars; other fractions with 1 as a numerator by ordinals, with or without pars: as, tertia pars or tertia, 1/3.
2425. If the numerator is greater than 1 it is usually expressed by the cardinal feminine, with the ordinal feminine for the denominator: as, duae septimae, 2/7. But besides these forms there are others, namely:
2426. (1.) Fractions with a numerator less by 1 than the denominator, except 1/2, may be expressed by cardinals with partēs, as, duae partēs, 2/3; trēs partēs, 3/4; quattuor partēs, 4/5.
2427. (2.) Fractions with 12 or its multiples as a denominator are expressed in business language by the parts of an ās: thus,
| 1/12, | uncia |
| 1/6, | sextāns |
| 1/4, | quadrāns |
| 1/3, | triēns |
| 5/12, | quīncunx |
| 1/2, | sēmis |
| 7/12, | septunx |
| 2/3, | bēs |
| 3/4, | dōdrāns |
| 5/6, | dēxtāns |
| 11/12, | deūnx |
| 12/12, | ās |
ex āsse hērēs, Quintil. 7, 1, 20, heir to the whole; relīquit hērēdēs ex bēsse nepōtem, ex tertiā parte neptem, Plin. Ep. 7, 24, 2, she left her grandson heir to 2/3, her granddaughter to 1/3. hērēdem ex dōdrante, N. 25, 5, 2, heir to 3/4.
2428. Sometimes fractions are expressed by addition: as, dīmidia et quarta, 3/4; pars tertia et septima, 10/21; sometimes by division of the denominator: as, dīmidia quīnta, 1/10.
(E.) Prosody.
I. Rules of Quantity.
(A.) In Classical Latin.
2429. The length of the vowel in some classes of syllables, as used in the classical period, may be conveniently fixed in the memory by the following rules. For the usage of older writers, see 126, 129, 132 and 2464-2472. For the general principles of length of vowels and syllables, see 33-41; 121-134; 177-178.
Monosyllables.
2430. Monosyllables ending in a vowel or a single consonant have the vowel long: as,
dōs, sōl; ā for ab; ē for ex or ec-, pēs for *peds; ablative quā, quī; quīn for *quīne; locative sei, commonly sī; sīc (708); dative and ablative plural quīs (688).
Exceptions.
2431. The vowel is short in:
2432. (a.) Monosyllables ending in b, d, m, and t: as, ab, ad, dum, dat.
2433. (b.) The indefinite qua, N. and Ac.; the enclitics -que (rarely -quē), -ne, -ve, -ce; and in the words cor, fel, mel; os, bone; ac, vir, is, pol, quis (N.); fac, fer, per, ter; an, bis, in, cis; nec, vel. N. hīc is rarely short (664). For the quantity of es, see 747.
Polysyllables.
Penults.
2434. Disyllabic perfects and perfect participles have the vowel of the penult long when it stands before a single consonant: as,
vēnī, vīdī, vīcī (862); fōvī (864), fōtus (917).
Exceptions.
2435. (a.) Nine perfects have the penult short (859-861):
bibī, -fidī
dedī, scidī
stetī, stitī
tulī, -tudī, per-culī.
2436. (b.) Ten perfect participles have the penult short (918; see also 919):
citus, datus
itum, ratus
-rutus, satus
situs, status
litus, quitus.
Final Syllables.
(1.) Ending in a Vowel.
2437. In words of more than one syllable, final a and e are short; final o, u, and i, are long: as,
(a.) N. aquila; Pl. N. and Ac. oppida, cētera, omnia.
(b.) N. ille; N. and Ac. rēte; impūne (701); V. bone; Ab. tempore; Inf. prōmere; Imperat. rege (826); Pres. Ind. and Imperat. querere; Perf. rēxēre.
(c.) N. sermō; D. and Ab. verbō; vērō (704). iō. regō, erō, amābō, rēxerō (826); estō.
(d.) N. and Ac. cornū (587); D. and Ab. metū (590, 425, 593); diū.
(e.) G. frūmentī; V. Vergilī (459); G. domī (594); D. nūllī, orbī; Ab. sitī (554). Imperat. vestī (845). Inf. querī, locārī; Ind. Perf. rēxī (856), rēxistī.
Exceptions in a.
2438. (a.) Final a is long in the ablative, in indeclinable words, and in the imperative: as,
(a.) Ab. mēnsā (426).
(b.) quadrāgintā; many indeclinable words are ablatives: as, contrā, iūxtā, (707). The indeclinable heia, ita, and quia (701), have short a.
(c.) Imperat. locā (845). But puta, for instance, has short a (130, 4).
2439. (b.) Final a is long in some Greek nominatives and vocatives: as, N. Ēlectrā; V. Aenēā, Pallā.
Exceptions in e.
2440. (a.) Final e is long in cases of nouns with stems in -ē- (596), in adverbs from stems in -o-, and in the imperative singular active of verbs in -ēre: as,
(a.) diē (G., D., or Ab.), hodiē, prīdiē; see also 603.
(b.) altē (705); also ferē, fermē and ohē or ōhē; but e is always short in bene and male; īnferne and superne.
(c.) docē (845); for cave, see 130, 4.
2441. (b.) Final e is long in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. crambē, Circē; V. Alcīdē; Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. cētē, melē, pelagē, tempē.
Exceptions in o.
2442. (a.) Final o is short in the nominatives ego, duo. It is sometimes shortened in homo (130, 3) and in the nominative of other stems in -n- (484, 485): as, mentio, Nāso, virgo. o is regularly short in endo, in the ablatives cito and modo, used as adverbs, and in many other words in late poetry: as, īlico, immo, ergo, quando, octo, &c.; very rarely in the ablative of the gerund.
2443. (b.) Before Ovid, o of the present indicative is regularly long. It is shortened only in the following words (130, 3): in
volo, six times (Cat., 4 times; Hor., Prop.).
scio, twice (Verg.).
nescio, six times (Verg., twice; Hor., twice; Tib., Prop.);
and once each in eo and veto (Hor.), dēsino (Tib.), and findo (Prop.). From Ovid on, short o is not uncommon.
Short o in other forms of the verb is rare: as, dīxero (Hor.); esto, ero, dabo (Ov.); but o is always short in the imperative cedo, give, tell.
Exceptions in u.
2444. Final u is short in indu and noenu.
Exceptions in i.
2445. (a.) Final i is short in nisi, quasi, and sīcuti; also in the endings of some Greek nouns: as N. and Ac. sināpi; V. Pari, Amarylli; D. Paridi, Minōidi; Pl. D. Trōasi.
2446. (b.) Final i is common in mihī̆, tibī̆, sibī̆; ibī̆, ubī̆ (129, 2).
(2.) Ending in a Single Consonant not s.
2447. A final syllable ending in a single consonant not s has its vowel short: as,
dōnec. illud. animal (536); semel. agmen. calcar (537); soror, stultior (132). moror, loquar, fatēbor (132); regitur, regimur, reguntur. regit (826); amat, sciat, pōnēbat; tinnit, possit; iacet, neget, esset (132).
Exceptions.
2448. (a.) The last vowel is long in allēc, and in compounds of pār; in the contracted genitive plural of stems in -u-: as currūm; in all cases of illic and istic except the nominative masculine, in the adverbs illūc and istūc, and sometimes in nihī̆l. Also in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. āēr, aethēr, sīrēn; Ac. Aenēān.
2449. (b.) In the short form of the genitive plural of stems in -o- and -ā-, the vowel was originally long, but afterwards short: as, dīvŏ̄m (462), caelicolū̆m (439).
2450. (c.) The last vowel is long in iīt and petiīt and their compounds.
(3.) Ending in s.
2451. Final syllables in is and us have the vowel short; those in as, es, and os, have the vowel long: as,
(a.) N. lapis, fīnis; G. lapidis, fīnis; magis. Indic. Pres. regis (826); Fut. eris (851, 826), eritis, locābis (853, 826), locābitis.
(b.) N. dominus; currus; N. and Ac. tempus; prius; rēgibus; īmus; regimus.
(c.) aetās; Pl. Ac. mēnsās (424). Indic. Pres. locās (840); Imp. erās (848); regēbās (847); Plup. rēxerās (880); Subj. Pres. regās, vestiās, doceās (842).
(d.) N. hērēs; sēdēs; nūbēs; Cerēs; fidēs; Pl. N. and Ac. rēgēs (424); Indic. Pres. docēs (840); Fut. regēs (852); Subj. Pres. siēs (841); locēs (843); Imp. essēs (850); regerēs (849); Plup. rēxissēs (881).
(e.) N. custōs; arbōs; Pl. Ac. ventōs (424).
Exceptions in is.
2452. (a.) Final is has ī in all plural cases: as,
N. and Ac. omnīs; D. and Ab. viīs, locīs (108, a), vōbīs. Also in the nominatives singular Quirīs and Samnīs, usually in sanguī̆s (486), and twice in pulvī̆s.
2453. (b.) Final is has ī in the second person singular of verbs in -īre, in māvīs, in compounds of sīs, and in all present subjunctives singular: as, duīs, edīs, velīs, mālīs, nōlīs. For -rī̆s of the perfect subjunctive and the future perfect, see 877, 878, 883, 884.
Exceptions in us.
2454. u is long in the nominative singular of consonant stems with ū before the final stem consonant: as, tellūs, stem tellūr-; palūs, once palus (Hor.), stem palūd-; in the genitive singular and nominative and accusative plural of nouns with stems in -u-: as, frūctūs; and in the ending of some Greek names: as, N. Panthūs; G. Sapphūs.
Exceptions in as.
2455. Final as has short a in anas and in the ending of some Greek nouns: as, N. Īlias; Pl. Ac. cratēras.
Exceptions in es.
2456. Final es has short e in the nominative singular of stems in -d- and -t- which have the genitive in -idis, -itis, and -etis (475, 476): as, praeses, teges, comes (but ē in abiēs, ariēs, and pariēs), also, in penes, in compounds of es, thou art, and in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. Cynosarges; Pl. N. Arcades, cratēres.
Exceptions in os.
2457. Final os has short o in the nominative of stems in -o-: as, servos, suos, Dēlos; also in compos, impos, and exos; and in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. and Ac. epos; G. chlamydos, Erīnyos.
Position.
2458. For the general rule of position, see 177, 178; but, except in the thesis of a foot, a final syllable ending with a short vowel generally remains short before a word beginning with two consonants or a double consonant: as, molliă strāta, nemorōsă Zacȳnthos, lūcĕ smaragdī.
In Horace such a final syllable is never lengthened before a word beginning with two consonants.
Hidden Quantity.
2459. A vowel which stands before two consonants, or a double consonant, belonging to the same word, so that its natural quantity cannot be determined from the scansion of the word, is said to possess Hidden Quantity.
2460. The natural quantity of such a vowel may sometimes be ascertained: (a.) from the statements of ancient writers; (b.) from the way in which the vowel is written in Latin inscriptions (see 24, 29); (c.) from the transliteration of the word into other languages, especially Greek; (d.) from the etymology of the word, or from a comparison of it with kindred words in other Indo-European languages; (e.) from comparison with derived words in the Romance languages. But all these kinds of evidence must be used with great caution.
2461. For the length of a vowel before ns, nf, and certain other groups of consonants, see 122.
2462. In inceptive verbs (834) the ending -scō is thought to be always preceded by a long vowel: as, crēscō, nāscor, proficīscor.
2463. In the perfect indicative active, perfect participle passive and kindred formations of verbs in -gō preceded by a short vowel, as agō, regō, the theme syllable shows a long vowel: as, lēxī, rēxī, tēxī; āctus, lēctus; rēctor; āctitō.
(B.) Some Peculiarities of Quantity in Old Latin.
2464. For the preservation of a long vowel in certain specific endings in old Latin, see 132.
2465. Final -āl is sometimes preserved long in the nominative singular: as, bacchānāl (Plaut.); also the syllable -es in the nominative singular of stems in -t- which have the genitive in -itis (477): as mīlēs (Plaut.) 171, 1.
2466. Hic, illic and istic, when adverbs, have a long final syllable; but when nominative singular masculine, have the final syllable regularly short.
2467. In Plautus frūstrā always where determinable (seven times) has the final syllable short. contrā sometimes has a short final syllable in old Latin.
2468. In Latin poetry down to the time of Cicero, final s often does not “make position” before a following consonant (66); as, tempŭs fert (Plaut.); magĭs stetisse (Ter.).
2469. The first syllable of ille, illic (the pronoun), quippe, immō, inde, unde, nempe, omnis, and perhaps iste, is sometimes shortened.
In ille, illic, quippe, and immō the shortening is, some hold, due to the fact that in common speech one of the double consonants was often pronounced faintly or not at all; while in inde, unde, nempe, and omnis the nasal was very faintly sounded before the following consonant. But some authorities hold that always in nempe, and sometimes in ille, quippe, inde, unde, and perhaps iste, before an initial consonant final e disappears, and the word becomes a monosyllable.
Law of Iambic Shortening.
2470. A long syllable, preceded by a short monosyllable or by a short initial syllable, and immediately preceded or followed by the verse-ictus, may be shortened: as, ét hŭnc, dómŏ mē, ad ŭxṓrem, volŭntā́te.
The short monosyllable may be a word which has become monosyllabic by elision: as, ég(o) hănc.
2471. If the syllable to be shortened is the first of a word of more than one syllable, or the second of a polysyllable, it must be one which is long by position, not by nature. There are some possible exceptions to this rule, such as verĕbā́minī (T. Ph. 902); but these are few and doubtful.
2472. Iambic shortening took place not only in verse, but also to a considerable extent in common speech, particularly in iambic words (see 130), in which the accent coöperated with the verse-ictus to produce the shortening.
II. Figures of Prosody.
Hiatus.
2473. For hiatus within a word, and the means by which it is avoided, see 114-120.
2474. Hiatus between two words is much more common in old Latin than in writers of the classical period. The precise extent to which it is allowed by the early dramatists is matter of dispute. The following cases may be mentioned in which the Latin poets admit hiatus:
2475. (1.) After interjections: as, hahahae homo, T. Ph. 411; ō et praesidium, H. 1, 1, 2.
2476. (2.) After proper names, and words of Greek origin: as, ancillam ferre Venerī aut Cupīdinī, Pl. As. 804; Thrēiciō Aquilōne, H. Epod. 13, 3.
2477. (3.) In the principal caesura of a verse. So especially in Plautus and Terence after the fourth foot of the iambic septenarius, and in Plautus in the principal break in the iambic octonarius, trochaic septenarius and trochaic octonarius.
2478. (4.) Often in the dramatists where there is a change of speakers: as, quī potuit vidēre?:: oculīs:: quō pactō?:: hiantibus, Pl. Merc. 182.
2479. (5.) Probably sometimes in cases of repetition, enumeration, or sharp antithesis, and where there is an important pause in the sense: as, eam volt meretrīcem facere: ea mē dēperit, Pl. Cur. 46; sī pereō, hominum manibus periisse iuvābit, V. 3, 606.
2480. Vergil sometimes admits hiatus when the final syllable ending in a vowel is preceded or followed (or both) by two short syllables: as, lāmentīs gemitūque et fēmĭnĕō ŭlŭlātū, V. 4, 667.
Elision.
2481. For elision within a word, see 119.
2482. In verse a final vowel is generally elided before a vowel or h: as,
quidve moror, s(ī) omnīs ūn(ō) ōrdin(e) habētis Achīvōs, V. 2, 102. Such a vowel was probably faintly sounded, not dropped altogether.
2483. Elision is frequent in most of the early poets; but writers of the Augustan and succeeding ages regarded it with increasing disfavour. The elision of a long vowel before a short was in general avoided; but there are numerous exceptions.
2484. Monosyllabic interjections do not suffer elision.
2485. Monosyllables ending in a diphthong seldom suffer elision before a short vowel.
2486. Diphthongs arising from Synizesis (2499) are sometimes elided in early Latin verse, but not in verse of the classical period.
2487. The monosyllables quī (plural), dō, stō, rē, spē, are thought never to suffer elision before a short vowel.
2488. The dactylic poets very rarely elide the final syllable of an iambic (⏑ –) or Cretic (– ⏑ –) word before a short vowel.
2489. Elision seldom occurs if the syllable to be elided is immediately preceded by a vowel: as in de(am) et.
2490. The final syllable of a Greek word is rarely elided.
2491. Elision is more common toward the beginning of a verse than toward the end.
2492. Elision rarely occurs in the first syllable or last syllable of a verse; but see under Synapheia (2510), and for the elision of the enclitic -que or -ve at the end of a dactylic hexameter, see 2568.
2493. Ecthlipsis (Gr. ἔκθλιψις, a squeezing out). Final m and a preceding short vowel are usually elided before a vowel or h: as,
mōnstr(um) horrend(um) īnform(e) ingēns, cui lūmen ademptum, V. 3, 658.
In such cases the ending was probably not cut off altogether, but was given a faint nasal sound.
2494. Sometimes a monosyllable ending in a short vowel and m is not elided before a vowel: as quắm ego (Ter.); súnt cŭm odōre (Lucr.).
Such unelided monosyllables are most frequent in the early dramatists, and in them usually fall under the verse-ictus. See 61.
2495. The monosyllables dem, stem, rem, spem, sim, are thought never to be elided before a short vowel.
2496. After a word ending with a vowel, -m, or -us, the verb est often loses its e: as, bonast, bonumst, bonust, vīsust. So, too, es sometimes loses its vowel: as homo’s, adeptus’. This usage reflects the actual pronunciation of common speech.
2497. Semi-hiatus or Semi-elision. A long final vowel is sometimes shortened before a vowel. This may occur either in the arsis (2520), or in a resolved thesis: as, án quĭ amant (Verg.); léctulŏ ērudītulī (Cat.); nam quĭ́ aget (Ter.).
This kind of shortening is not frequent except in the early dramatists, who often shorten under the verse-ictus a monosyllable ending in a long vowel and followed by an initial vowel (as in the third example above).
2498. Synaloepha (Greek συναλοιφή, a smearing together) is a general term used to denote the means of avoiding hiatus. It includes elision and synizesis, though some grammarians use it in the same sense as synizesis.
2499. Synizesis (Greek συνίζεσις, a settling together). Two vowels (or a vowel and a diphthong) which belong to different syllables sometimes coalesce so as to form one syllable. This is called Synizesis, and is especially common in the early dramatists. Examples are: me͡o, e͡adem, cu͡ius, aure͡i. See 117.
Some grammarians would include under Synizesis only cases in which a short vowel is subordinated to a following long; as tu͡o.
2500. The term Synaeresis (Greek συναίρεσις, a taking together) is sometimes used as a synonym for Synizesis. The ancient grammarians, however, used it in the sense of Contraction (118).
2501. Dialysis (Greek διάλυσις, a breaking up). Conversely, two vowels which usually form a diphthong are sometimes separated so as to form two syllables: as coëpī (Lucr.) for coepī.
This, however, is really the survival of the original forms (120).
2502. The name Diaeresis (Greek διαίρεσις, a separating) is sometimes used as a synonym for Dialysis; but it is better to restrict it to the meaning defined in 2542.
2503. Hardening. A vocalic i or u is sometimes made consonantal before another vowel: as, abi͡ete, ari͡ete (Verg.); cōnsili͡um (Hor.); omni͡a (Lucr.). See 117 and 83.
This usage is sometimes included under Synizesis (2499), while some grammarians term it Synaeresis (2500).
2504. Softening. Conversely, a consonantal i or u sometimes becomes vocalized before a vowel, thus giving an additional syllable: as, silüae for silvae (Hor.); ēvolüisse for ēvolvisse (Ov.). See 52.
This usage is sometimes included under the name Dialysis (2501).
2505. Diastolé (Greek διαστολή, a drawing asunder). A syllable which in verse of the classical period is generally short is sometimes used as long for metrical convenience. The syllable so employed generally falls under the verse-ictus, and in most cases is immediately followed by the principal caesura, or by a pause in the sense. Examples are:
terga fatīgāmūs hastā, nec tarda senectus, V. 9, 610.
tum sīc Mercurium adloquitūr ac tālia mandat, V. 4, 222.
caeca timēt aliunde fāta, H. 2, 13, 16.
In many such cases this lengthening is not arbitrary, but the “lengthened” syllable is one that was originally long (see 132).
2506. The enclitic -que is sometimes lengthened under the ictus when another -que precedes or follows in the arsis: as, cālōnēs famulīque metallīquḗ caculaeque (Accius).
2507. Systolé (Greek συστολή, a drawing together). Conversely a syllable which in verse is regularly long is sometimes shortened for metrical convenience: as, dedĕrunt (Hor.), nūllĭus (Hor.), imperat. commodă (Cat.).
In most cases this shortening is not arbitrary, but represents a pronunciation which was in actual use, especially among the common people.
2508. Syncopé (Greek συγκοπή, a cutting short). A short vowel is often dropped between two consonants: as, surpite for surripite (Hor.), repostum for repositum (Verg.).
This usage doubtless reflects the common pronunciation; see 110, 111.
2509. Tmesis (Greek τμῆσις, a cutting) is the separation of the parts of a word: as, septem subiecta triōnī = septemtriōnī subiecta (Verg.).
This usually occurs only in compounds; but early poets sometimes divided other words: as, saxō cere comminuit brum for saxō cerebrum comminuit (Ennius).
2510. Synapheia (Greek συνάφεια, a joining together) is the linking together of two verses belonging to the same system. Here elision or word division may occur at the end of the first verse: as,
Iōve nōn probante u-
xōrius amnis, H. 1, 2, 19.
Iam licet veniās marīt(e),
uxor in thalamō tibī̆ est, Cat. 61, 191.
III. Versification.
By Herman W. Hayley, Ph.D.
2511. Rhythm (Gr. ῥυθμός, from ῥεῖν, to flow) is the effect of regularity produced by the discrimination of a movement or sound into uniform intervals of time. It is often marked by a stress or ictus recurring at fixed intervals.
Rhythm is by no means confined to verse. Music, dancing, and even the regular beat of a trip-hammer, have rhythm. Particular kinds of movement are often called rhythms, as anapaestic rhythms, dactylic rhythms, &c.
2512. Metre (Gr. μέτρον, a measure) is the definite measurement of verse by feet, lines, strophes, systems, &c.
2513. Latin verse is quantitative, the rhythm depending upon the quantity of the syllables (but see 2548). The ictus naturally falls upon a long syllable (or its equivalent). English verse, on the other hand, is accentual, its rhythm depending upon the accent of words.
Quantity.
2514. Signs of Quantity. A long syllable is indicated by –, a short one by ⏑. A syllable which varies in quantity, being sometimes long, sometimes short, is indicated by ⏓ or ⏒.
In the following metrical schemes, ⏓ indicates that the long is more usual or more strictly in accordance with the rhythm than the short. The reverse is indicated by ⏒.
2515. The Unit of Measure is the duration of a short syllable and is called a Time, Tempus, or Mora. The mora did not have an absolute length, but varied with the nature of the rhythm. For greater convenience, however, it is assumed that its length was uniform, and equalled that of an eighth note ♪ A long syllable, being equal to two shorts, has a length of two morae, which is assumed to be the same as that of our quarter-note ♩ Hence in notation ⏑ = ♪ and – = ♩
2516. Protraction. A long syllable may be prolonged (Protraction) so as to have a length of three morae, in which case it is called a triseme (marked ⏗), or of four morae, when it is termed a tetraseme (marked ⏘). See 2537 and 2541.
2517. Correption. A long or short syllable may be shortened so as to occupy less than its normal time. This is called Correption (Lat. correptiō, a shortening). See 2523 and 2524.
2518. Resolution and Contraction. In some kinds of verse a long syllable may be, as it were, broken up (Resolution) into the equivalent two shorts; and conversely two short syllables may in some cases be united (Contraction) into the equivalent long.
Feet.
2519. Feet. Latin verse (like English) is measured by groups of syllables called Feet. Each of these groups has a definite length of so many morae (2515).
It is theoretically more accurate to make the foot purely a time-division, as some authorities do; but the definition given above is sanctioned by established usage.
2520. Arsis and Thesis. Every complete foot consists of two parts, an accented and an unaccented. The part on which the rhythmical accent or ictus falls is called the Thesis (Gr. θέσις, a setting down). The unaccented part of the foot is termed the Arsis (Gr. ἄρσις, a raising).
The name Thesis originally referred to the setting down of the foot in beating time or marching, or to the movement of the leader’s hand in making the downward beat; and Arsis in like manner meant the raising of the foot or hand. But the Roman grammarians misunderstood the Greek terms, supposing them to refer to the lowering and raising of the voice, and so interchanged them. Hence many modern writers prefer to use Arsis to denote the accented, and Thesis the unaccented, part of the foot.
Kinds of Feet.
2521. The feet in common use are the following:—
| Feet of Three Morae. | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Name. | Sign. | Musically. | Example. |
| Trochee | – ⏑ | ♩♪ | dūcit |
| Iambus | ⏑ – | ♪♩ | legunt |
| Tribrach | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ | ♪♪♪ | hominis |
| Feet of Four Morae. | |||
| Dactyl | – ⏑ ⏑ | ♩♪♪ | dūcimus |
| Anapaest | ⏑ ⏑ – | ♪♪♩ | regerent |
| Spondee | – – | ♩♩ | fēcī |
| Proceleusmatic | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ | ♪♪♪♪ | hominibus |
| Feet of Five Morae. | |||
| Cretic | – ⏑ – | ♩♪♩ | fēcerint |
| First Paeon | – ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ | ♩♪♪♪ | lēgeritis |
| Fourth Paeon | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ – | ♪♪♪♩ | celeritās |
| Bacchīus | ⏑ – – | ♪♩♩ | regēbant |
| Feet of Six Morae. | |||
| Choriambus | – ⏑ ⏑ – | ♩♪♪♩ | horribilēs |
| Ionic ā māiōre | – – ⏑ ⏑ | ♩♩♪♪ | dēdūcimus |
| Ionic ā minōre | ⏑ ⏑ – – | ♪♪♩♩ | relegēbant |
2522. Other feet mentioned by the ancient grammarians are:—
| Name. | Sign. |
|---|---|
| Pyrrhic | ⏑ ⏑ |
| Amphibrach | ⏑ – ⏑ |
| Antibacchīus or Palimbacchīus | – – ⏑ |
| Molossus | – – – |
| Dispondee | – – – – |
| Ditrochee | – ⏑ – ⏑ |
| Diiambus | ⏑ – ⏑ – |
| Antispast | ⏑ – – ⏑ |
| Second Paeon | ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ |
| Third Paeon | ⏑ ⏑ – ⏑ |
| First Epitrite | ⏑ – – – |
| Second Epitrite | – ⏑ – – |
| Third Epitrite | – – ⏑ – |
| Fourth Epitrite | – – – ⏑ |
But these are of little practical importance, as most of them never are employed in Latin poetry, and the few which do occur are used only as substitutes for other feet.
Cyclic Feet.
2523. A dactyl occurring in 3/8 time did not have the value of 2 morae + 1 + 1, but was given instead that of 1½ + ¾ + ¾; in other words both arsis and thesis suffered correption (2517), but the ratio between them remained unchanged. Such a dactyl is called cyclic, and is marked – ⏖, or musically dotted 8th note, dotted 16th, dotted 16th There is also a cyclic anapaest, marked ⏖ – or dotted 16th note, dotted 16th, dotted 8th
Some scholars, however, hold that the cyclic dactyl had approximately the value 1½ + ½ + 1, or dotted 8th note, dotted 16th, 8th, and mark it –⏑ ⏑. In like manner they mark the cyclic anapaest ⏑ ⏑–. The true nature of these cyclic feet is very uncertain.
Irrational Syllables and Feet.
2524. A long syllable sometimes stands in place of a short. A syllable thus used is called irrational (marked >) because it destroys the normal ratio between arsis and thesis. The foot which contains such a syllable is itself called irrational. The most common irrational foot is the irrational spondee (– > when it stands for a trochee; >– when it replaces an iambus), which is found in iambic, trochaic, and logaoedic rhythms.
Probably the irrational long suffered a slight correption (2517), so that its duration was between that of the ordinary long and that of a short syllable.
Rhythms.
2525. The different rhythms or metres are named trochaic, iambic, &c., according to their fundamental feet.
2526. Much of the Latin poetry (though not by any means all) was written to be sung. The Greeks and Romans employed in their music not only common (or 2/4) time and triple (3/8, 3/4) time, but also 5/8 time, which last is very rarely used in modern music.
2527. The Greek and Roman metricians divided the rhythms into three classes, according to the ratio between arsis and thesis in their fundamental feet. These classes were:— (a.) the Equal Class (γένος ἴσον, genus pār) in which thesis and arsis are equal in duration, as in dactylics, anapaestics, &c.; (b.) the Double Class (γένος διπλάσιον, genus duplex) in which the thesis has twice the duration of the arsis, as in trochaics, iambics, &c.; (c.) the Hemiolic Class (γένος ἡμιόλιον, genus sēscuplex) in which the thesis has one and a half times the duration of the arsis, as in bacchiacs, cretics, etc.
2528. Ascending and Descending Rhythms. Rhythms in which the thesis follows the arsis (as in iambics) are called ascending; those in which it precedes the arsis (as in trochaics) are termed descending.
Anacrusis.
2529. The ancients recognized both ascending and descending rhythms (2528), and regarded the former class as at least equal in importance to the latter; but many modern scholars since the time of Bentley have preferred to treat all rhythms as descending, regarding the first arsis of an ascending rhythm as merely answering to a preliminary upward beat in music. Such an initial arsis was named by Gottfried Hermann Anacrūsis (Gr. ἀνάκρουσις, a striking up).
Scholars have been influenced to adopt the anacrustic theory in its widest extent largely by the fact that in most modern music a measure must commence with a downward beat, a rule which did not hold in ancient music. By this theory an iambic verse becomes trochaic with anacrusis, an anapaestic verse dactylic with anacrusis, &c. But in many cases those kinds of verse which begin with an arsis were subject to different rules of construction from those which begin with a thesis. Hence it seems best to restrict anacrusis to logaoedic verse, in which it undoubtedly occurs.
2530. The anacrusis may be a long syllable, a short syllable, or two shorts (but not two longs). It is often irrational (2524). In metrical schemes it is often set off from the rest of the verse by a vertical row of dots: thus, ⁝
Groups of Feet.
2531. A group of two feet is called a dipody, one of three a tripody, one of four a tetrapody, one of five a pentapody, and one of six a hexapody. The dipody is the measure of trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verse. Other kinds of verse are measured by the single foot.
A single foot is sometimes called a monopody. A group of three half feet, i.e. a foot and a half, is sometimes called a trithemimeris, one of two and a half feet a penthemimeris, one of three and a half a hephthemimeris, &c.
2532. A Rhythmical Series, Rhythmical Sentence, or Colon is a group of two or more feet (but not more than six) which are united into a rhythmic whole by strengthening one of the ictuses, so that it becomes the principal or dominant ictus of the whole group.
2533. The Verse. A rhythmical series, or group of two (or even three) series, which forms a distinct and separate whole is called a Verse. The final syllable of a verse must terminate a word (except in cases of synapheia, see 2510), and may be either long or short (whence it is termed syllaba anceps) without regard to the rhythm. Hiatus (2474) is freely allowed at the end of a verse (though in rare cases elision occurs before a vowel at the beginning of the following verse; see 2492 and 2568).
A verse is generally (but not always) written as one line. Hence, the words “verse” and “line” are often used as synonyms.
Syllaba Anceps.
2534. In the present work, the final syllable of each verse is marked long or short as the rhythm may require, without reference to its quantity in a given example; and in the general schemes it is to be understood that the final syllable is syllaba anceps (2533) unless the contrary is expressly stated.
2535. Dicolic and Asynartetic Verses. A verse which consists of two rhythmical series (or cola) is called dicolic. If the series of which the verse is made up are quasi-independent of each other, so that hiatus or syllaba anceps occurs in the caesura, the verse is styled asynartetic (Gr. ἀσυνάρτητος, not joined together).
2536. Names of Verses. Verses are called trochaic, iambic, dactylic, &c., according to their fundamental (or characteristic) feet. A verse which contains one foot (or one dipody if iambic, trochaic, or anapaestic; see 2531) is called a monometer, one of two a dimeter, one of three a trimeter, one of four a tetrameter, one of five a pentameter, and one of six a hexameter.
Trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verses are often named by Latin adjectives in -ārius (used as nouns) denoting the number of feet. Thus, such a verse of eight feet is called an octōnārius, one of seven a septēnārius, one of six a sēnārius, &c. A short verse which is employed to close a system (2547), or to mark a metrical or musical transition between longer verses, is called a clausula.
Catalexis, Pause, Syncope.
2537. Catalexis. A verse, the last foot of which is incomplete, is said to suffer Catalexis (Gr. κατάληξις, a stopping short) or to be catalectic; one of which the last foot is complete is called acatalectic.
It is usually the last part of the foot that is omitted; but (according to the theory now generally accepted) in catalectic iambic verses it is the last arsis that is omitted, the preceding thesis being protracted (2516) to compensate for the loss, thus: ⏑ ⏗́ –́
2538. A verse in which both the last arsis and the next to the last are suppressed, so that a whole foot appears to be wanting, is called brachycatalectic.
2539. A verse is said to be catalectic in syllabam, in disyllabum, or in trisyllabum, according to the number of syllables remaining in the last foot. Thus, the dactylic tetrameter – ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | – is catalectic in syllabam, but – ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ is catalectic in disyllabum.
2540. Pauses. Theoretically all the feet (or dipodies; see 2531) into which a verse is divided must be equal in duration. Hence, when a final syllable (or two final syllables) is lost by catalexis, compensation is made for the loss by a pause at the end of the verse. Such a pause, which serves to fill out the last measure, answers to a rest in music.
A pause of one mora is often indicated by the sign ⌃, and one of two morae by ⌅.
2541. Syncope is the omission of one or more arses in the body of a verse. Compensation is made for the suppression of an arsis by protracting (2516) the preceding thesis.
Caesura.
2542. Caesura and Diaeresis. A Caesūra (literally a cutting, from caedo, I cut) is the break in a verse produced by the ending of a word within a foot. When the end of a word coincides with the end of a foot, the break is called a Diaeresis (Gr. διαίρεσις, a separating). A caesura is marked ‖, a diaeresis #.
The word caesura is often loosely used to include both caesura proper and diaeresis.
2543. Strictly speaking, there is a caesura (or diaeresis, as the case may be) wherever a word ends within a verse; but the main incision in the verse is so much more important than the rest that it is often called the principal caesura, or simply the caesura.
2544. Caesuras are named according to their position in the verse; thus a caesura after the third half-foot (i.e. in the second foot) is called trithemimeral (from Gr. τριθημιμερής, containing three halves), one after the fifth half-foot (i.e. in the third foot) penthemimeral (Gr. πενθημιμερής, consisting of five halves), one after the seventh half-foot (i.e. in the fourth foot) hephthemimeral (Gr. ἑφθημιμερής), &c.
The Latin names caesūra sēmiternāria (= the trithemimeral caesura), sēmiquīnāria (= the penthemimeral), sēmiseptēnāria (= the hepthemimeral), &c., are sometimes used. For the masculine and feminine caesuras, see 2557.
Strophe. System.
2545. The Strophe. A fixed number of verses recurring in a regular order is called a Strophe. A strophe commonly contains verses of different kinds, but some strophes are composed of verses which are all alike. The most common strophes in Latin poetry are either distichs (i.e. groups of two lines each), tristichs (of three lines each), or tetrastichs (of four).
Strophes and verses are frequently named after some poet who made use of them. So the Alcaic strophe (named after Alcaeus), the Sapphic strophe (named after Sappho), the Glyconic verse (named after Glycon), the Asclepiadean (after Asclepiades), the Phalaecean (after Phalaecus), the Pherecratean (after Pherecrates), &c.
2546. A Stichic Series is a series of verses of the same kind not combined into strophes.
2547. The System. A group of rhythmical series (see 2532) which is of greater extent than a verse is called a System. Long systems, such as are common in Greek poetry, are comparatively rare in Latin verse.
Few verses have more than two rhythmical series; none more than three.
2548. Although in all probability the Latin accent was mainly one of stress rather than of pitch, it seems to have been comparatively weak. Hence, when it conflicted with the metrical ictus, it could be the more easily disregarded. But accentual or semi-accentual poetry seems to have existed among the common people even in the Augustan age, and even in classical Latin verse in certain cases (as in the last part of the dactylic hexameter) conflict between ictus and accent was carefully avoided. After the third century A.D. the accent exerted a stronger and stronger influence upon versification, until in the Middle Ages the quantitative Latin verse was quite supplanted by the accentual.
Numeri Italici.
2549. Some of the earliest remains of Latin literature are believed to show a rhythmical structure. These are chiefly prayers, imprecations, sacred songs and the like, couched in a set form of words. Of the rules according to which these carmina were composed, almost nothing is known. According to one theory, they are wholly accentual, and are composed of rhythmical series, each series containing four theses. Frequently an arsis is suppressed, and compensation for the omission is made by dwelling longer upon the thesis. As an example is given the prayer in Cato, Dē Rē Rūsticā, 141:
Mā́rs páter tḗ précor | quaésṓque útī síēs | vólēns própítiús
míhī́ dómṓ | fámiliaéque nóstraé, &c.
The Saturnian.
2550. The Saturnian is the best known and most important of the old Italian rhythms; but its nature long has been, and still is, matter of high dispute. There are two principal theories as to its character, the quantitative and the accentual, each of which is advocated by many distinguished scholars.
2551. (1.) The Quantitative Theory. According to this theory, the Saturnian is a verse of six feet, with an anacrusis (2529). There is a break after the fourth arsis, or more rarely after the third thesis. Each thesis may be either a long syllable or two shorts; each arsis may be a short syllable, a long, or two shorts, but an arsis is not resolved before the principal break or at the end of the verse. Hiatus is common, especially at the principal break in the verse. A short final syllable may be lengthened by the influence of the verse-ictus. An arsis is frequently suppressed, especially the penultimate arsis. Two arses are never suppressed in the same half-verse, and rarely two in the same verse. Examples of the Saturnian, measured quantitatively, are:
Dabúnt malúm Metéllī # Naéviṓ poḗtae.
Novém Iovís concórdēs # fī́liaé sorṓrēs. (Naevius.)
Virúm mihī́, Camḗna, # ī́nsecḗ versū́tum. (Livius Andronicus.)
E͡ōrúm sectám sequóntur # múltī mórtā́lēs.
(Naevius.)
Compare in English: “The queén was ín the párlour, éating bréad and hóney.”
2552. Most of the Roman grammarians who discussed the nature of the Saturnian seem to have regarded it as quantitative. In modern times the quantitative theory has been advocated by Ritschl, Buecheler, Havet, Christ, Lucian Mueller, W. Meyer, Reichardt and many others.
2553. (2.) The Accentual Theory. According to this theory, the Saturnian is an accentual verse, constructed without regard to quantity. It is divided by the principal break into two halves, the first of which has three theses. The second half usually has three, but may have only two, in which case it is usually preceded by an anacrusis (2529). Two accented syllables are regularly separated by an unaccented syllable, but in strictly constructed Saturnians the second and third unaccented syllables are regularly separated by two unaccented ones. Hiatus was at first freely admitted, but in the Saturnians of the second century B.C. occurs only at the principal break. Examples of the Saturnian, measured according to this theory, are:
Dábunt málum Metéllī # Naéviṓ poḗtae.
Nóvem Ióvis concórdēs # fī́liaé sorṓrēs. (Naevius.)
Vírum míhi, Camḗna, # ī́nsecḗ versū́tum. (Livius Andronicus.)
E͡ōrum séctam sequóntur # múltī mórtā́lēs. (Naevius.)
2554. The accentual theory was held by the scholiast on V. G. 2, 385, and in modern times has been upheld (in one form or another) by O. Keller, Thurneysen, Westphal, Gleditsch, Lindsay and others. The brief statement given above agrees essentially with that of O. Keller. Gleditsch holds that each half-verse has four accents, as: Dábunt málum Métellī́ ‖ Naéviṓ poḗtaé; Lindsay that the first hemistich has three accents and the second two, as: Dábunt málum Metéllī ‖ Naéviō poḗtae. The whole question is still far from its final settlement.
Dactylic Rhythms.
2555. These are descending rhythms belonging to the Equal Class (see 2527). In them the fundamental foot is the dactyl (–́ ⏑ ⏑), for which its metrical equivalent, the spondee (–́ –), is frequently substituted.
The Dactylic Hexameter.
2556. The Dactylic Hexameter is the verse regularly employed in epic, didactic, and bucolic poetry, and is used by the Latin writers oftener than any other measure. It consists of six feet, the last of which is a spondee (but with the privilege of syllaba anceps; see 2534). The fifth foot is usually a dactyl; but sometimes a spondee is employed, in which case the verse is called spondaic. In each of the other four feet either a dactyl or a spondee may be used. The scheme is therefore:
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ [bracketed long over pair of breves] | –́ –
2557. A caesura which comes immediately after the thesis of a foot is called masculine; one which falls in the middle of the arsis (i.e. after the first short of a dactyl) is termed feminine. The Roman writers show a strong preference for masculine principal caesuras, and in general their treatment of the caesura is more strict than that of the Greek poets.
2558. The principal caesura in the Latin hexameter is most frequently the penthemimeral (2544): as in:
Arma virumque canō ‖ Troiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs (V. 1, 1).
Next in order of frequency stands the hephthemimeral, which is usually accompanied by a secondary trithemimeral, and in many cases also by a feminine caesura in the third foot: as in the verse,
Īnsīgnem ‖ pietāte ‖ virum ‖ tot adīre labōrēs (V. 1, 10).
If the secondary trithemimeral caesura is lacking, the penthemimeral is usually accompanied by a feminine caesura in the second foot. Sometimes, though more rarely, the principal break in the line is the feminine caesura in the third foot (often called the “caesura after the third trochee”), as in the verse
Spargēns ūmida mella ‖ sopōriferumque papāver (V. 4, 486).
2559. The diaeresis (see 2542) after the fourth foot (often called “bucolic diaeresis” from its use by pastoral writers) sometimes occurs, but is much less common in Latin hexameters than in Greek. An example is
Dīc mihi, Dāmoetā, ‖ cuium pecus? # An Meliboeī? (V. E. 3, 1).
This diaeresis, though common in Juvenal, is rare in most of the Latin poets (even the bucolic), and when it does occur, it is usually accompanied by a penthemimeral caesura. Lucian Mueller and others deny that the bucolic diaeresis ever forms the principal break in a line.
2560. When a line has several caesuras, it is often hard to determine which is the principal one. In general, masculine caesuras out-rank feminine; the penthemimeral takes precedence over the hephthemimeral, and the latter over all other caesuras. But if the hephthemimeral, or even one of the minor caesuras, coincides with an important pause in the sentence, it may out-rank the penthemimeral. Thus in the verse
Paulāt(im) adnābam ‖ terrae; ‖ iam tūta tenēbam (V. 6, 358),
the principal caesura is after terrae, not adnābam.
Lines without a principal caesura are rare. An instance is
Nōn quīvīs videt inmodulāta poēmata iūdex (H. AP. 263).
2561. The great flexibility of the hexameter makes it an admirable vehicle of poetic expression. Accumulated spondees give the verse a slow and ponderous movement: as in the line
Ill(ī) in|ter sē|sē ‖ ma|gnā vī | bracchia | tollunt (V. G. 4, 174).
The multiplication of dactyls imparts to the verse a comparatively rapid and impetuous motion, as in the famous verse
Quadrupe|dante pu|trem ‖ soni|tū quatit | ungula | campum (V. 8, 596).
But even when dactyls are numerous, the Latin hexameter, “the stateliest measure ever moulded by the lips of man,” should not be read with the jerky 3/8 movement which is characteristic of the English hexameter.
2562. The following passage may serve to illustrate the movement of the hexameter, and to show how the use of the different caesuras imparts variety to the measure:
Ō soci|ī ‖ —nequ(e) e|n(im) īgnā|rī ‖ sumus | ante ma|lōrum—
ō pas|sī gravi|ōra, ‖ da|bit deus | hīs quoque | fīnem.
Vōs et | Scyllae|am ‖ rabi|em ‖ peni|tusque so|nantēs
accē|stis scopu|lōs, ‖ vōs | et Cȳ|clōpea | saxa
exper|tī; ‖ revo|cāt(e) ani|mōs, ‖ mae|stumque ti|mōrem
mittite: | forsan et | haec ‖ ō|lim ‖ memi|nisse iu|vābit. (V. 1, 198).
Compare in English:
Rolls and rages amain the restless, billowy ocean,
While with a roar that soundeth afar the white-maned breakers
Leap up against the cliffs, like foemen madly rejoicing.
Notes on the Hexameter.
2563. (1.) In all probability, the hexameter was originally a composite verse, made up of two tripodies, or of a tetrapody and a dipody. Hence hiatus in the principal caesura is not very rare, even in the Augustan poets. The stress upon the first and fourth theses was probably stronger than that upon the other four.
2564. (2.) In the second half of the hexameter, particularly in the fifth and sixth feet, verse-ictus and word-accent show a strong tendency to coincide.
2565. (3.) A monosyllable rarely stands before the principal caesura or at the end of the verse. When the verse ends in a monosyllable, the thesis of the last foot is generally a monosyllable also, as in the line
Crīspīnus minimō mē prōvocat; accipe, sī vīs (H. S. 1, 4, 14).
Exceptions to this rule sometimes occur when the poet wishes to produce a particular effect, as in
Parturient montēs, nāscētur rīdiculus mūs (H. AP. 139).
2566. (4.) A hexameter generally ends in a word of two or three syllables, almost never in one of four, rarely in one of five. But spondaic verses (2556) generally end with a word of four syllables, more rarely with one of three, almost never with one of two.
2567. (5.) Spondaic verses are comparatively rare in Ennius and Lucretius, but become more frequent in Catullus. They are not common in Vergil, Horace, Propertius and Ovid, and do not occur at all in Tibullus. Persius has one spondaic verse, Valerius Flaccus one, Claudian five, Silius Italicus six, Statius seven. Ennius has lines composed entirely of spondees, and so in one instance (116, 3) Catullus. Ennius also resolves the thesis of a dactyl in a few cases.
2568. (6.) A verse which is connected with the following one by elision (2492) is called hypermetrical. Such verses are rare, and usually end with the enclitics -que or -ve.
2569. (7.) The dactylic hexameter was introduced into Latin literature by Ennius, and was further perfected by Lucilius, Lucretius, and Cicero, who took him as their model. Catullus and the group to which he belonged followed Alexandrian models more closely, while the great poets of the Augustan age carried the technique of the hexameter to its highest perfection. Horace in his lyric poetry treats the hexameter with great strictness; but in the Satires and Epistles he handles it with much freedom, imparting to the measure a more colloquial character by the frequent use of spondees and by less rigorous treatment of the caesura.
The Dactylic Pentameter.
2570. The Dactylic Pentameter is a verse consisting of two catalectic dactylic tripodies, separated by a fixed diaeresis. Spondees are admitted in the first tripody, but not in the second. The final thesis of the first tripody is protracted to a tetraseme (2516) to compensate for the omission of the arsis. The scheme is therefore
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | ⏘́ # –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⌅
2571. (1.) The verse is not asynartetic (2535), neither syllaba anceps nor hiatus being allowed at the end of the first tripody.
2572. (2.) This verse is known as the pentameter because the ancient grammarians measured it
– ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | – – | ⏑ ⏑ – | ⏑ ⏑ –
2573. The pentameter is rarely used except in combination with the hexameter, with which it forms the so-called Elegīac Distich:
–́ ⏔ | – ⏔ | – ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ –
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | ⏘́ # –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⌅
2574. The Elegiac Distich is used chiefly in elegiac poetry (whence the name), in amatory verse and in epigrams. The end of the pentameter generally coincides with a pause in the sense. As examples of the Elegiac Distich, the following may serve:
Quam legis | ex il|lā ‖ tibi | vēnit e|pistola | terrā
lātus u|b(ī̆) aequore|īs # additur | Hister a|quīs.
Sī tibi | contige|rit ‖ cum | dulcī | vīta sa|lūte,
candida | fortū|nae # pars manet | ūna me|ae. O. Tr. 5, 7, 1.
Compare in English (but see 2561 ad fin.):
“These lame hexameters the strong-winged music of Homer!
No—but a most burlesque, barbarous experiment...
Hexameters no worse than daring Germany gave us,
Barbarous experiment, barbarous hexameters.” (Tennyson).
2575. The Elegiac Distich was introduced into Roman poetry by Ennius, who used it in epigrams. Varro employed it in his Saturae, and Catullus seems to have been the first of the Latins who used it in Elegiac poetry. The elegiac and amatory poets of the Augustan age, especially Ovid, perfected it, and wielded it with unequalled grace and ease.
2576. Ovid nearly always closes the pentameter with a disyllabic word; but earlier poets, especially Catullus, are less careful in this regard. Elision is less frequent in the pentameter than in the hexameter. It sometimes occurs in the main diaeresis of the pentameter, though rarely.
The Dactylic Tetrameter Acatalectic (or Alcmanian).
2577. This verse is chiefly used in composition with a trochaic tripody to form the Greater Archilochian verse (2677); but it occurs alone once in Terence (Andria 625), and is employed in stichic series (2546) by Seneca. The scheme is:
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏑ ⏑
An example is:
hocine | crēdibi|l(e) aut memo|rābile (T. Andr. 625).
This verse is often called Alcmanian because it was used by the Greek poet Alcman.
The Dactylic Tetrameter Catalectic (or Archilochian).
2578. This verse consists of four dactylic feet, the last one being incomplete. The scheme is:
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | – [bracketed long over pair of breves] | –́ ⏑ ⌃
An example is:
Cármine | pérpetu|ṓ cele|brā́r(e) et (H. 1, 7, 6).
This verse differs from the preceding in that the last foot is always a trochee or spondee, never a dactyl. It is used only in the Alcmanian strophe (2724).
The Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic (or Lesser Archilochian).
2579. This verse has the scheme:
–́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⌅
An example is:
Árbori|búsque co | maé (H. 4, 7, 2).
It is used chiefly in the First Archilochian Strophe (see 2725). In form it is the same as the second half of the pentameter (2570).
2580. These verses (2578, 2579) are often called Archilochian because they were first used by the Greek poet Archilochus.
Iambic Rhythms.
2581. These are ascending rhythms (2528) in 3/8 time. The fundamental foot is the Iambus (⏑ –́), for which its metrical equivalent the tribrach ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑, the irrational spondee > –́, the irrational dactyl > ⏑́ ⏑, the cyclic anapaest ⏑ ⏑ –́, or the proceleusmatic ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ is sometimes substituted.
2582. The Greek poets excluded all feet except the iambus and tribrach, and in comedy the anapaest, from the even places in iambic verse. The Latin poets were not so strict: but when one of the even feet was formed by a word or a word-ending, they did not usually allow the foot to be a spondee or an anapaest, but required it to be an iambus.
The Iambic Trimeter Or Senarius.
2583. The Iambic Trimeter is the verse most frequently used by the Roman dramatists. It consists of six iambic feet, or three iambic dipodies. The ictus on the second thesis of each dipody was probably weaker than that upon the first thesis. Some ancient authorities, however, held that the ictus on the second thesis was the stronger. The last foot is always an iambus. The normal scheme is therefore:
⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇
Some prefer (see 2529) to regard this verse as a trochaic trimeter catalectic with anacrusis. The normal scheme will then be:
⏑ ⁝ –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃
2584. The Latin poets differ widely in their treatment of the Senarius, some (especially Plautus, Terence, and the other early dramatists) handling it with great freedom, while others (especially Phaedrus and Publilius Syrus) conform more closely to Greek models. We may therefore distinguish two periods:
(A.) Early Period.
2585. Any one of the substitutions enumerated in 2581 is admitted in any foot except the last. The scheme is therefore:
| ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | [> ⏑́ ⏑] | |
| ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏑ –́ | |
| ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ |
The main caesura is usually penthemimeral (2544); but it is sometimes hephthemimeral, in which case there is generally a secondary caesura in, or diaeresis after, the second foot.
The following passage may serve to show the rhythm:
Ubi vén|t(um) ad ae|dīs ‖ ést | Dromō | pultát | forēs;
anŭs quaé|dam prō|dit; ‖ haéc | ub(i) ape|rit ṓs|tium,
contínu(ō) | hic sē | coniḗ|cit ‖ in|tr(ō), ego cṓn|sequor;
anŭs fóri|bus ob|dit ‖ pés|sul(um), ad | lānám | redit.
Hīc scī́|rī potu|it ‖ aút | nusqu(am) ali|bī, Clī́|nia,
quō stúdi|ō vī|tam ‖ su͡ám | t(ē) absen|t(e) exḗ|gerit,
ubi d(ē) ín|prōvī|sōst ‖ ín|terven|tum múli|erī, &c. T. Hau. 275.
| ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | > ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | > –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| ⏑ ⏑ –́ | > –̇ | ⏑ ‖ –́ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| > ⏑́ ⏑ | > –̇ | > –́ | ⏑ ‖ –̇ | ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ –̇ | > ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | > –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| > –́ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ‖ –́ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | > –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| > ⏑́ ⏑ | > –̇ | > ‖ –́ | > –̇ | > –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| ⏑ ⏑ –́ | > –̇ | > ‖ –́ | > –̇ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ –̇ |
2586. (1.) In the early dramatists, substitutions are very numerous, and lines which follow the normal scheme are rare. Substitutions are most frequent in the first foot.
2587. (2.) Four shorts rarely stand in succession unless they belong to the same foot. Hence a dactyl or tribrach is seldom followed by an anapaest.
2588. (3.) The dactyl and proceleusmatic are rare in the fifth foot. The proceleusmatic occurs chiefly in the first foot.
2589. (4.) The fifth foot is very often a spondee. It must not be a pure iambus except (a.) when the line ends with a polysyllable of four or more syllables; (b.) when it ends with a word which forms a Cretic (2521); (c.) when it ends with an iambic word preceded by one which forms a Fourth Paeon (2521), or by an anapaestic word which is itself preceded by a final short syllable; (d.) when there is a change of speakers before the last foot; (e.) when elision occurs in the fifth or sixth foot.
2590. (5.) The main caesura is rarely preceded by a monosyllable.
2591. (6.) In the Senarius, and in the other iambic and trochaic verses of the early dramatists, a resolved arsis or thesis is usually placed so that its first syllable begins a word, or so that the two shorts of the resolved arsis or thesis are enclosed by other syllables belonging to the same word. Hence a dactylic word with the ictus on the penult or ultima (e.g. tempóre) rarely occurs. But there are occasional exceptions to the rule, especially in the case of words that are closely connected (e.g. a preposition with its case).
(B.) Later Period.
2592. Later writers conform more closely to Greek usage, but differ from one another in the degree of strictness with which they follow it. The general scheme is:
| ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ‖ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ‖ ⏑́ ⏑ | ||||
| [⏑ ⏑ –́] | [⏑ ⏑ –̇] | ||||
| [⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑] | |||||
The main caesura is usually the penthemimeral (2544). The hephthemimeral sometimes occurs, but usually in connection with the penthemimeral, or with a diaeresis after the second foot. If the hephthemimeral is used without either of these, the second and third trochees of the line must form one word, as in
ut gaú|det īn|sitī́|va ‖ dē|cerpḗns | pira. (H. Epod. 2, 19.)
2593. (1.) The anapaest is rare in nearly all classical writers; Catullus does not admit it at all, and Horace only five times in all. The proceleusmatic is admitted in the first foot by Seneca, the author of the Octāvia, Phaedrus, Publilius Syrus and Terentianus Maurus; other writers exclude it altogether. Catullus keeps the fifth foot pure, and Horace does not admit the tribrach in the fifth foot.
2594. (2.) Catullus (4 and 29), Horace (Epod. 16), Vergil (Cat. 3, 4, 8), and the authors of the Priāpēa sometimes use the pure iambic trimeter, without resolutions or substitutions.
2595. (3.) Phaedrus follows in part the earlier usage, admitting the spondee, dactyl, and anapaest, in every foot except the last. The dactyl he employs chiefly in the first, third, and fifth feet, the anapaest in the first and fifth. The proceleusmatic he admits only in the first.
2596. The rhythm of the Senarius may be illustrated by the following lines:
But one amid the throng of eager listeners,
A sable form with scornful eye and look averse,
Out-stretched a lean fore-finger and bespake Haroun.
The Choliambus (or Scazon).
2597. The Choliambus is an iambic trimeter in which a trochee has been substituted for the final iambus. The penultimate syllable is therefore long instead of short. The caesura is generally the penthemimeral (2544). If it is hephthemimeral, there is regularly a diaeresis after the second foot. The scheme is:
| ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ –́ | –́ ⏑ |
| [⏑ ⏑́ ⏑] | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ||
| > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | ||||
| ⏑ ⏑ –́ | |||||
An example is:
Fulsḗ|re quon|dam ‖ cán|didī| tibī́ | sṓlēs. (Cat. 8, 3.)
2598. (1). The anacrustic scheme (see 2529) of the choliambus is:
| ⏑ ⏑̆͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | ⏗́ | –́ ⏑ |
| ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑̇ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑̇ ⏑ ⏑ | |||
i.e. trochaic trimeter with anacrusis (2529), syncope (2541), and protraction (2516).
2599. (2.) Resolutions and substitutions are less common in the choliambus than in the ordinary trimeter. No monosyllable except est is admitted at the end of the line. The tribrach in the first foot is rare, and the fifth foot is regularly an iambus.
2600. (3). The verse is named Choliambus (i.e. “lame” or “limping iambus”) or Scazon (“hobbler”) from its odd, limping movement. It is sometimes called Hipponactean from its inventor Hipponax, and is chiefly used to produce a satiric or ludicrous effect. It was introduced into Roman poetry by Cn. Mattius, and was employed by Varro, Catullus, Persius, Petronius, Martial, and others.
The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic.
2601. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic occurs in Horace (1, 4 and 2, 18). The caesura is regularly penthemimeral (2544). Resolutions are not admitted, except in one doubtful case, rēgumque puerīs (2, 18, 34), where pu͡erīs may be read (with synizesis: see 2499). The scheme is:
| ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏗́ –̇ |
| [⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑] | ||||
Examples are:
Meā́ | renī|det ‖ ín | domō | lacū́|nar. (H. 2, 18, 2.)
⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏗́ –̇
Seu pó|scit a|gnā sī́|ve mā|lit haé|dō. (H. 1, 4, 12.)
> –́ | ⏑ –̇ | > ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏗́ –̇
2602. (1.) The anacrustic scheme is:
⏑͐ ⁞ –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑͐ # –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | ⏗́ –̇ ⌃,
i.e. trochaic trimeter catalectic with anacrusis (2529), syncope (2541), and protraction (2516).
2603. (2.) Horace seems to have changed his practice with reference to the first foot. In 1, 4 the first foot is a spondee in nine lines out of ten; in 2, 18, it is a spondee in only two lines out of twenty.
The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (or Octonarius).
2604. This verse consists of four iambic dipodies, or eight complete iambic feet. The substitutions enumerated in 2581 are admitted in the first seven feet; but the last foot is always an iambus. The principal break in the line is usually a diaeresis after the fourth foot (which in that case must be a pure iambus), or a caesura after the arsis of the fifth. The full scheme is:
| ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| ⏖ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏑ –́ | |
| ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ |
2605. The following lines are examples of this metre:
Enĭm vḗ|rō, Dā|ve, nī́l|locīst # sēgníti|ae neque | sōcór|diae,
quant(um) ín|tellē|xī módo | senis # sentén|tiam | dē nū́|ptiīs:
quae sī́|nōn a|stū prṓ|viden|tur ‖ m(ē)aút|erum | pessúm | dabunt. (T. Andr. 206.)
| ⏖ –́ | > –̇ | ⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇ # > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | > –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| > –́ | > –̇ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ –̇ # > –́ | ⏑ –̇ | > –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| > –́ | > –̇ | > –́ | ⏑ –̇ | > ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | > –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
2606. Compare in English:
He smote the rock, and forth a tide of crystal waters streamed amain;
Up sprang the flowrets from the ground, and Nature smiled o’er all the plain.
2607. (1.) The iambic octonarius is chiefly a comic verse. Terence has about eight hundred lines in this measure, Plautus only about three hundred, Varro a few.
2608. (2.) Substitutions are much less common than in the senarius, especially in the even feet.
2609. (3.) When there is a diaeresis after the fourth foot, so that the line is divided into two equal halves, the verse is asynartetic (2535). There seems, however, to be no certain instance of hiatus in the diaeresis in the Terentian plays.
Iambic Septenarius.
(A.) Early Usage.
2610. The Iambic Septenarius consists of seven and a half iambic feet. In any of the complete feet the substitutes mentioned in 2581 are admitted. There is usually a diaeresis after the fourth foot, which in that case must be a pure iambus. If there is not such a diaeresis, there is generally a caesura after the arsis of the fifth foot. The scheme of substitution is:—
| ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ ⌅ |
| ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| ⏖ –́ | ⏖ –̇ | ⏖ –́ | ⏖ –̇ | ⏖ –́ | ⏖ –̇ | ⏖ –́ | |
| ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏖ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏖ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏖ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ |
2611. Examples of the Septenarius are the lines:
Spērā́|bit sūm|ptum síbi | senex ‖ levā́|t(um) ess(e) hā|runc ábi|tū:
n(ē) ill(e) haúd | scit hoc | paulúm | lucrī ‖ quant(um) ḗ|ī da|mn(ī) adpór|tet.
Tū nés|ciēs | quod scī́s, | Dromō, ‖ sī sápi|ēs. Mū|tum dī́|cēs.
(T. Hau. 746.)
| > –́ | > –̇ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ –́ | > –̇ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⌅ |
| > –́ | ⏑ –̇ | > –́ | ⏑ –̇ | > –́ | > –̇ | > –́ | ⏑ ⌅ |
| > –́ | ⏑ –̇ | > –́ | ⏑ –̇ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | > –̇ | > –́ | > ⌅ |
Compare in English:
“Now who be ye would cross Lochgyle, this dark and stormy water?” (Campbell.)
2612. (1.) The Iambic Septenarius of the early comedy is not properly a “tetrameter catalectic” like the Greek, for the penultimate syllable is sometimes resolved, which is never the case in the Greek catalectic tetrameter. For the same reason the ordinary anacrustic (2529) scheme of the early Septenarius is erroneous; for a triseme cannot be resolved.
2613. (2.) When there is a diaeresis after the fourth foot, the verse is asynartetic (see 2535).
2614. (3.) The Septenarius seems not to have been used in tragedy.
(B.) Later Usage.
2615. Varro and Catullus (25) employ a form of the Septenarius which conforms more closely to Greek models, keeping the arses of the even feet pure and rarely admitting resolutions. There is regularly a diaeresis after the fourth foot. The scheme is:—
⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ # ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ ⏗́ –̇
or anacrustically (2529)
⏑͐ ⁞ –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ‖ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑͐ | ⏗́ | –̇ ⌃
2616. Catullus does not admit resolutions at all, save in one very doubtful case (25, 5). Varro seems to admit them in the first foot only.
Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic (or Quaternarius).
2617. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of two complete iambic dipodies or four iambic feet. In the first three feet the tribrach, irrational spondee, irrational dactyl and cyclic anapaest are admitted; but the proceleusmatic is very rare, except in the first foot of the Versus Reizianus (2625), (of which a Quaternarius forms the first colon). The scheme for substitution is:
| ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ |
| ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| ⏖ –́ | ⏖ –̇ | ⏖ –́ | |
| [⏖ ⏑́ ⏑] | [⏖ ⏑̇ ⏑] | ⏖ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑] |
Examples are:
Rogitā́|re quasi | diffíci|le sit
⏖ –́ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ –̇ (T. Eu. 209).
Ast égo | vicis|sim rī́|serō
> ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ –̇ | > –́ | ⏑ –̇ (H. Epod. 15, 24).
Perū́n|xit hōc | Iā́|sonem
⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇ (H. Epod. 3, 12).
2618. (1.) The verse may also be regarded as a trochaic dimeter catalectic with anacrusis (2529), with the normal scheme:
⏑ ⁞ –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃
2619. (2.) Horace admits resolutions only four times, the tribrach once in the second foot and the dactyl thrice in the first.
2620. (3.) Plautus (except in a few instances), Terence, and Horace employ the dimeter only as a clausula (2536) to longer verses. Petronius, Seneca, and Prudentius use it to form systems (2547); but it is rarely so employed by earlier writers.
The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic (or Ternarius).
2621. This is like the preceding verse, except that the last foot is incomplete. Examples are:—
Nequ(e) íd | perspice|re quī́|vī
⏑ –́ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏗́ –̇ (Pl. Cap. 784).
Date; móx | eg(o) hūc | revór|tor
⏖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏗́ –̇ (T. Andr. 485).
2622. (1.) The verse may also be regarded as a syncopated catalectic trochaic dimeter with anacrusis (2529). The normal scheme will then be:—
⏑ ⁞ –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | ⏗́ | –̇ ⌃
2623. (2.) Plautus and Terence use this verse as a clausula (2536). Petronius is the first who employs it to form systems (2547).
Other Iambic Verses.
2624. Other short iambic verses, the acatalectic dipody (e.g. eg(o) ĭllūm | famē, | eg(o) ĭllúm | sitī, Pl. Cas. 153), and the catalectic tripody (e.g. inóps | amā́|tor, Pl. Tri. 256) sometimes occur, but are rare.
The Versus Reizianus.
2625. This is a composite verse, consisting of two cola, an iambic dimeter acatalectic and an iambic tripody catalectic. The scheme is therefore,
| ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ # ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ ⌅ |
| ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | [⏑ ⏑́ ⏑] | ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑̇ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | > ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| ⏖ –́ | ⏖ –̇ | ⏖ –́ | ⏖ –́ | ⏖ –́ | |
| ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ | [⏖ ⏑̇ ⏑] | [⏖ ⏑́ ⏑] | ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ | |
Examples are:—
Sed in aé|dibus | quid tíbi | meīs # n(am) erát | negṓ|tī
m(ē) absén|te, nis(i) e|go iús|seram? # volo scī́|re. Tac(ē) ér|gō
Quia vḗ|nimŭs coc|t(um) ad nū́|ptiās. # Quid tū́, | malŭm, cū́|rās. (Pl. Aul. 427.)
2626. The nature of the second colon of this verse has long been disputed. Reiz and Christ treat it substantially as above; Studemund regards it as a syncopated iambic dimeter catalectic (⏑ – ⏑ ⏗ – ⏑), Spengel and Gleditsch as anapaestic, Leo as logaoedic, Klotz as sometimes logaoedic and sometimes anapaestic! The view of Christ (Metrik2, p. 348) seems, on the whole, the most reasonable, though the question cannot be said to be fully decided. The tribrach is rare in the second colon, but there seems to be a case in Plautus, R. 675 b.
2627. For other iambic verses and combinations of verses, see special editions of the dramatists.
Trochaic Rhythms.
2628. These are descending rhythms in 3/8 time. The fundamental foot is the trochee –́ ⏑, for which its metrical equivalent the tribrach ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑, the irrational spondee –́ >, the cyclic dactyl –́ ⏑ ⏑, the irrational anapaest ⏑́ ⏑ >, and (rarely) the proceleusmatic ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑, are sometimes substituted.
The Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic (or Septenarius).
2629. The Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic is, next to the iambic trimeter, the verse most frequently used by the early Roman dramatists. It consists of seven and a half trochaic feet, or four trochaic dipodies (the last one being incomplete). The ictus on the second thesis of each dipody was probably weaker than that on the first thesis. The normal scheme is:—
–́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃
As in the case of the senarius, we may distinguish two periods in the usage:—
(A.) Early Period.
2630. The tribrach is admitted in any of the complete feet, and the irrational spondee, cyclic dactyl, and irrational anapaest in any of the first six feet. Terence does not admit the proceleusmatic in the Septenarius (nor in any other kind of trochaic verse), but Plautus admits it in the first foot. The seventh foot of the Septenarius is usually a trochee, but the tribrach sometimes occurs there. The principal break in the line is usually a diaeresis after the fourth foot (which in that case must not be a dactyl), often accompanied by a secondary diaeresis after the second foot. Sometimes, however, the principal break is a diaeresis after the fifth foot, in which case there is generally a secondary diaeresis after the third foot or a caesura in the fourth. The full scheme of substitutions is:—
| –́ ⏑͐ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑͐ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑͐ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃ |
| ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑̇ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑̇ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑̇ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | |
| –́ ⏖ | –̇ ⏖ | –́ ⏖ | –̇ ⏖ | –́ ⏖ | –̇ ⏖ | [–́ ⏖] | |
| ⏑́ ⏑ > | ⏑̇ ⏑ > | ⏑́ ⏑ > | ⏑̇ ⏑ > | ⏑́ ⏑ > | ⏑̇ ⏑ > | ||
| [⏑́ ⏑ ⏖] | |||||||
The following lines are examples of the Septenarius:—
Séquere | sīs, erŭm | quī́ lū|dificās # díctīs | dēlī|ránti|bus
quī quoni(am) | erŭs quod | ímpe|rāvit # néglē|xistī | pérse|quī,
núnc ve|nīs eti(am) | últr(ō) in|rīsum # dóminum|: quae neque | fī́e|rī
póssunt | neque fan|d(ō) úmqu(am) ac|cēpit # quísquam | prōfers, | cárnu|fex. (Pl. Am. 585.)
| ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | –̇ ⏖ | –́ > | ⏑̇ ⏑ > # –́ > | –̇ > | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃ |
| –́ ⏖ | ⏑̇ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ > # –́ > | –̇ > | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃ |
| –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏖ | –́ > | –̇ > # ⏑́ ⏑ > | –̇ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃ |
| –́ > | ⏑̇ ⏑ > | –́ > | –̇ > # –́ > | –̇ > | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃ |
2631. (1.) When there is a diaeresis after the fourth foot, the verse is asynartetic (2535). In Plautus hiatus in the diaeresis is not rare; but there seems to be no certain instance of it in Terence (see Ph. 528, Ad. 697).
2632. (2.) An anapaest is not allowed to follow a dactyl.
2633. (3.) The seventh foot is usually a trochee; rarely a tribrach or dactyl. The tribrach and dactyl are seldom found in the fourth foot.
(B.) Later Usage.
2634. The later and stricter form of the Septenarius keeps the arses of the odd feet pure, and regularly shows a diaeresis after the fourth foot.
–́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑͐ # –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃
Resolutions occur, but are far less common than in the earlier form of the verse. The strict form of the Septenarius is found in Varro, Seneca, and often in late poets (as Ausonius, Prudentius, &c.).
2635. The rhythm of the Septenarius may be illustrated by this line:—
“Comrades, leave me here a little, while as yet ’tis early morn.” (Tennyson.)
The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic (or Octonarius).
2636. The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic is chiefly confined to the lyrical portions of the early comedy. It consists of four complete trochaic dipodies or eight trochaic feet. The tribrach, irrational spondee, irrational anapaest and cyclic dactyl may stand in any foot save the last. The last foot is regularly a trochee or a tribrach, though (the last syllable being syllaba anceps, 2533) an apparent spondee or anapaest, but not a dactyl, may arise. The principal break in the line is regularly a diaeresis after the fourth foot (which in that case must not be a dactyl). Occasionally, however, there is instead a caesura in the fourth or fifth foot. The scheme is:—
| –́ ⏑͐ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑͐ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑͐ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑͐ | –̇ ⏑͐ |
| ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑̇ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑̇ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑̇ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | [⏑̇ ⏑ ⏑] |
| –́ ⏖ | –̇ ⏖ | –́ ⏖ | –̇ ⏖ | –́ ⏖ | –̇ ⏖ | –́ ⏖ | |
| ⏑́ ⏑ > | ⏑̇ ⏑ > | ⏑́ ⏑ > | ⏑̇ ⏑ > | ⏑́ ⏑ > | ⏑̇ ⏑ > | ⏑́ ⏑ > | [⏑̇ ⏑ >] |
Example:—
Cḗnse|ō. Sed | heús tū.| Quid vīs? # Cḗnsēn | posse | m(e) óffir|māre? (T. Eu. 217).
–́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ > | –̇ > # –́ > | –̇ ⏑ | –́ > | –̇ ⏑
Compare in English:—
Over stream and mount and valley sweeps the merry, careless rover,
Toying with the fragrant blossoms, beating down the heads of clover.
2637. (1.) When there is a diaeresis after the fourth foot, the verse is asynartetic (2535).
2638. (2.) The Octonarius is essentially a lyric metre, and is much less common than the Septenarius.
The Trochaic Tetrameter Claudus (or Scazon).
2639. This verse is a trochaic tetrameter acatalectic, with syncope and protraction in the seventh foot. The normal scheme is:
–́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | ⏗́ | –́ ⏑
An example is:—
Néc co|ruscus | ímber | altō ‖ nū́bi|lō ca|dḗns | múltus
–́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ > # –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | ⏗́ | –́ ⏑ (Varro, Sat. fr. 557 Buech.).
2640. (1.) Substitutions are much rarer in this verse than in the ordinary trochaic octonarius.
2641. (2.) The Scazon was introduced among the Greeks by Hipponax, whence it is sometimes called the Hipponactean. Varro seems to be the only Roman poet who uses it.
The Nine-syllabled Alcaic.
2642. This verse consists of two complete trochaic dipodies, with anacrusis. The second foot is always an irrational spondee. The scheme is:—
⏑͐⁞–́ ⏑ | –̇ > | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑
An example is:—
Sil|vaé la|bōran|tḗs ge|lūque. (H. 1, 9, 3.)
This verse occurs only in Horace, where it forms the third line of the Alcaic Strophe (see 2736).
The Trochaic Dimeter Acatalectic (or Quaternarius).
2643. This verse consists of two complete trochaic dipodies. It is very rare, but there are probably a few instances of it in Plautus, e.g. Per. 31:—
Básili|c(ō) accipi|ḗre | vīctū
⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑
The Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic (or Ternarius).
2644. This consists of two trochaic dipodies, the second being incomplete. It occurs in the early dramatists and in Horace. The scheme for Plautus and Terence is:—
| –́ ⏑͐ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃ |
| ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑̇ ⏑ ⏑ | [⏑́ ⏑ ⏑] | |
| –́ ⏖ | –̇ ⏖ | ||
| ⏑́ ⏑ > | ⏑̇ ⏑ > | ||
The Horatian scheme is:—
–́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃
Examples are:—
Aút un|d(e) auxili|úm pe|tam (T. Ph. 729).
Nṓn e|bur ne|qu(e) aúre|um (H. 2, 18, 1).
2645. (1.) This is sometimes called the Euripidean verse, from its use by Euripides. The tribrach in the third foot is rare, and is not found in Terence. Horace keeps all the feet pure.
2646. (2.) Plautus and Terence often use this verse between trochaic tetrameters, but sometimes employ several Ternarii in succession, as in Plaut. E. 3-6, Cas. 953-6, Ps. 211-13.
The Trochaic Tripody Acatalectic.
2647. This verse is confined to the early drama, where it is employed as a clausula (2536), especially with Cretics. It consists of three complete trochaic feet. The same substitutions are admitted in every foot that are allowed in the first two feet of the Ternarius (2644). An example is:—
Haú bonŭm | teneō | sérvom
–́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑̇ ⏑ > | –́ ⏑ (Pl. Most. 721).
This verse is sometimes called the Ithyphallic.
The Trochaic Tripody Catalectic.
2648. This verse is employed by the early dramatists, usually either as a clausula (2536) or in groups of two lines each. Terence generally uses it in the former way, Plautus in the latter. The scheme of substitutions is:—
| –́ ⏑͐ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⌃ |
| ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑̇ ⏑ ⏑ | |
| –́ ⏖ | –̇ ⏖ | |
| ⏑́ ⏑ > | ⏑̇ ⏑ > |
Example:—
Qu(ī) ímpi|ger fu|ī́
–́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⌃ (Pl. R. 925).
In one instance (R. 924 ff.) Plautus has six catalectic tripodies in succession.
Other Trochaic Verses.
2649. The Trochaic Monometer Acatalectic is sometimes used by Plautus as a clausula (2536) to Cretic tetrameters., It consists of one complete trochaic dipody, e.g. nímis in|epta’ s, R. 681. iū́re in|iūstās, Am. 247. Terence uses the catalectic monometer twice (Eu. 292, Ph. 485) at the beginning of a scene, e.g. Dṓri|ō, Ph. 485. Plautus has a few other trochaic verses and combinations of verses, for which see special editions of his plays.
Logaoedic Rhythms.
2650. Logaoedic verse consists of dactyls and trochees combined in the same metrical series. The dactyls are “cyclic” (see 2523), occupying approximately the time of trochees, and hence the verse moves in 3/8 time. Except in the “Lesser Alcaic” verse (2663), only one dactyl may stand in a single series; and a dactyl must not occupy the last place in a line.
2651. (1.) The name “logaoedic” (Gr. λογαοιδικός, from λόγος, speech, prose, and ἀοιδή, song) may refer to the apparent change of rhythm (due to the mixture of dactyls and trochees), in which logaoedic verse resembles prose; but this is a disputed point.
2652. (2.) In the logaoedic verses of Horace, an irrational spondee almost always takes the place of a trochee before the first dactyl; and if an apparent choriambus (–́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏗́; see 2521) is followed by another apparent choriambus in the same verse, the two are regularly separated by a caesura. These rules are not observed by Catullus.
2653. (3.) Anacrusis (2529) and syncope (2541) are very common in logaoedic verse.
2654. The following are the principal logaoedic rhythms:—
DIPODY.
The Adonic.
2655. This is a logaoedic dipody, with the scheme:—
–́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑
Examples are:—
Térruit | úrbem (H. 1, 2, 4).
Rā́ra iu|véntus (H. 1, 2, 24).
2656. (1.) Some regard the Adonic as a syncopated catalectic tripody:
–́ ⏖ | ⏗́ | –́ ⌃
2657. (2.) A Latin Adonic should consist of a disyllable + a trisyllable, or the reverse. This rule did not hold in Greek, where such lines occur as ὦ τὸν Ἄδωνιν. Elision is not allowed in the Latin Adonic. Late Latin poets (like Terentianus) sometimes employ the Adonic in stichic series (2546).
TRIPODIES.
The Aristophanic.
2658. This is a logaoedic tripody acatalectic, with a dactyl in the first place. The scheme is therefore:—
–́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑
There is no fixed caesura. Examples are:—
Quíd latet | út ma|rī́nae (H. 1, 8, 13).
Fū́nera | nḗ vi|rī́lis (H. 1, 8, 15).
Some authorities write the scheme as:
–́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | ⏗́ | –́ ⌃
i.e. a syncopated logaoedic tetrapody catalectic.
The Pherecratean (or Pherecratic).
2659. This verse is used by Catullus (34, 61), and by Horace (as the third line of the Third Asclepiadean Strophe: see 2733). It is a logaoedic tripody, with the dactyl in the second place. The scheme is:—
| [–́ ⏑] | ||
| –́ > | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ |
| [⏑́–] | ||
The trochee and iambus are admitted in the first foot by Catullus, but not by Horace. The iambus is very rare. There is no fixed caesura. Examples are:—
Grā́tō, | Pýrrha, sub | ántrō (H. 1, 5, 3).
With initial trochee: Lū́te|úmve pa|pā́ver
(Cat. 61, 195).
With initial iambus: Púel|laéque ca|nā́mus
(Cat. 34, 4).
Some authorities prefer to regard the Pherecratean as a syncopated logaoedic tetrapody catalectic, with the scheme:—
| [–́ ⏑] | |||
| –́ > | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ | –́ ⌃ |
| [⏑́–] | |||
TETRAPODIES.
The Glyconic.
2660. This verse is used by Catullus (34, 61), by Horace (in the First, Second, and Third Asclepiadean Strophes: see 2731, 2732, 2733), and by Seneca and other later writers. It is a logaoedic tetrapody catalectic, with a dactyl in the second place. The scheme is:—
| [–́ ⏑] | |||
| –́ > | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃ |
| [⏑́–] | |||
The trochee and iambus in the first foot occur in Catullus, but not in Horace (except in the doubtful case, 1, 15, 36). There is generally a trithemimeral caesura; more rarely one in the arsis of the second foot. Examples are:—
Quém mor|tís ‖ timu|ít gra|dúm (H. 1, 3, 17).
With initial trochee: Mónti|úm ‖ domi|n(a) út fo|rḗs (Cat. 34, 9).
With initial iambus: Púel|l(ae) ét ‖ pue|r(ī) ínte|grī́ (Cat. 34, 2).
2661. (1.) This verse in composition with the Pherecratean forms the Priapean (2674).
2662. (2.) In admitting the trochee and iambus in the first foot, Catullus follows Greek models, while Horace adheres to the stricter Roman usage, as laid down by the grammarians of his own day. Seneca observes the same rule as Horace, but some of the later writers (e.g. Terentianus) revert to the earlier and freer usage.
The Lesser (or Decasyllabic) Alcaic.
2663. This verse is a logaoedic tetrapody acatalectic, with dactyls in the first and second places. The scheme is:—
–́ ⏖ | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑
There is no fixed caesura, though there is frequently a break after the thesis, or in the arsis, of the second foot. Examples are:—
Flū́mina | cṓnstite|rínt a|cūtō (H. 1, 9, 4).
Móntibus | ét Tibe|rím re|vértī (H. 1, 29, 12).
PENTAPODIES.
The Phalaecean (or Hendecasyllable).
2664. This verse is a logaoedic pentapody with the dactyl in the second place. The Greek poets admitted the trochee and iambus, as well as the spondee, in the first foot, and Catullus followed their example; but in Petronius, Martial, and the Priāpēa the first foot is always a spondee, and in later writers nearly always. Horace does not use the Phalaecean. There is no fixed caesura, though the penthemimeral is often found. The scheme is:—
| [–́ ⏑] | ||||
| –́ > | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | – ⏑ |
| [⏑́–] | ||||
Examples are:—
Cúius | vī́s fie|rī́ li|bélle | mū́nus (Mart. 3, 2, 1).
With initial trochee: Dḗ di|ḗ faci|tís me|ī́ so|dā́lēs (Cat. 47, 6).
With initial iambus: Ágit | péssimus | ómni|úm po|ḗta (Cat. 49, 5).
Compare in English:—
“Look, I come to the test, a tiny poem
All composed in a metre of Catullus.” (Tennyson.)
2665. The Phalaecean is a favourite metre in epigrams. It was used by Sappho, Phalaecus (from whom it took its name), and other Greek poets, and was introduced into Roman poetry by Laevius and Varro. It is a favourite metre with Catullus, and is found in the fragments of Cinna, Cornificius and Bibaculus, in the Priāpēa, in Petronius, Statius, Martial, &c. In Catullus 55, a spondee is often employed instead of the dactyl, the two kinds of feet alternating in the latter verses of the poem; but this innovation seems not to have found favour.
The Lesser Sapphic.
2666. This verse is a logaoedic pentapody acatalectic, with the dactyl in the third place. The scheme is:—
–́ ⏑ –́ >
[–́ ⏑] –́ ‖ ⏖ –́ ⏑ –́ ⏑
The trochee in the second foot was admitted by Alcaeus and Sappho, and occurs in Catullus, but not in Horace. In Horace the caesura regularly falls after the thesis, or (less frequently) in the arsis, of the dactyl; but in Catullus, as in Sappho and Alcaeus, it has no fixed position. Examples of this verse are:—
With masculine caesura: Iám sa|tís ter|rī́s ‖ nivis | átque | dī́rae (H. 1, 2, 1).
With feminine caesura: Phoébe | sílvā|rúmque ‖ po|tḗns Di|ā́na (H. C. S. 1).
With trochee in second foot: Seú Sa|cā́s sa|gíttife|rṓsve | Párthōs (Cat. 11, 6).
The Greater (or Hendecasyllabic) Alcaic.
2667. This verse is a logaoedic pentapody catalectic, with anacrusis and with the dactyl in the third foot. The scheme is:—
⏑͕ ⁞ –́ ⏑ | –́ > # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
There is nearly always a diaeresis after the second foot. Examples are:—
Ō | mā́tre | púlchrā # fī́lia | púlchri|ór (H. 1, 16, 1).
Vi|dḗs ut | áltā # stét nive | cándi|dúm (H. 1, 9, 1).
2668. Alcaeus admitted a trochee in the second foot, and allowed the anacrusis to be either long or short; but Horace admitted only the spondee in the second foot, and usually (in Bk. 4 always) employed a long anacrusis. Horace also differed from his predecessor in assigning a fixed place to the caesura, which in Alcaeus has no regular position.
COMPOSITE LOGAOEDIC VERSES.
The Lesser Asclepiadean.
2669. This is a composite verse, consisting of two series, a syncopated logaoedic tripody + a logaoedic tripody catalectic. There is regularly a diaeresis between the two series. The scheme is:—
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
Examples are:—
Maécē|nā́s ata|vī́s # ḗdite | rḗgi|bús (H. 1, 1, 1).
Quís dē|sī́deri|ṓ # sít pudor | aút mo|dús (H. 1, 24, 1).
The Greater Asclepiadean.
2670. This is a composite verse, consisting of three series. It differs from the preceding (2669) in having a syncopated logaoedic dipody (–́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏗́) inserted between the two tripodies. The three series are regularly separated by diaeresis. The scheme is therefore:—
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
Examples are:—
Nū́llam|, Vā́re, sa|crā́ # vī́te pri|ús # sḗveris | árbo|rém
Círcā | mī́te so|lúm # Tī́buris | ét # moénia | Cā́ti|lī́.) (H. 1, 18, 1-2).
The Greater Sapphic.
2671. This is a composite verse, consisting of a syncopated logaoedic tetrapody + a syncopated logaoedic tetrapody catalectic. There is regularly a diaeresis between the two series, and a caesura after the thesis of the first dactyl. The scheme is:—
–́ ⏑ | –́ > | –́ ‖ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | ⏗́ | –́ ⌃
An example is:—
Tḗ de|ṓs ō|rṓ ‖ Syba|rín # cū́r prope|rḗs a|mán|dṓ (H. 1, 8, 2).
2672. (1.) The second series has the same form as the Aristophanic, if the latter be written as a tetrapody (see 2658 ad fin.).
2673. (2.) Horace (1, 8) is the only Latin poet who makes use of the Greater Sapphic. It seems to be an imitation of the Greek Sapphic:—
–́ ⏖ | ⏗́ | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | ⏗́ | –́ ⌃, e.g.
δεῦτέ νιν ἅβραι Χάριτες καλλίκομοί τε Μοῖσαι
but if so, the imitation is not exact.
The Priapean.
2674. This verse is employed by Catullus (17) and in the Priāpēa (86). It consists of a syncopated logaoedic tetrapody + a syncopated logaoedic tetrapody catalectic. There is regularly a diaeresis between the two parts, but hiatus and syllaba anceps are not allowed at the end of the first series. The scheme is:—
– ⏑͐ | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ | –́ ⌃
Examples are:—
Ṓ Co|lṓnia | quaé cu|pī́s # pónte | lū́dere | lón|gṓ (Cat. 17, 1).
Húnc lū|cúm tibi | dḗdi|cṓ # cṓnse|crōque Pri|ā́|pé. (Cat. Fr.).
The first series has the same form as the Glyconic (2660), and the second series has the same form as the Pherecratean, if the latter be written as a tetrapody (see 2659 ad fin.).
Dactylo-Trochaic Rhythms.
2675. Dactylo-Trochaic verse, like logaoedic, is composed of dactyls and trochees; but whereas in logaoedic verse the dactyls and trochees occur within the same metrical series, in dactylo-trochaic they always form separate series. Hence dactylo-trochaic verses are always composite, consisting of two or more series in combination.
2676. It is uncertain whether the dactyls in dactylo-trochaic verse were cyclic (2523) or whether there was a change of time in the middle of the verse.
The Greater Archilochian.
2677. This verse is composed of a dactylic tetrameter acatalectic + a trochaic tripody. There is regularly a diaeresis after the first colon, and a caesura after the third thesis. The fourth foot is always a pure dactyl. The third foot is very often a spondee. The scheme is:—
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ‖ ⏔ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ # –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑
An example is:—
Sólvitur | ā́cris hi|éms ‖ grā|tā́ vice ‖ vḗris | ét Fa|vṓnī (H. 1, 4).
In Archilochus the verse is said to have been asynartetic (2535); but Horace and Prudentius do not allow hiatus or syllaba anceps in the diaeresis, and Prudentius sometimes neglects the diaeresis altogether.
The Iambelegus.
2678. This verse consists of a trochaic dimeter catalectic with anacrusis + a Lesser Archilochian (2579). No resolutions are allowed in the first colon, and the dactyls in the second colon are never replaced by spondees. There is regularly a diaeresis between the two cola. The scheme is:—
⏑͐ ⁞ –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃ # –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⌅
An example is:—
Rū|pḗre | nec mā|tér do|mum # caérula | tḗ reve|hét (H. Epod. 13, 16).
2679. This verse occurs only in the Second Archilochian Strophe (2726) of Horace. Some authorities treat the first colon as an iambic dimeter. The name Iambelegus was given to the verse because the ancient grammarians regarded it as a dactylic pentameter for the first half of which an iambic colon had been substituted.
The Elegiambus.
2680. This verse consists of the same cola as the Iambelegus (2678), but in reverse order. Spondees are not admitted in the first colon, and no resolutions occur in the second colon. There is regularly a diaeresis between the cola. The scheme is:—
–́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⌅ # ⏑͐⁞–́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃
An example is:—
Scrī́bere | vérsicu|lṓs ‖ a|mṓre | percus|súm gra|vī (H. Epod. 11, 2).
2681. This verse occurs only in the Third Archilochian Strophe (2727) of Horace. The name Elegiambus is given to it as being the reverse of the Iambelegus (see 2679).
Anapaestic Rhythms.
2682. In these the fundamental foot is the anapaest ⏑ ⏑ –́, for which its metrical equivalents the spondee —́, dactyl – ⏑́ ⏑ and proceleusmatic ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ are sometimes substituted.
2683. The anapaestic verse of the early Latin comedy is extremely irregular, and its limits are often hard to define. Spondees and apparent bacchii (reduced to anapaests by the law of iambic shortening; see 2470) are extremely common, and metrical irregularities of various kinds abound. The Latin language has so few anapaestic words that it does not lend itself readily to this rhythm. Terence wisely abstained altogether from anapaestic verse. Varro, Seneca, and Prudentius and other late writers wrote anapaests conforming more closely to Greek models.
The Anapaestic Tetrameter Acatalectic (or Octonarius).
2684. This consists of four anapaestic dipodies or eight complete anapaestic feet. There is regularly a diaeresis after the fourth foot, and the last thesis of the line is never resolved. Hiatus and syllaba anceps sometimes occur in the diaeresis, the verse being asynartetic (2535). The scheme is:—
| ⏖ –́ | ⏖ –̇ | ⏖ –́ | ⏖ –̇ # ⏖ –́ | ⏖ –̇ | ⏖ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ |
| – –́ | – –̇ | – –́ | – –̇ # – –́ | – –̇ | – –́ | – –̇ |
| – ⏑́ ⏑ | – ⏑̇ ⏑ | – ⏑́ ⏑ | – ⏑̇ ⏑ # – ⏑́ ⏑ | – ⏑̇ ⏑ | – ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏖ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ | [⏖ ⏑̇ ⏑] # ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏖ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏖ ⏑́ ⏑ |
Examples are:—
Neque quód | dubitem | neque quód | timeam # me(ō) ĭn péc|tore con|ditŭmst cṓn|silium (Pl. Ps. 575).
Quid míhi | meliust | quid mágis | in remst # qu(am) ā cór|pore vī|tam sḗ|clūdam (Pl. R. 220).
2685. The proceleusmatic is very rare in the fourth foot, but the spondee is very common there. Some editors divide the anapaestic octonarii into dimeters (or quaternarii) and write them as such.
The Anapaestic Tetrameter Catalectic (or Septenarius).
2686. This is like the preceding, except that the last foot is incomplete. The seventh thesis may be resolved. There is regularly a diaeresis after the fourth foot, and hiatus and syllaba anceps sometimes occur in the diaeresis. The scheme is:—
| ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ # ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⌅ |
| – –́ | – –̇ | – –́ | – –̇ # – –́ | – –̇ | – –́ | |
| – ⏑́ ⏑ | – ⏑̇ ⏑ | – ⏑́ ⏑ | – ⏑̇ ⏑ # – ⏑́ ⏑ | – ⏑̇ ⏑ | – ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | [⏑ ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑] # ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ |
Examples are:—
Em nḗ|m(ō) habet hō|r(um)? occī́|distī. # dīc ígi|tur quis ha|bet né|scīs (Pl. Aul. 720).
Hunc hómi|nem decet | aur(ō) éx|pend(ī): huic # decĕt státu|am statu(ī) | ex aú|rō (Pl. B. 640).
The Anapaestic Dimeter Acatalectic (or Quaternarius).
2687. This verse consists of two anapaestic dipodies, or four complete anapaestic feet. There is generally a diaeresis after the second foot, and the fourth thesis is not resolved. The scheme is:—
| ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ # ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ |
| – –́ | – –̇ # – –́ | – –̇ |
| – ⏑́ ⏑ | – ⏑̇ ⏑ # – ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ # ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ |
Examples are:—
Quod lúbet | nōn lubet # iam cón|tinuō.
Ita m(ē) Ámor| lass(um) ani|mī lū́|dificat
fugat, ágit | appetĭt # raptát | retinet (Pl. Cist. 214).
This verse is often used to form systems, which frequently end in a paroemiac (see 2688).
The Anapaestic Dimeter Catalectic (or Paroemiac).
2688. This verse consists of two anapaestic dipodies or four anapaestic feet, the last foot being incomplete. The third thesis is sometimes resolved. There is no fixed caesura. The scheme is:—
| ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏑ –́ | ⏑ ⌅ |
| – –́ | – –̇ | – –́ | |
| – ⏑́ ⏑ | – ⏑̇ ⏑ | – ⏑́ ⏑ | |
| ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ |
Examples are:—
Volucér | pede cor|pore púl|cher (Ausonius).
Nimĭs tán|d(em) eg(o) ăbs tē | conté|mnor.
Quipp(e) égo | tē nī| conté|mnam,
stratiṓ|ticus homo| quī clúe|ar? (Pl. Ps. 916).
2689. (1.) The Paroemiac is generally used to close a system of acatalectic anapaestic dimeters; but sometimes several paroemiacs in succession form a system (as in the second example above), especially in Ausonius, Prudentius, and other late poets.
2690. (2.) Other anapaestic verses sometimes occur, especially in the early comedy, but they are rare.
Cretic Rhythms.
2691. These are rhythms of the Hemiolic class (2527), in 5/8 time. The fundamental foot is the Cretic (–́ ⏑ –̇).
Either (but not both) of the two longs of a Cretic is sometimes resolved (giving the First Paeon –́ ⏑ ⏑̇ ⏑ or the Fourth Paeon ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ –̇); but there is rarely more than one resolution in a single verse. The middle short is sometimes replaced by an irrational long (giving –́ > –̇, or if there is resolution, ⏑́ ⏑ > –̇ or –́ > ⏑̇ ⏑); but this never occurs in the last foot of a verse, and but rarely when the middle syllable is the penult of a spondaic word (e.g. nṓs nostrās).
2692. (1.) The ictus on the first long of the Cretic was probably (at least in most cases) stronger than that on the second. The first long and the short form the thesis, the second long the arsis, –́ ⏑ | –̇
2693. (2.) The impetuous, swinging movement of the Cretic rhythm fits it for the expression of passionate emotion.
The Cretic Tetrameter Acatalectic.
2694. This verse consists of four complete Cretic feet. There is usually a diaeresis after the second foot, but sometimes there is instead a caesura after the first long of the third foot. Resolution is not admitted before the diaeresis or the end of the line. The irrational long middle syllable is admitted in the first and third feet. The scheme is:—
[stress over long over double breve] ⏑͐ [dot over long over double breve] | [stress over long over double breve] ⏑ –̇ # [stress over long over double breve] ⏑͐ [dot over long over double breve] | [stress over long over double breve] ⏑ –̇
Examples are:—
Út malīs | gaúdeant # átqu(e) ex in|cómmodīs (T. Andr. 627).
Dé͡ind(e) uter|qu(e) ímperā|tṓr ‖ in medi|(um) éxeunt (Pl. Am. 223).
2695. This verse is common in the cantica of the early drama, and is often repeated to form systems. Hiatus and syllaba anceps sometimes occur in the diaeresis.
The Cretic Tetrameter Catalectic.
2696. This is similar to the preceding, except that the last foot is incomplete. The scheme is:—
[stress over long over double breve] ⏑͐ [dot over long over double breve] | [stress over long over double breve] ⏑ –̇ # [stress over long over double breve] ⏑͐ [dot over long over double breve] | [stress over long over double breve] ⏑ ⌅
Examples are:—
Sī́ cadēs,| nṓn cadēs # quī́n cadam| tḗcum (Pl. Most. 329).
Nṓv(ī) eg(o) hoc| saéculum # mṓribus| quíbŭs sit (Pl. Tri. 283).
Other Cretic Verses.
2697. The Cretic trimeter acatalectic sometimes occurs, though rarely: e.g.
Iám revor|tár. diūst| i(am) íd mihī (Pl. Most. 338).
More frequent is the dimeter acatalectic, which has the scheme:—
[stress over long over double breve] ⏑͐ [dot over long over double breve] | [stress over long over double breve] ⏑ –̇
This is often compounded with a trochaic tripody catalectic: e.g.
Hóc ub(ī̆) Am|phítru(ō) erus # cṓnspi|cā́tus | ést (Pl. Am. 242),
and sometimes with a trochaic tripody acatalectic (e.g. Pl. Ps. 1248), a trochaic dipody acatalectic (e.g. Pl. Cap. 214), or a Thymelicus – ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ – (e.g. Pl. Am. 245). For other kinds of Cretic verses, see special editions of the early dramatists.
Bacchīac Rhythms.
2698. These are rhythms of the Hemiolic class (2527), in 5/8 time. The fundamental foot is the Bacchīus (⏑ –́ –̇). Either (or both) of the two longs of a bacchīus is sometimes resolved. For the initial short syllable an irrational long is sometimes substituted. Occasionally two shorts are so substituted, especially in the first foot of a verse.
2699. (1.) The ictus on the first long of the bacchīus was probably stronger than that on the second long.
2700. (2.) The bacchiac rhythm, like the Cretic, has an impetuous and passionate character.
The Bacchiac Tetrameter Acatalectic.
2701. This verse consists of four complete bacchiac feet. There is generally a caesura after the first long of the second or third foot, or (more rarely) a diaeresis after the second foot. An irrational long (or two shorts) may be substituted for the initial short only in the first and third feet. Resolution is not allowed before the caesura or the end of the verse. The scheme is:—
[bracketed anceps over breve over double breve] [stress over long over double breve] [dot over long over double breve] | ⏑ –́ ‖ [dot over long over double breve] | [bracketed anceps over breve over double breve] [stress over long over double breve] [dot over long over double breve] | ⏑ [stress over long over double breve] –̇
Examples are:—
Habénd(um) et | ferúnd(um) hoc # onúst cum | labṓre (Pl. Am. 175).
At támen ubi | fidḗs? ‖ sī | rogḗs nīl | pudént hīc (T. Andr. 637).
Vetulaé sunt | min(ae) ámb(ae). At # bonā́s fu͡is|se crḗdō (Pl. B. 1129).
2702. (1.) There are seldom more than two resolutions in the same verse, and never more than three. Bacchiac tetrameters are often repeated to form systems.
2703. (2.) According to some authorities, bacchiac tetrameters catalectic sometimes occur, e.g. Pl. Cas. 656, 867, Men. 969, 971, Most. 313, Poen. 244.
Other Bacchiac Verses.
2704. (1.) Bacchiac dimeters are occasionally found, especially as clausulae to bacchiac systems. An example is:—
Ad aétā|t(em) agúndam (Pl. Tri. 232).
An acatalectic dimeter is not seldom compounded with a catalectic iambic tripody: e.g.
Rerī́n tēr | in ánnō # t(ū) hās tṓn|sitā́|rī́? (Pl. B. 1127).
2705. (2.) Bacchiac hexameters occur in a few instances, as:—
Satī́n par|va rḗs est | volúptā|t(um) in vī́t(ā) at|qu(e) in aétā|t(e) agúndā (Pl. Am. 633).
2706. (3.) Hypermetrical combination of bacchii into a system appears to occur in Varro, Sat. Men. fr. 405 Buech.
Choriambic Rhythms.
2707. In these, the fundamental foot is the choriambus (–́ ⏑ ⏑ –̇). True choriambic verse is very rare in Latin poetry, though apparent choriambi of the form –́ ⏖ | – or –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ are common in logaoedic verse (2652).
Apparently, however, in Terence, Ad. 611-13,
Út neque quid | mḗ faciam | néc quid agam # certúm | sit.
mémbra metū | dḗbilia | súnt, animus # timṓ|re
óbstipuit, | péctore cōn|sístere nīl # cōnsi|lī́ quit,
there are three choriambic trimeters, the first two with iambic close, the third with trochaic. In the second line there is syllaba anceps at the end of the second choriambus. In Plautus, Casina 629, Menaechmi 110, and perhaps Asinaria 133, we have a choriambic dimeter + an acatalectic trochaic dipody.
Owing to the frequent occurrence of the apparent choriambus in certain kinds of logaoedic verse, the metricians of Horace’s day regarded them as really choriambic. Hence the rule mentioned in 2652, a rule unknown to Greek writers of logaoedic verse.
Ionic Rhythms.
2708. In these, the fundamental foot is the Ionic, of which there are two forms, the Ionic ā māiōre –́ –̇ ⏑ ⏑, so called because it begins with the greater part (i.e. the thesis) of the foot, and the Ionic ā minōre ⏑ ⏑ –́ –̇, which receives its name from the fact that it begins with the less important part of the foot (i.e. the arsis).
2709. (1.) Ionics ā minōre are often treated as Ionics ā māiōre with anacrusis, ⏖ | –́ –̇ ⏖, &c. See 2529 ad fin.
2710. (2.) Ionic verse shows numerous resolutions and irrational longs, especially in early Latin. The accumulation of short syllables imparts to the verse a wild and passionate character.
2711. (3.) Anaclăsis (Gr. ανακλασις, “a bending back”) is an exchange of place between a short syllable and the preceding long (e.g. –́ ⏑ –̇ ⏑ for –́ –̇ ⏑ ⏑ or ⏑ ⏑ –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ –́ –̇ for ⏑ ⏑ –́ –̇ | ⏑ ⏑ –́ –̇), and is very frequent in Ionic verse.
The Ionic ā māiōre Tetrameter Catalectic (or Sotadean).
2712. This verse consists of four Ionic ā māiōre feet, the last foot being incomplete. In the early Latin poets, beginning with Ennius, the Sotadean is treated with much freedom: resolution, contraction (2518), anaclasis (2711), and irrational longs are freely admitted. Examples are:—
Nám quam varia | sínt genera po|ḗmatōrum, | Baébī,
quámque longē | dístinct(a) ali|(a) áb aliīs sīs, | nṓsce (Accius, Didasc. p. 305 M.).
| –́ – ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ – > | –́ – ⌅ |
| –́ ⏑ – > | –́ – ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ – > | –́ – ⌅ |
Compare in Greek:—
σείων μελί|ην Πηλίαδα | δεξιὸν κατ’ | ὦμον (Sotades).
2713. Later poets (Petronius, Martial, Terentianus Maurus) are more strict in their usage, admitting (with very few exceptions) only the forms ⏑́ ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑, –́ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑, –́ ⏑ – ⏑ besides the normal –́ – ⏑ ⏑. Hence their scheme is:—
| –́ – ⏑ ⏑ | –́ – ⏑ ⏑ | –́ – ⏑ ⏑ | –́ – ⌅ |
| ⏑́ ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑́ ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑́ ⏑ – ⏑ ⏑ | |
| –́ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ | |
| –́ ⏑ – ⏑ | –́ ⏑ – ⏑ | –́ ⏑ – ⏑ |
Examples are:—
Móllēs, vete | rḗs Dēlia|cī́ manū re|cī́sī
péde tendite, | cúrs(um) addite, | cónvolāte | plántā (Petron. 23).
Laevius and Varro employ Ionic ā māiōre systems of considerable length.
The Ionic ā minōre Tetrameter Catalectic (or Galliambic.)
2714. This consists of four Ionic ā minōre feet, the last one incomplete. Anaclasis, resolution, and contraction are extremely common, and the multiplication of short syllables gives the verse a peculiarly wild and frenzied movement. Catullus very rarely admits Ionics that are not anaclastic (never in the first half of the verse, except the doubtful cases 63, 18; 54; 75); but Varro is less strict in this regard. The penultimate long is nearly always resolved. There is rarely more than one resolution in the same half-verse. A diaeresis regularly occurs after the second foot. The scheme is:—
⏕ [stress over first double breve over long] ⏓ [breve over bracketed long] | [breve over bracketed long] ⏑ [stress over breve over bracketed double breve] – # ⏕ [stress over first double breve over long] ⏓ [breve over bracketed long] | [stress over breve over bracketed double breve] ⏑ ⏓́ ⌅
Examples are:—
Ades, ínquit, | Ō Cybḗbē, ‖ fera mónti|um deá (Maecenas).
⏑ ⏑ –́ ⏑ | – ⏑ –́ – # ⏑ ⏑ – ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏓́ ⌅
Super álta | vectus Áttis ‖ celerī́ ra|te mariá (Catullus 63, 1).
⏑ ⏑ –́ ⏑ | – ⏑ –́ – # ⏑ ⏑ –́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏓́ ⌅
Quō nṓs de|cet citā́tīs # celerā́re | tripudiī́s (Id. 63, 26).
– –́ ⏑ | – ⏑ –́ – # ⏑ ⏑ –́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ –́ ⌅
Ego iúvenis, | eg(o) adulḗscēns # eg(o) ephḗbus,| ego puér (Id. 63, 63).
⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ –́ – # ⏑ ⏑ –́ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏓́ ⌅
Tibi týpana | nōn inā́nī ‖ sonitū́ mā|tri’ deúm (Varro, Sat. Men. 132 Buech.).
⏑ ⏑ ⏑́ ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ –́ – # ⏑ ⏑ –́ – | ⏑ ⏑ ⏓́ ⌅
2715. It has been suggested that Catullus probably felt the rhythm not as Ionic, but as trochaic or logaoedic:—
[double breve over anceps] | [stress over long over double breve] ⏑ | [dot over long over double breve] ⏑ | ⏗́ | –̇ # [double breve over anceps] | [stress over first double breve over long] ⏑ | [stress over first double breve over long] ⏑ | –́ ⌃,
or the like.
This view has much in its favour; but the true nature of the rhythm is still matter of dispute.
2716. Compare the Greek:—
Γαλλαὶ μη|τρὸς ὀρείης| φιλόθυρσοι| δρομάδες
and in English:—
“Perished many a maid and matron, many a valorous legionary,
Fell the colony, city and citadel, London, Verulam, Camuloduné.” (Tennyson).
2717. Horace (3, 12) employs a system of ten pure Ionics ā minōre, e.g.:—
Miserā́rum (e)st | nequ(e) amṓrī | dare lū́dum | neque dúlcī
mala vīnō | laver(e) aút ex animā́rī
metuéntīs | patruaé ver|bera línguae.
There is generally a diaeresis after each foot.
Lyric Metres of Horace.
2718. The following is a list of the Horatian lyric metres:—
2719. (1.) The Iambic Trimeter (see 2592 ff.). Epode 17.
2720. (II.) The Iambic Strophe, an iambic trimeter (2592) followed by an iambic dimeter acatalectic (2617):—
⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇
⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ Epodes 1-10.
So in Archilochus, e.g.:—
Ὦ Ζεῦ πάτερ, Ζεῦ, σὸν μὲν οὐρανοῦ κράτος,
σὺ δ’ ἔργ’ ἐπ’ ἀνθρώπων ὁρᾷς. (Fr. 88, Bergk).
2721. (III.) The Hipponactean or Trochaic Strophe, a trochaic dimeter catalectic (2644) followed by an iambic trimeter catalectic (2601):—
–́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃
⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏗́ –̇ C. 2, 18.
2722. (IV.) The First Pythiambic Strophe, a dactylic hexameter (2556) followed by an iambic dimeter acatalectic (2617):—
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ‖ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ –
⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ Epodes 14 and 15.
So in Archilochus, e.g.:—
ἄψυχος, χαλεπῇσι θεῶν ὀδυνῇσιν ἕκητι
πεπαρμένος δι’ ὀστέων. (Fr. 84, Bergk).
2723. (V.) The Second Pythiambic Strophe, a dactylic hexameter (2556) followed by a pure iambic trimeter (2594):—
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ‖ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ [breve over bracketed long] | –́ –
⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ –́ | ⏑ –̇ Epode 16.
So the Greek epigrammatists, e.g.:—
Οἶνός τοι χαρίεντι πέλει ταχὺς ἵππος ἀοιδῷ;
ὕδωρ δὲ πίνων οὐδὲν ἂν τέκοι σοφόν. (Nicaenetus).
2724. (VI.) The Alcmanian Strophe, a dactylic hexameter (2556) followed by a dactylic tetrameter catalectic (2578):—
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́‖ ⏔ | –́ ⏔[breve over bracketed long] | –́ –
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔[breve over bracketed long] | –́ ⏑⌃ C. 1, 7, 28; Epode 12.
2725. (VII.) The First Archilochian Strophe, a dactylic hexameter (2556) followed by a Lesser Archilochian (2579):—
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ‖ ⏔ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ –
–́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⌅ C. 4, 7.
2726. (VIII.) The Second Archilochian Strophe, a dactylic hexameter (2556) followed by an iambelegus (2678):—
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –‖ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ –
⏑͐⁞–́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃ # –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⌅ Epode 13.
2727. (IX.) The Third Archilochian Strophe, an iambic trimeter (2592) followed by an elegiambus (2680):—
⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇
–́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ | –́ ⌅ # ⏑͐ ⁞ –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⏑͐ | –́ ⏑ | –̇ ⌃ Epode 11.
Compare Archilochus fr. 85, Bergk (elegiambus; the trimeter is lost):—
ἀλλά μ’ ὁ λυσιμελής, ὦ ’ταῖρε, δάμναται πόθος.
2728. (X.) The Fourth Archilochian Strophe, a Greater Archilochian (2677) followed by an iambic trimeter catalectic (2601):—
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ‖ ⏔ | –́ ⏑ ⏑ # –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑
⏑͐ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑͐ ‖ –́ | ⏑ –̇ | ⏑ ⏗́ –̇ C. 1, 4.
So Archilochus, e.g.:—
τοῖος γὰρ φιλότητος ἔρως ὑπὸ καρδίην ελυσθεὶς
πολλὴν κατ’ ἀχλὺν ὀμμάτων ἔχευεν (Fr. 103, Bergk).
See, however, 2677 ad fin.
2729. (XI.) The Lesser Asclepiadean Metre, a series of Lesser Asclepiadeans (2669) employed stichically (2546):—
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃ C. 1, 1; 3, 30; 4, 8.
So Alcaeus, e.g.:—
ἦλθες ἐκ περάτων γᾶς ἐλεφαντίναν
λάβαν τῶ ξίφεος χρυσοδέταν ἔχων (Fr. 33, Bergk).
2730. (XII.) The Greater Asclepiadean Metre, a series of Greater Asclepiadeans (2670) employed stichically (2546):—
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –⌃ C. 1, 11, 18; 4, 10.
So Alcaeus, e.g.:—
μηδὲν ἄλλο φυτεύσῃς πρότερον δένδριον ἀμπέλω (Fr. 44, Bergk).
Many editors hold (with Meineke) that the Horatian odes were written in tetrastichs (2545), and hence that this metre and the preceding were employed by Horace in strophes of four lines each. Catullus (30) seems to use the Greater Asclepiadean by distichs, and so apparently Sappho (fr. 69, Bergk). But as to these points there is still much dispute.
2731. (XIII.) The First Asclepiadean Strophe, a Glyconic (2660) followed by a Lesser Asclepiadean (2669):—
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃ C. 1, 3, 13, 19, 36; 3, 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; 4, 1, 3.
Cf. Alcaeus:—
νῦν δ’ [αὖτ’] οὗτος ἐπικρέτει
κινήσαις τὸν ἀπ’ ἴρας πύματον λίθον. (Fr. 82, Bergk).
In one instance, C. 4, 1, 35, elision occurs at the end of the Glyconic.
2732. (XIV.) The Second Asclepiadean Strophe, three Lesser Asclepiadeans (2669) followed by a Glyconic (2660):—
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃ C. 1, 6, 15, 24, 33; 2, 12; 3, 10, 16; 4, 5, 12.
2733. (XV.) The Third Asclepiadean Strophe, two Lesser Asclepiadeans (2669), a Pherecratean (2659) and a Glyconic (2660):—
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃ C. 1, 5, 14, 21, 23; 3, 7, 13; 4, 13.
Compare Alcaeus (Pherecratean followed by Glyconic; apparently two Lesser Asclepiadeans preceded, but they are lost):—
λάταγες ποτέονται
κυλιχνᾶν ἄπο Τηΐαν. (Fr. 43, Bergk).
2734. (XVI.) The Greater Sapphic Strophe, an Aristophanic (2658) followed by a Greater Sapphic (2671):—
–́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑
–́ ⏑ | –́ > | –́ ‖ ⏖ | ⏗́ # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | ⏗́ | –́ ⌃C. 1, 8.
2735. (XVII). The Sapphic Strophe, three Lesser Sapphics (2666) and an Adonic (2655):—
–́ ⏑ | –́ > | –́ ‖ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑
–́ ⏑ | –́ > | –́ ‖ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑
–́ ⏑ | –́ > | –́ ‖ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑
–́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑
C. 1, 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; 2, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16; 3, 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27; 4, 2, 6, 11; Carmen Saeculare. Also in Catullus 11 and 51.
So Sappho:—
φαίνεταί μοι κῆνος ἴσος θέοισιν
ἔμμεν ὤνερ ὄστις ἐναντίος τοι
ἰζάνει καὶ πλασίον ἆδυ φωνεύ-
σας ὑπακούει (Fr. 2, Bergk).
Sappho apparently treated the third Sapphic and the Adonic as continuous; but Horace and Catullus allow syllaba anceps (and Horace in four cases, 1, 2, 47; 1, 12, 7, and 31; 1, 22, 15, hiatus) at the end of the third line. On the other hand, both Catullus and Horace sometimes join the third line to the fourth (by dividing a word, Hor. 1, 2, 19; 25, 11; 2, 16, 7; Cat. 11, 11; by elision Hor. 4, 2, 23; Car. Saec. 47; Cat. 11, 19), and in a few instances the second to the third (Hor, 2, 2, 18; 16, 34; 4, 2, 22; Cat. 11, 22, all by elision) by synapheia (see 2510). In Horace, the last foot of the third line is nearly always an irrational spondee.
2736. (XVIII.) The Alcaic Strophe, two Greater Alcaics (2667), a nine-syllabled Alcaic (2642) and a Lesser Alcaic (2663):—
⏑͐ ⁞ –́ ⏑ | –́ > # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
⏑͐ ⁞ –́ ⏑ | –́ > # –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
⏑͐ ⁞ –́ ⏑ | –́ > | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑
–́ ⏖ | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⏑
C. 1, 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37; 2, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20; 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; 4, 4, 9, 14, 15.
So Alcaeus:—
Ἀσυνέτημι τῶν ἀνέμων στάσιν·
τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἔνθεν κῦμα κυλίνδεται,
τὸ δ’ ἔνθεν· ἄμμες δ’ ἂν τὸ μέσσον
νᾶϊ φορήμεθα σὺν μελαίνᾳ. (Fr. 18, Bergk).
In the Greek poets the last two lines are sometimes joined by synapheia (2510), and Horace has elision at the end of the third verse in 2, 3, 27; 3, 29, 35. But he frequently admits hiatus in that place.
2737. (XIX.) The Ionic System, a system of ten pure Ionics ā minōre (see 2717):—
⏖ –́ – | ⏖ –́ – | ⏖ –́ – | ⏖ –́ –
⏖ –́ – | ⏖ – – | ⏖ –́ – | ⏖ –́ –
⏖ –́ – | ⏖ –́ –
C. 3, 12.
Lyric Strophes of Catullus.
2738. Catullus in 34 uses a strophe consisting of three Glyconics (2660) followed by a Pherecratean (2659):—
[–́ ⏑]
– > | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
[⏑́–]
[–́ ⏑]
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
[⏑́–]
[–́ ⏑]
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑ | –́ ⌃
[⏑́–]
[–́ ⏑]
–́ > | –́ ⏖ | –́ ⏑
[⏑́–]
In 61 he employs a strophe consisting of four Glyconics followed by a Pherecratean.
2739. Index of Horatian Odes and their Metres.
The Roman numerals in the table refer to the numbers assigned to the various strophes in 2719-2737.
| Book. | Ode. | Metre. |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1 | XI. |
| 2 | XVII. | |
| 3 | XIII. | |
| 4 | X. | |
| 5 | XV. | |
| 6 | XIV. | |
| 7 | VI. | |
| 8 | XVI. | |
| 9 | XVIII. | |
| 10 | XVII. | |
| 11 | XII. | |
| 12 | XVII. | |
| 13 | XIII. | |
| 14 | XV. | |
| 15 | XIV. | |
| 16 | XVIII. | |
| 17 | XVIII. | |
| 18 | XII. | |
| 19 | XIII. | |
| 20 | XVII. | |
| 21 | XV. | |
| 22 | XVII. | |
| 23 | XV. | |
| 24 | XIV. | |
| 25 | XVII. | |
| 26 | XVIII. | |
| 27 | XVIII. | |
| 28 | VI. | |
| 29 | XVIII. | |
| 30 | XVII. | |
| 31 | XVIII. | |
| 32 | XVII. | |
| 33 | XIV. | |
| 34 | XVIII. | |
| 35 | XVIII. | |
| 36 | XIII. | |
| 37 | XVIII. | |
| 38 | XVII. | |
| 2 | 1 | XVIII. |
| 2 | XVII. | |
| 3 | XVIII. | |
| 4 | XVII. | |
| 5 | XVIII. | |
| 6 | XVII. | |
| 7 | XVIII. | |
| 8 | XVII. | |
| 9 | XVIII. | |
| 10 | XVII. | |
| 11 | XVIII. | |
| 12 | XIV. | |
| 13 | XVIII. | |
| 14 | XVIII. | |
| 15 | XVIII. | |
| 16 | XVII. | |
| 17 | XVIII. | |
| 18 | III. | |
| 19 | XVIII. | |
| 20 | XVIII. |
| Book. | Ode. | Metre. |
|---|---|---|
| 3 | 1-6 | XVIII. |
| 7 | XV. | |
| 8 | XVII. | |
| 9 | XIII. | |
| 10 | XIV. | |
| 11 | XVII. | |
| 12 | XIX. | |
| 13 | XV. | |
| 14 | XVII. | |
| 15 | XIII. | |
| 16 | XIV. | |
| 17 | XVIII. | |
| 18 | XVII. | |
| 19 | XIII. | |
| 20 | XVII. | |
| 21 | XVIII. | |
| 22 | XVII. | |
| 23 | XVIII. | |
| 24 | XIII. | |
| 25 | XIII. | |
| 26 | XVIII. | |
| 27 | XVII. | |
| 28 | XIII. | |
| 29 | XVIII. | |
| 30 | XI. | |
| 4 | 1 | XIII. |
| 2 | XVII. | |
| 3 | XIII. | |
| 4 | XVIII. | |
| 5 | XIV. | |
| 6 | XVII. | |
| 7 | VII. | |
| 8 | XI. | |
| 9 | XVIII. | |
| 10 | XII. | |
| 11 | XVII. | |
| 12 | XIV. | |
| 13 | XV. | |
| 14 | XVIII. | |
| 15 | XVIII. | |
| Carmen Saeculare | XVII. | |
| Epodes | 1-10 | II. |
| 11 | IX. | |
| 12 | VI. | |
| 13 | VIII. | |
| 14 | IV. | |
| 15 | IV. | |
| 16 | V. | |
| 17 | I. |
Abbreviations used in Citing the Authors.
2740. In Part First, in which authors are occasionally cited, but without direct reference to their works, the usual abbreviations are employed: as Plaut., Ter., Cic., Verg., Hor., &c., &c.
2741. In Part Second, the principles adopted are as follows:
2742. (1.) A reference consisting of figures alone (as, 2, 2, 3), denotes book, chapter, and section of Caesar de Bello Gallico.
2743. (2.) A reference to a work (in italics), without a preceding abbreviation for the author’s name (as, TD. 1, 2; Mil. 3), denotes the book and section, or the section only, of a work by Cicero. The abbreviations used to denote his works are given in the list below (2745).
2744. (3.) A reference made to Vergil (V.), followed by figures alone, is a reference to the Aeneid: as, V. 1, 20. Similarly, H. stands alone for the Odes of Horace; O. alone for the Metamorphoses of Ovid; and Ta. alone for the Annals of Tacitus.
2745. (4.) Roman letters are used in the abbreviations of the names of authors, italics in the abbreviations of the names of their works, as in the following List:—
List of Abbreviations.
| Abbreviations. | Authors and Works. |
|---|---|
| Caes. | Caesar. |
| C. | dē Bellō Cīvīlī. |
| See 2742. | dē Bellō Gallicō. |
| Cat. | Catullus. |
| See 2743. | Cicero. |
| Ac. | Acadēmica. |
| ad Br. | ad Brūtum Epistulae. |
| Agr. | dē lēge Agrāriā. |
| Arch. | prō Archiā. |
| Att. | ad Atticum Epistulae. |
| Balb. | prō Balbō. |
| Br. | Brūtus. |
| C. | in Catilīnam. |
| Caec. | prō Caecīnā. |
| Caecil. | Dīvinātiō in Caecilium. |
| Cael. | prō Caeliō. |
| CM. | Catō Maior. |
| Clu. | prō Cluentiō. |
| D. | prō Dēiotarō. |
| Div. | dē Dīvinātiōne. |
| DN. | dē Deōrum Nātūrā. |
| DO. | dē Ōrātōre. |
| Fam. | ad Familiārēs Epistulae. |
| Fat. | dē Fātō. |
| Fin. | dē Fīnibus. |
| Fl. or Flacc. | prō Flaccō. |
| HR. | dē Haruspicum Respōnsīs. |
| IP. | dē Imperiō Pompēī. |
| Inv. | dē Inventiōne. |
| L. | Laelius. |
| LAgr. | dē lēge Agrāriā. |
| Leg. | dē Lēgibus. |
| Lig. | prō Ligāriō. |
| Marc. | prō Marcellō. |
| Mil. | prō Milōne. |
| Mur. | prō Mūrēnā. |
| O. | Ōrātor. |
| Off. | dē Officiīs. |
| OG. | dē Optimō Genere Ōrātōrum. |
| OP. | dē Ōrātōriā Partītiōne. |
| Par. | Paradoxa. |
| PC. | dē Prōvinciīs Cōnsulāribus. |
| Ph. | Philippicae. |
| Pis. | in Pīsōnem. |
| Pl. or Planc. | prō Planciō. |
| Q. or Quint. | prō Quīntiō. |
| QFr. | ad Quīntum Frātrem Epistulae. |
| RA. | prō Rōsciō Amerīnō. |
| RC. | prō Rōsciō Cōmoedō. |
| RP. | dē Rē Pūblicā. |
| Rab. | prō Rabīriō perduelliōnis reō. |
| RabP. | prō Rabīriō Posthumō. |
| Scaur. | prō Scaurō. |
| Sest. | prō Sēstiō. |
| Sull. | prō Sūllā. |
| T. or Top. | Topica. |
| TD. | Tusculānae Disputātiōnēs. |
| Tim. | Timaeus. |
| Tul. | prō Tulliō. |
| V. a. pr. | in Verrem āctiō I. |
| V. | in Verrem āctiō II. |
| Corn., Cornif. | Cornificius. |
| E. | Ennius. |
| Fest. | Festus. |
| Gell. | Gellius. |
| H. | Horace. |
| AP. | Ars Poetica. |
| See 2744. | Carmina. |
| E. | Epistulae. |
| Epod. | Epōdoi. |
| S. | Sermōnēs. |
| J. | Juvenal. |
| L. | Livy. |
| Lucil. | Lucilius. |
| Lucr. | Lucretius. |
| Abbreviations. | Authors and Works. |
|---|---|
| Macrob. | Macrobius. |
| Sat. | Sāturnālia. |
| Mart. | Martial. |
| N. | Nepos. |
| O. | Ovid. |
| A. | Amōrēs. |
| AA. | Ars Amātōria. |
| F. | Fāstī. |
| See 2744. | Metamorphōsēs. |
| Tr. | Trīstia. |
| Pl. | Plautus. |
| Am. | Amphitruō. |
| As. | Asināria. |
| Aul. | Aululāria. |
| B. | Bacchidēs. |
| Cap. | Captīvī. |
| Cas. | Casina. |
| Cist. | Cistellāria. |
| Cu. or Cur. | Curculiō. |
| E. | Epidicus. |
| Men. | Menaechmī. |
| Mer. | Mercātor. |
| MG. | Mīles Glōriōsus. |
| Most. | Mostellāria. |
| Per. | Persa. |
| Poen. | Poenulus. |
| Ps. | Pseudolus. |
| R. | Rudēns. |
| St. | Stichus. |
| Tri. | Trinummus. |
| Tru. | Truculentus. |
| Vid. | Vīdulāria. |
| Plin. Ep. | Pliny’s Epistulae. |
| Plin. NH. | Pliny’s Nātūrālis Historiae. |
| Prop. | Propertius. |
| Publil. Syr. | Publilius Syrus. |
| Quint. or Quintil. | Quintilian. |
| S. | Sallust. |
| C. | Catilīna. |
| Fr. Lep. | Fragmenta Ōrātiōnis Lepidī. |
| Fr. Phil. | Fragmenta Ōrātiōnis Phillippī. |
| I. | Iugurtha. |
| Sen. | Seneca. |
| Ben. | dē Beneficiīs. |
| Ep. | Epistulae. |
| St. | Statius. |
| Th. | Thēbais. |
| Suet. | Suetonius. |
| Aug. | Augustus. |
| Cal. | Caligula. |
| Cl. | Claudius. |
| Galb. | Galba. |
| Iul. | Iūlius. |
| Tib. | Tiberius. |
| T. | Terence. |
| Ad. | Adelphoe. |
| Andr. | Andria. |
| Eu. | Eunūchus. |
| Hec. | Hecyra. |
| Hau. | Hauton Tīmōrūmenos. |
| Ph. | Phormiō. |
| Ta. | Tacitus. |
| See 2744. | Annālēs. |
| A. or Agr. | Agricola. |
| D. | Dialogus. |
| G. | Germānia. |
| H. | Historiae. |
| Tib. | Tibullus. |
| V. | Vergil. |
| See 2744. | Aenēis. |
| E. | Eclogae. |
| G. | Geōrgica. |