A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges

The Complex Sentence, or Subordination.

1714. In a complex sentence, that is one consisting of a main and a subordinate sentence, the subordinate member is introduced by some subordinating word: such are,

I. Interrogative words, in indirect questions; II. Relative pronouns; III. Relative conjunctive particles, or conjunctive particles not of relative origin.

1715. Subordinate sentences may have the value of a substantive, usually as subject or as object; of an attributive; or of an adverb or adverbial adjunct: as,

(a.) eādem nocte accidit ut esset lūna plēna, 4, 29, 1, it came to pass the same night that there was a full moon. videō quid agās, Fam. 16, 17, I see what you are driving at. (b.) fundus quī est in agrō, quī Sabīnus vocātur, eum meum esse aiō, Mur. 26, the estate which is in the territory which is called Sabine, that I maintain is mine, lawyers’ wordiness for fundus Sabīnus. (c.) cum advesperāsceret, ad pontem Mulvium pervēnērunt, C. 3, 5, when it was getting dark, they reached the Mulvius bridge, i.e. vesperī, or prīmō vespere.

1716. Subordinate sentences which express time or place, are called Temporal or Local sentences; comparison or manner, Comparative or Modal sentences; condition, cause, or concession, Conditional, Causal, or Concessive sentences; purpose, Final sentences; result, Consecutive sentences.

1717. In a main sentence, the indicative present, future, and future perfect, and the imperative, are called Primary Tenses; the indicative imperfect, historical perfect, and pluperfect, and the infinitive of intimation, are called Secondary Tenses. The perfect definite and the present of vivid narration are sometimes regarded as primary tenses, oftener as secondary tenses.

1718. Verbs which have an implication of futurity, such as those meaning can, ought, must, &c., with an infinitive, also subjunctives of wish (1540) or of exhortation (1547), may be called Virtual Futures.

1719. Sometimes the subjunctive serves as a main sentence: see 1762; sometimes a noun of the verb: see 1766.

Mood of the Subordinate Sentence.

1720. The indicative and the subjunctive are both used in subordinate sentences, as will be shown in the treatment of the several words of subordination. Some general uses may be mentioned collectively here.

The Indicative Mood.

1721. The indicative is ordinarily used in sentences introduced by a relative pronoun, or by a causal conjunctive word other than cum.

pontem, quī erat ad Genāvam, iubet rescindī, 1, 7, 2, he orders the bridge which was near Geneva torn up. concēdō, quia necesse est, RA. 145, I give up, because I have to. In sentences of this class, however, the subjunctive is often required, particularly in indirect discourse (1722), or in cases of attraction (1728).

The Subjunctive Mood.

The Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse and of Attraction.

1722. The subjunctive is used in relative, causal, temporal, and conditional sentences in indirect discourse, and in cases of attraction.

1723. A direct quotation or question gives the words of the original speaker without alteration. When the original words of a quotation or question are changed to conform to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted, it is called Indirect Discourse.

1724. In the complete form of indirect discourse, the subjunctive is subordinate to an infinitive or an accusative with the infinitive, dependent on a verb of saying or thinking (2175): as,

negat Epicūrus iūcundē posse vīvī, nisi cum virtūte vīvātur, TD. 3, 49, Epicurus avers there is no living happily, without living virtuously; directly, iūcundē vīvī nōn potest, nisi cum virtūte vīvitur. Sōcratēs dīcere solēbat, omnēs in eō quod scīrent, satis esse ēloquentēs, DO. 1, 63, Socrates used to maintain that all men were eloquent enough in a matter they knew; directly, omnēs in eō quod sciunt satis sunt ēloquentēs.

1725. The idea of saying or thinking is often not formally expressed in the main sentence, and the indirect discourse is intimated by the subordinate subjunctive only: as,

noctū ambulābat in pūblicō Themistoclēs, quod somnum capere nōn posset, TD. 4, 44, Themistocles used to walk the streets nights, ‘because he could not sleep,’ given as Themistocles’s reason; the writer’s would be poterat. Paetus omnēs librōs, quōs frāter suus relīquisset, mihī̆ dōnāvit, Att. 2, 1, 12, Paetus made me a present of all the books ‘that his brother had left.’ dum reliquae nāvēs eō convenīrent, in ancorīs expectāvit, 4, 23, 4, he waited at anchor till the rest of the vessels should gather there (2005). pervēnit priusquam Pompēius sentīre posset, Caes. C. 3, 67, 4, he got there before Pompey should be able to learn of his coming (1919). Xerxēs praemium prōposuit, quī invēnisset novam voluptātem, TD. 5, 20, Xerxes offered a reward to anybody who should devise a new form of entertainment (2110).

1726. A speaker or writer may quote his own thoughts in the indirect form, like another person’s: as, haec tibi dictābam post fānum putre Vacūnae, exceptō quod nōn simul essēs, cētera laetus, H. E. 1, 10, 49, I write thee this behind Vacuna’s mouldering pile, in all else well, except that thou’rt not here the while (1601).

1727. Instead of an intimation of indirect discourse by a mere subjunctive, a verb of thinking or saying is sometimes introduced by quī, or especially quod, sometimes by cum, and put illogically itself in the subjunctive: as, litterās, quās mē sibī̆ mīsisse dīceret, recitāvit, Ph. 2, 7, he read off a letter, which he said I sent him, i.e. quās mīsissem. impetrāre nōn potuī, quod religiōne sē impedīrī dīcerent, Sulpicius in Fam. 4, 12, 3, I could not get leave, because they said they were hampered by religious scruple, i.e. quod impedīrentur. cum dīceret, DN. 3, 83, saying as he did. This construction is common in Cicero, somewhat so in Caesar, rare in Sallust.

1728. The subjunctive is used in sentences expressing an essential part of the thought, which are subordinate to another subjunctive, or to an infinitive. This is called the Subjunctive of Attraction, or of Assimilation: as,

vereor nē, dum minuere velim labōrem, augeam, Leg. 1, 12, I am afraid I may make the work harder, while I am aiming to make it less. sī sōlōs eōs dīcerēs miserōs, quibus moriendum esset, nēminem eōrum, quī vīverent exciperēs, TD. 1, 9, if you should pronounce only such people unhappy as had to die, you would not except one of those who were living. mōs est Syrācūsīs, ut sī quā dē rē ad senātum referātur, dīcat sententiam quī velit, V. 4, 142, it is the custom at Syracuse, that if any question is discussed in the senate, anybody who pleases may express his opinion. sapiēns nōn dubitat, sī ita melius sit, migrāre dē vītā, Fin. 1, 62, the sage does not hesitate, if this be the better course, to withdraw from life. mōs est Athēnīs laudārī in cōntiōne eōs, quī sint in proeliīs interfectī, O. 151, it is the custom in Athens to eulogize in public assembly such as have fallen in action.

1729. The indicative is kept in subordinate statements added or vouched for by the person reporting, and also in circumlocutions equivalent to a substantive: as,

nūntiātum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontiōnem, quod est oppidum maximum Sēquanōrum, contendere, 1, 38, 1, it was reported that Ariovistus was pressing on to seize Vesontio, which is the most considerable town of the Sequans. prūdentissima cīvitās Athēniēnsium, dum ea rērum potīta est, fuisse trāditur, RA. 70, Athens is said to have been passing wise, as long as she held the hegemony. vīs, quae restant, mē loquī? T. Andr. 195, wilt have me tell the rest? i.e. relicua. fierī potest, ut id quod sentit polītē ēloquī nōn possit, TD. 1, 6, it may be that he cannot express his thought in polished style, i.e. sententiam suam.

The Subjunctive of Repeated Action.

1730. The subjunctive is sometimes used in relative, temporal, or conditional sentences, to express action repeated or occurring at no particular time: as,

(a.) neque aliter sī faciat, ūllam inter suōs habet auctōritātem, 6, 11, 4, and if he does not do this, he never has any ascendancy at all over his people. With the present and perfect, however, this subjunctive is confined principally to the indefinite second person singular (1030): as, bonus sēgnior fit, ubī̆ neglegās, S. I. 31, 28, the good man always gets slacker, when you are neglectful. sīquoi mūtuom quid dederīs, fit prō propriō perditum, Pl. Tri. 1050, if you’ve lent anything to any man, ’tis not your own, but lost. (b.) The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive begin with Catullus and Caesar, and get to be common with Livy and Tacitus: as, sī quis prehenderētur, cōnsēnsū mīlitum ēripiēbātur, Caes. C. 3, 110, 4, every time a man was taken up, he was rescued by the joint action of the rank and file. quemcumque līctor prēndisset, tribūnus mittī iubēbat, L. 3, 11, 2, every man the lictor arrested, a tribune would order released.

The Subjunctive as in the Simple Sentence.

1731. The subjunctive of wish, of action conceivable, or of interrogation, is sometimes used in a subordinate sentence exactly as in main sentences: as,

haec diē nātālī meō scrīpsī, quō utinam susceptus nōn essem, Att. 11, 9, 3, this I have written on my birthday, on which day I wish I had never been lifted from the ground (1544). ut videās, Lucr. 3, 348, so that you can see (1556). neque id faciō, ut forsitan quibusdam videar, simulātiōne, Fam. 1, 8, 2, nor do I do it, as perhaps I may seem to some to do, from hypocrisy (1556). etiamst paucīs vōs quod monitōs voluerim, Pl. Cap. 53, there’s one point more, on which I’d have you briefly warned (1558). erant eiusmodī sitūs oppidōrum, ut neque pedibus aditum habērent neque nāvibus, quod minuente aestū nāvēs in vadīs adflīctārentur, 3, 12, 1, the towns were so situated that there was no access to them by land, nor by boat either, because at ebb tide vessels would pound on the shoals (1559). vix erat hoc imperātum, cum illum spoliātum vidērēs, V. 4, 86, hardly was the order from his lips, when you might have seen the man stript (1559). quō mē vertam nesciō, Clu. 4, I don’t know which way to turn (1563).

Tense of the Subordinate Sentence.

The Tenses of the Indicative.

1732. I. The tense of a subordinate indicative often indicates a close relation of time with the tense of the leading verb, particularly in cases of repeated contemporaneous or antecedent action. The subordinate sentence in such combinations is said to have Relative time.

1733. (1.) The subordinate indicative tense may express action concurrent with the main action. Two concurrent sentences are usually put in the same tense.

Concurrent action is said to be (a.) congruent, when two actions merely cover the same time: as, dum legō, adsentior, TD. 1, 24, as long as I am reading, I assent. dum necesse erat, ūnus omnia poterat, RA. 139, so long as it had to be, one man controlled the world. dum Latīnae loquentur litterae, quercus huic locō nōn deerit, Leg. 1, 2, as long as Latin literature has the gift of speech, this spot will not lack its oak. vīxit, dum vīxit, bene, T. Hec. 461, he lived well all the time he lived. quoad potuit, fortissimē restitit, 4, 12, 5, as long as he could, he made a manful stand. Or (b.) coincident, when one action is virtually the same as the other: as, cum tacent, clāmant, C. 1, 21, while they are dumb, they cry out, i.e. their silence is as telling as a shout. fēcistī mihī̆ pergrātum, quod Serāpiōnis librum mīsistī, Att. 2, 4, 1, you have obliged me very much by sending Serapio’s book.

1734. (2.) The subordinate indicative tense may express action contemporaneous, antecedent, or subsequent, in relation to the main action.

1735. (a.) Action contemporaneous with a main present is expressed by a present, with a main future or virtual future, by a future, with a main secondary tense by an imperfect: as,

quod est, eō decet ūtī, CM. 27, what you have, that you should avail yourself of. hōrologium mittam, sī erit sūdum, Fam. 16, 18, 3, I will send the clock, if it is pleasant (1625). paulātim dabis, sī sapiēs, T. Hau. 870, you’ll give in driblets, if you are wise. cum relaxāre animōs volent, caveant intemperantiam, Off. 1, 122, when they want to unbend, let them beware of excess (1625; 1718). omnia deerant, quae ad reficiendās nāvēs erant ūsuī, 4, 29, 4, they were out of everything that was serviceable for repairing their vessels.

1736. (b.) Action antecedent to a main present is expressed by a perfect, to a main future or virtual future by a future perfect, to a main secondary tense by a pluperfect: as,

quōcumque aspexistī tuae tibī̆ occurrunt iniūriae, Par. 18, wherever you turn your gaze, you are confronted by your own abominable acts. cum posuī librum, adsēnsiō omnis ēlābitur, TD. 1, 24, when I drop the book, all assent melts away (1860). quicquid fēceris, adprobābō, Fam. 3, 3, 2, no matter what you do, I shall think it well (1626). ut quisque istīus animum offenderat, in lautumiās statim coniciēbātur, V. 5, 143, any man that wounded his sensibilities was always flung into the quarries without any ado.

1737. (c.) Action subsequent to a main present is expressed by the future participle with a present form of sum, to a main future or virtual future by the future participle with a future form of sum, and to a main secondary tense by the future participle with an imperfect form of sum: as,

decem diēs sunt ante lūdōs, quōs Cn. Pompēius factūrus est, V. a. pr. 31, there are ten days before the shows which Pompey is to manage. attentōs faciēmus, sī dēmōnstrābimus ea, quae dictūrī erimus, magna esse, Inv. 1, 23, we shall make people attentive if we show that what we are going to say is important. rēx, quia nōn interfutūrus nāvālī certāminī erat, Magnēsiam concessit, L. 36, 43, 9, as the king was not to have a hand in the action at sea, he moved off to Magnesia.

1738. II. A subordinate indicative tense is said to be Independent when it simply expresses time of its own, without any close relation to the time of the main action.

Such independent tenses may denote general present action: as, ībam forte viā sacrā, sīcut meus est mōs, H. S. 1, 9, 1, in Sacred Street, as is my wont, I happened to be promenading (relatively, erat mōs, 1735). nōn mē appellābis, sī sapis, Pl. Most. 515, you won’t address me, if you have sense (relatively, sī sapiēs, 1735). Or past action, either continuous, completed, or indefinite: as, ut mōs fuit Bī̆thȳniae rēgibus, lectīcā ferēbātur, V. 5, 27, he regularly rode in a litter, as was the practice of the despots of Bithynia; here fuit denotes action simply as past, without further definition of time (1603), whereas erat, relative to the time of ferēbātur, would imply which was then the practice (1595).

1739. With dum, in the time while, an independent present is used: see 1995. With postquam, &c., after, an independent perfect is used of a single action; see 1925.

The Tenses of the Subjunctive.

1740. Subordinate subjunctive sentences were originally independent coordinate sentences, in the tense required to express the thought. By degrees the subordinate sentence blended closely with the main sentence, and the combination of the two was regarded as one whole.

1741. I. The time of the subordinate subjunctive is usually Relative, that is either contemporaneous, antecedent, or subsequent, in relation to that of the main action.

1742. Action contemporaneous with the main action is expressed by a present or imperfect subjunctive. Action antecedent is expressed by a perfect or a pluperfect subjunctive. Action subsequent is expressed by the future participle with a form of sim or of essem.

1743. Subordinate sentences with verbs of will or aim, with verbs of fear, also final sentences and many consecutive sentences are expressed in Latin as contemporaneous with the main action, not as subsequent to it.

1744. II. The main and subordinate sentences may express wholly different spheres of time by tenses not commonly used together, when the thought requires it. In such cases the tense of the subordinate member is called Independent, like the analogous tenses of the indicative (1738).

1745. The use of subordinate subjunctive tenses relatively to the main tense, or what is commonly called the Sequence of Tenses, is as follows:

Tense subordinate to an Indicative.

1746. (1.) The present, or perfect subjunctive, or the future participle with a form of sim, is used in sentences subordinate to a primary tense (1717): as,

(a.) tē hortor, ut Rōmam pergās, QFr. 1, 3, 4, I urge you to repair to Rome. cūrā, ut quam prīmum veniās, Fam. 4, 10, 1, mind that you come as soon as you can. ego quid accēperim sciō, RA. 58, I know what I have received. quam sum sollicitus quidnam futūrum sit, Att. 8, 6, 3, how anxious I am to know what in the world is to come. (b.) in eum locum rēs dēducta est ut salvī esse nequeāmus, Fam. 16, 12, 1, to such a pass has it come that we cannot be saved. an oblītus es quid initiō dīxerim? DN. 2, 2, have you possibly forgotten what I said at the start? quoniam in eam ratiōnem vītae nōs fortūna dēdūxit, ut sempiternus sermō dē nōbīs futūrus sit, caveāmus, QFr. 1, 1, 38, since fortune has set us in such a walk of life that we are to be eternally talked about, let us be on our guard. (c.) efficiam, ut intellegātis, Clu. 7, I will see that you understand. dīcent quid statuerint, V. 2, 175, they will tell what they decided on. quae fuerit causa, mox vīderō, Fin. 1, 35, what the reason was I won’t consider till by and by (1630). tē disertum putābō, sī ostenderis quō modō sīs eōs inter sīcāriōs dēfēnsūrus, Ph. 2, 8, I shall think you a most effective speaker, if you show how you are going to defend them on the charge of murder.

1747. (2.) The imperfect, or pluperfect subjunctive, or the future participle with a form of essem, is used in sentences subordinate to a secondary tense (1717): as,

(a.) hīs rēbus fīēbat, ut minus lātē vagārentur, 1, 2, 4, so it came to pass that they did not roam round much. docēbat, ut tōtīus Galliae prīncipātum Aeduī tenuissent, 1, 43, 6, he showed how the Aeduans had had the mastery over all Gaul. Flaccus quid aliī posteā factūrī essent scīre nōn poterat, Fl. 33, Flaccus could not tell what other people would do in the future. (b.) is cīvitātī persuāsit, ut dē fīnibus suīs cum omnibus cōpiīs exīrent, 1, 2, 1, this man prevailed on his community to emigrate from their place of abode, bag and baggage. quās rēs in Hispāniā gessisset, disseruit, L. 28, 38, 2, he discoursed on his military career in Spain. an Lacedaemoniī quaesīvērunt num sē esset morī prohibitūrus? TD. 5, 42, did the Spartans ask whether he was going to prevent them from dying? (c.) Ariovistus tantōs sibī̆ spīritūs sūmpserat, ut ferendus nōn vidērētur, 1, 33, 5, Ariovistus had put on such high and mighty airs that he seemed intolerable. hīc pāgus, cum domō exīsset patrum nostrōrum memoriā, L. Cassium cōnsulem interfēcerat, 1, 12, 5, this canton, sallying out from home in our fathers’ recollection, had put Cassius, the consul, to death. illud quod mihī̆ extrēmum prōposueram, cum essem de bellī genere dictūrus, IP. 17, the point I had reserved till the end, when I was going to discourse on the character of the war.

1748. With any kind of a secondary main sentence, a subordinate general truth usually stands in the past, contrary to the English idiom: as,

hīc cōgnōscī licuit, quantum esset hominibus praesidī in animī firmitūdine, Caes. C. 3, 28, 4, here there was a chance to learn what a bulwark man has in courage. In the direct form est (1588).

1749. A subsequent relation is sometimes loosely suggested by a simple subjunctive; necessarily so with verbs which lack the future participle, or which are in the passive: as, sum sollicitus quidnam dē prōvinciīs dēcernātur, Fam. 2, 11, 1, I am anxious to see what in the world may be decided on about the provinces.

1750. In a single example, a future perfect of resulting state is represented in subordination as follows: nec dubitō quīn cōnfecta iam rēs futūra sit, Fam. 6, 12, 3, and I have no doubt the job will soon be completely finished up, directly, sine dubiō cōnfecta iam rēs erit.

1751. (1.) An imperfect subjunctive expressing a particular past result, cause, reason, &c., is sometimes connected with a main general present tense (1744): as,

cuius praeceptī tanta vīs est, ut ea Delphicō deō tribuerētur, Leg. 1, 58, the power of this rule is so mighty that it was ascribed to the Delphic god. cuius rē̆ī tanta est vīs, ut Ithacam illam sapientissimus vir immortālitātī antepōneret, DO. 1, 196, so irresistible is the power of this sentiment that the shrewdest of men loved his little Ithaca better than life eternal; of Ulixes. laudantur ōrātōrēs veterēs quod crīmina dīluere dīlūcidē solērent, V. 2, 191, the orators of old are admired ‘because they were always clear in explaining accusations away.’ The secondary sequence is also sometimes exceptionally used with ordinary presents.

1752. (2.) The present of vivid narration is commonly regarded as a secondary tense, especially when the subordinate sentence precedes, and regularly with narrative cum. Sometimes however as a primary tense: as,

(a.) servīs suīs Rubrius, ut iānuam clauderent, imperat, V. 1, 66, Rubrius orders his slaves to shut the front door. Aeduī, cum sē dēfendere nōn possent, lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittunt, 1, 11, 2, the Aeduans, finding they could not defend themselves, send some envoys to Caesar. (b.) hortātur, ut arma capiant, 7, 4, 4, he urges them to fly to arms. Sometimes the two sequences stand side by side, or a subjunctive of primary sequence has itself a second subordinate subjunctive of secondary sequence. Either sequence is used with the present of quotation also (1592).

1753. (3.) Subordinate sentences of past action conceivable, of action non-occurrent, or dubitative questions of the past, retain their past unchanged with a main primary tense: as,

(a.) vērī simile nōn est, ut ille monumentīs maiōrum pecūniam antepōneret, V. 4, 11, it is not conceivable that the man would have thought more of money than of his heirlooms, i.e. nōn antepōneret (1559). (b.) omnia sīc erunt inlūstria, ut ad ea probanda tōtam Siciliam testem adhibēre possem, V. 5, 139, everything will be so self-evident, that I could use all Sicily as a witness to prove it (1560). taceō, nē haec quidem conligō, quae fortasse valērent apud iūdicem, Lig. 30, I’ll hold my tongue, I won’t even gather together the following arguments, which might perhaps be telling with a juryman (1560). (c.) quaerō ā tē cūr C. Cornēlium nōn dēfenderem, Vat. 5, I put the question to you, why I was not to defend Cornelius (1563).

1754. A final subjunctive subordinate to a perfect definite sometimes has the primary sequence, but more commonly the secondary: as,

(a.) etiamne ad subsellia cum ferrō vēnistis, ut hīc iugulētis Sex. Rōscium? RA. 32, have you actually come to the court-room knife in hand, to cut Roscius’s throat on the spot? (b.) nē īgnōrārētis esse aliquās pācis vōbīs condiciōnēs, ad vōs vēnī, L. 21, 13, 2, I have come to you to let you know that you have some chances of peace. addūxī hominem in quō satis facere exterīs nātiōnibus possētis, V. a. pr. 2, I have brought up a man in whose person you can give satisfaction to foreign nations.

1755. An independent present or perfect subjunctive may be put with a main secondary tense (1744):

1756. (1.) In relative, causal, or concessive sentences: as,

cum in cēterīs colōniīs duūm virī appellentur, hī sē praetōrēs appellārī volēbant, Agr. 2, 93, though they are styled in all other colonies The Two, these men wanted to be styled praetors. quī adulēscēns nihil umquam nisi sevērissimē et gravissimē fēcerit, is eā aetāte saltāvit? D. 27, did the man who in his growing years invariably behaved with austere propriety, dance and caper round in his old age? hōc tōtō proeliō cum ab hōrā septimā ad vesperum pugnātum sit, āversum hostem vidēre nēmō potuit, 1, 26, 2, during the whole of this engagement, though the fighting went on from an hour past noon till evening, nobody could catch a glimpse of an enemy’s back.

1757. (2.) Often in consecutive sentences: as,

(a.) in prōvinciā Siciliā, quam iste per triennium ita vexāvit, ut ea restituī in antīquum statum nūllō modō possit, V. a. pr. 12, in the province of Sicily, which the defendant so effectually tormented three years running that it cannot be restored at all to its original estate. priōrēs ita rēgnārunt, ut omnēs conditōrēs partium certē urbis numerentur, L. 2, 1, 2, such was the administration of the monarchs preceding, that they are all accounted founders of parts at least of Rome. (b.) The perfect subjunctive sometimes represents the time of the perfect definite: as, tantum in aerārium pecūniae invēxit, ut ūnīus imperātōris praeda fīnem attulerit tribūtōrum, Off. 2, 76, he conveyed such quantities of money into the treasury, that the plunder turned in by a single commander has put an end to tribute for good and all. eō usque sē praebēbat patientem atque impigrum, ut eum nēmō umquam in equō sedentem vīderit, V. 5, 27, he showed himself so indefatigably active that no human being has ever seen him astride a horse. Sometimes the time of the historical perfect: as, temporis tanta fuit exiguitās, ut ad galeās induendās tempus dēfuerit, 2, 21, 5, so scant was the time that they had not time to put their helmets on. hīc ita quiēvit, ut eō tempore omnī Neāpolī fuerit, Sull. 17, this man held so quiet that he staid all that time at Neapolis. In Cicero a negative subordinate perfect is not uncommon; an affirmative one is very rare. This construction is more common in Nepos, Livy, and Tacitus, and is the prevalent one in Suetonius.

1758. The imperfect only is used in complementary sentences with past verbs of happening, such as accidit, contigit, &c. (1966).

1759. When two consecutive subjunctives are coordinated, they usually have the same tense. Sometimes however the first is perfect and the second imperfect, or the reverse.

1760. (3.) An indirect question in the present or perfect sometimes retains its original tense with a main secondary tense (1744): as,

hīc quantum in bellō fortūna possit, cōgnōscī potuit, 6, 35, 2, here there was a chance to see how potent dame Fortùne is in war. Here possit represents potest of a general truth (1588); but usually general truths have the regular sequence (1748). cūr abstinuerit spectāculō ipse, variē trahēbant, Ta. 1, 76, why the emperor did not go to the show, they accounted for in this way and that, representing cūr abstinuit? quō cōnsiliō redierim initiō audīstis, post estis expertī, Ph. 10, 8, what my idea was in coming back, you learned first by hearsay, afterwards by personal observation, representing quō cōnsiliō rediī?

1761. The subordinate subjunctive has sometimes the sequence of the nearest verb, instead of that of its proper verb: as, cūrāvit, quod semper in rē pūblicā tenendum est, nē plūrimum valeant plūrimī, RP. 2, 39, he arranged it so, a point which is always to be held fast in government, that the greatest number may not have the greatest power.

Tense subordinate to a Subjunctive.

1762. When the leading verb is a subjunctive, the present is regarded as primary, and the imperfect and pluperfect as secondary: as,

(a.) exspectō eius modī litterās ex quibus nōn quid fīat, sed quid futūrum sit sciam, Att. 5, 12, 2, I am expecting a letter of a kind to let me know not what is going on, but what will be going on. quid prōfēcerim faciās mē velim certiōrem, Fam. 7, 10, 3, how far I have succeeded I wish you would let me know. (b.) quālis esset nātūra montis quī cōgnōscerent mīsit, 1, 21, 1, he sent some scouts to find out what the character of the mountain was. quid mē prohibēret Epicūrēum esse, sī probārem quae dīceret, Fin. 1, 27, what would prevent me from being an Epicurean, if I accepted what he said? quae sī bis bīna quot essent didicisset Epicūrus, certē nōn dīceret, DN. 2, 49, Epicurus would certainly not say this, if he had ever been taught how much twice two is (1748).

1763. An imperfect subjunctive of action non-occurrent at the present time has occasionally the present sequence: as, mīrārēris, sī interessēs, quā patientiā valētūdinem toleret, Plin. Ep. 1, 22, 7, you would be amazed to find, if you were with him, with what dogged endurance he bears up under his illness. But the secondary sequence is far more common.

1764. (1.) The perfect subjunctive in independent main sentences of prohibition (1551) or of action conceivable (1558) is regarded as a primary tense: as,

nē dubitārīs quīn id mihī̆ futūrum sit antīquius, Att. 7, 3, 2, don’t entertain any doubt that this course will be preferable in my eyes. quid nōn sit citius quam quid sit dīxerim, DN. 1, 60, I could sooner tell what is not, than what is.

1765. (2.) In subordinate sentences, the perfect subjunctive has the main sequence when it represents the indicative perfect definite, and the secondary when it represents the indicative historical perfect or the imperfect: as,

(a.) nēmō ferē vestrūm est, quīn, quem ad modum captae sint Syrācūsae saepe audierit, V. 4, 115, there is hardly a man of your number but has heard over and over again how Syracuse was taken. (b.) quā rē acciderit ut id suspicārēre quod scrībis nesciō, Fam. 2, 16, 1, how it came to pass that you suspected what you write, I can’t imagine.

Tense subordinate to a Noun of the Verb.

1766. (1.) A subjunctive subordinate to one of the nouns of the verb, except the perfect infinitive or the perfect participle, follows the sequence of the verb: as,

dēsinō quaerere cūr ēmerīs, V. 4, 10, I cease to ask why you bought. nēminem tam āmentem fore putāvērunt, ut emeret argentum, V. 4, 9, they did not dream anybody would be crazy enough to buy plate. secūrī percussī, adeō torpentibus metū quī aderant, ut nē gemitus quidem exaudīrētur, L. 28, 29, 11, they were beheaded, everybody there being so completely paralyzed with fear that not even a groan could be heard. Q. Fabius Pīctor Delphōs missus est scīscitātum, quibus precibus deōs possent plācāre, L. 22, 57, 5, Fabius Pictor was sent to Delphi to find out by what sort of prayers they could get the ear of the gods. cupīdō incessit animōs iuvenum scīscitandī ad quem eōrum rēgnum esset ventūrum, L. 1, 56, 10, the youths were possessed with a desire to find out to which one of their number the throne was to fall.

1767. (2.) With a perfect infinitive or perfect participle, the subordinate subjunctive may be in the imperfect or pluperfect, even with a primary leading verb: as,

satis mihī̆ multa verba fēcisse videor, quā rē esset hoc bellum necessārium, IP. 27, I fancy I have said enough to show why this war is unavoidable. hunc istī aiunt, cum taurum immolāvisset, mortuum concidisse, Br. 43, your gentlemen say that this man, after sacrificing a bull, tumbled down dead. viātor bene vestītus causa grassātōrī fuisse dīcētur cūr ab eō spoliārētur, Fat. 34, a well-dressed traveller will be said to have been a temptation for a footpad to rob him. versābor in rē saepe quaesītā, suffrāgia clam an palam ferre melius esset, Leg. 3, 33, I shall be working on a question that has often been put, whether it was better to vote secretly or openly.

1768. The sequence with a perfect infinitive is, however, often primary: as, hīc sī fīnem faciam dīcendī, satis iūdicī fēcisse videar cūr secundum Rōscium iūdicārī dēbeat, RC. 14, if I should stop speaking here, I should feel I had made it plain enough to the court why a judgement should be rendered for Roscius.

1769. The secondary sequence is used with meminī, remember, even when it has the present infinitive (2220): as, L. Metellum meminī ita bonīs esse vīribus extrēmō tempore aetātis, ut adulēscentiam nōn requīreret, CM. 30, I can remember Metellus’s being so good and strong in the very last part of his life that he did not feel the want of youth.

1770. Sentences with a subjunctive due to another subjunctive or to an infinitive are put as follows:

1771. (1.) Sentences of relative time express contemporaneous, antecedent, and subsequent action like corresponding indicative sentences, with the appropriate sequence: as,

vereor, nē, dum minuere velim labōrem, augeam, Leg. 1, 12, I am afraid that while I wish to make the work less, I may make it more. crocodīlōs dīcunt, cum in terrā partum ēdiderint, obruere ōva, DN. 2, 129, they say that the crocodile, after laying on land, buries her eggs. dīcēbam quoad metuerēs, omnia tē prōmissūrum: simul ac timēre desīssēs, similem tē futūrum tuī, Ph. 2, 89, I said that as long as you were afraid, you would promise everything; the moment you ceased to fear, you would be just like yourself. cōnstituērunt ea, quae ad proficīscendum pertinērent, comparāre, 1, 3, 1, they resolved to get such things ready as were necessary for the march. erat scrīptum: nisi domum reverterētur, sē capitis eum damnātūrōs, N. 4, 3, 4, it stood written that, if he did not come back home, they would condemn him to death (direct form nisi revertēris, damnābimus). lēgātī vēnērunt, quī sē ea, quae imperāsset, factūrōs pollicērentur, 4, 22, 1, some envoys came, to engage to do what he ordered (direct form quae imperāris, faciēmus). Venetī cōnfīdēbant Rōmānōs neque ūllam facultātem habēre nāvium, neque eōrum locōrum ubī̆ bellum gestūrī essent portūs nōvisse, 3, 19, 6, the Venetans felt assured that the Romans had not any proper supply of ships, and were not acquainted with the ports in the places where they were to fight.

1772. (2.) Sentences with independent time retain the independent time in the subjunctive in primary sequence (1744); in secondary sequence the present becomes imperfect, and the perfect becomes pluperfect: as,

(a.) quamquam opīniō est, eum quī multīs annīs ante hōs fuerit, Pīsistratum, multum valuisse dīcendō, Br. 27, though there is an impression that the man who lived years and years before these people, Pisistratus, was a very telling orator (direct form, quī fuit, 1738). dīcitur, posteā quam vēnerit, paucīs diēbus esse mortuus, Clu. 175, he is said to have died a few days after he came (1739). (b.) cōgnōvit Suēbōs, posteā quam pontem fierī comperissent, nūntiōs in omnēs partēs dīmīsisse, 4, 19, 2, he ascertained that after the Suebans had learned of the building of the bridge, they had sent out messengers in every direction.

The Indirect Question.

1773. The subjunctive is used in indirect questions or exclamations.

Thus, when the direct question, quī scīs, how do you know? is subordinated to a main sentence, such as quaerō, I ask, the scīs becomes sciās: quaerō quī sciās, RA. 59, I ask how you know. Questions or exclamations thus subordinated are called Indirect (1723). In English, indirect questions are usually characterized simply by the position of the words, the subject standing before the verb.

1774. The indirect question is one of the commonest of constructions. It depends on verbs or expressions meaning not only ask, but also tell, inform, ascertain, see, hear, know, consider, deliberate, doubt, wonder, fear, &c., &c.

Yes or No Questions.

1775. Indirect Yes or No questions are introduced by the same interrogative particles that are used in direct questions (1503). But in indirect questions, num and -ne are used without any essential difference, in the sense of whether, if. nōnne is used thus only by Cicero, and by him only with quaerō: as,

quaeris num disertus sit? Planc. 62, do you ask whether he is a good speaker? quaesīvī cōgnōsceretne sīgnum, C. 3, 10, I asked if he recognized the seal. quaerō nōnne tibī̆ faciendum idem sit, Fin. 3, 13, I ask whether you ought not to do the same. vidēte num dubitandum vōbīs sit, IP. 19, consider whether you ought to have any hesitation.

1776. The combinations -ne... -ne, and an... an, introducing two separate questions, are rare; -ne... -ne is mostly confined to poetry. In a few instances such questions can hardly be distinguished from alternatives.

1777. A conditional protasis with sī, if, to see if, or sī forte, if perchance, sometimes takes the place of an indirect question in expressions or implications of trial, hope, or expectation: as, ībō, vīsam sī domīst, T. Hau. 170, I’ll go and see if he’s at home. Usually with the subjunctive: as, exspectābam, sī quid scrīberēs, Att. 16, 2. 4, I was waiting to see whether you would write anything. circumfunduntur hostēs, sī quem aditum reperīre possent, 6, 37, 4, the enemy came streaming round, to see if they could find any way of getting in.

Alternative Questions.

1778. Indirect alternative questions are introduced like direct questions (1519). But when the second member is negative, it has oftener necne than an nōn: as,

hoc quaerāmus, vērum sit an falsum, Clu. 124, let us ask this question, whether it is true or false. quaesīvī ā Catilīnā in conventū fuisset, necne, C. 2, 13, I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting or not. permultum interest utrum perturbātiōne animī, an cōnsultō fīat iniūria, Off. 1, 27, it makes a vast difference whether wrong be done in heat of passion, or with deliberate intent. quaerō, eum Brūtīne similem mālīs an Antōniī, Ph. 10, 5, I ask whether you would rather have him like Brutus or like Antony.

1779. An introductory utrum preceding an alternative question with -ne and an occurs a few times in Plautus and Cicero; utrumne... an occurs once in Cicero, and twice in Horace and Tacitus each; compare 1522. After utrum, a second alternative is sometimes suppressed, as in the direct question (1523).

1780. -ne in the second member only of an alternative question is rare, and not used by Caesar or Sallust: as, sine sciam captīva māterne sim, L. 2, 40, 5, let me know whether I am a captive or a mother.

1781. (1.) A few times in Plautus and Terence, the second member only of an alternative question is expressed with quī sciō an? or quī scīs an? equivalent to perhaps: as, quī scīs an quae iubeam faciat? T. Eu. 790, perhaps she’ll do as I direct. Horace has once quī scīs an, AP. 462, in the sense of perhaps, and once quis scit an, 4, 7, 17, in the sense of perhaps not.

1782. (2.) The second member only of an alternative question is often expressed after haud sciō an, I don’t know but, possibly, perhaps, with nōn; nēmō, nūllus, &c., if the sentence is negative: as,

haud sciō an fierī possit, V. 3, 162, I don’t know but it is possible. Similarly, though not often, with nesciō an, haud sciam an, dubitō an, dubitārim an, dubium an, incertum an, &c.: as, ēloquentiā nesciō an habuisset parem nēminem, Br. 126, in oratory I fancy he would have had no peer. This use, in which haud sciō an becomes adverbial, and the subjunctive approaches closely that of modest assertion, is principally confined to Cicero. In later Latin, haud sciō an, &c., sometimes has a negative sense, I don’t know whether, with ūllus, &c.

1783. From Curtius on, an is used quite like num or -ne, in a single indirect question, without implication of alternatives.

1784. Two alternatives are rarely used without any interrogative particles at all: as, velit nōlit scīre difficile est, QFr. 3, 8, 4, will he nill he, it is hard to know, i.e. whether he will or not. Compare 1518.

Pronoun Questions.

1785. Indirect pronoun questions are introduced by the same pronominal words that are used in direct pronoun questions (1526): as,

cōgnōscit, quae gerantur, 5, 48, 2, he ascertains what is going on. vidētis ut omnēs dēspiciat, RA. 135, you can see how he looks down on everybody. quid agās et ut tē oblectēs scīre cupiō, QFr. 2, 3, 7, I am eager to know how you do and how you are amusing yourself.

Original Subjunctives.

1786. Questions already in the subjunctive may also become indirect.

Thus, quō mē vertam? V. 5, 2, which way shall I turn? (1563) becomes indirect in quō mē vertam nesciō, Clu. 4, I don’t know which way I am to turn. quid faciam? H. S. 2, 1, 24, what shall I do? (1563) becomes indirect in quid faciam, praescrībe, H. S. 2, 1, 5, lay down the law, what I’m to do. neque satis cōnstābat quid agerent, 3, 14, 3, and it was not at all clear what they had best do. dubitāvī hōsce hominēs emerem an nōn emerem, Pl. Cap. 455, I had my doubts, whether to buy these men or not to buy (1564).

Indicative Questions apparently Indirect.

1787. In old Latin, the indicative occurs often in connections where the subjunctive would be used in classical Latin: as,

dīc, quis est, Pl. B. 558, say, who is it? whereas dīc quis sit would mean say who it is. In such cases the question is not subordinate, but coordinate, usually with an imperative (1697), or with some such expression as tē rogō, volō scīre, scī̆n, or the like. Such coordination occurs exceptionally in the classical period: as, et vidē, quam conversa rēs est, Att. 8, 13, 2, and observe, how everything is changed. adspice, ut ingreditur, V. 6, 856, see, how he marches off.

1788. The indicative is used with nesciō followed by a pronominal interrogative, when this combination is equivalent to an indefinite pronoun or adverb: as,

prōdit nesciō quis, T. Ad. 635, there’s some one coming out. This is a condensed form for prōdit nesciō quis sit, there’s coming out I don’t know who it is, the real question, sit, being suppressed, and nesciō quis acquiring the meaning of aliquis, somebody. Similarly nesciō with unde, ubī̆, quandō, quot, &c., in writers of all ages. Plautus uses sciō quid, sciō ut, &c., somewhat in this way once or twice with the indicative: as, scio quid agō, B. 78, I’m doing I know what.

1789. This combination often expresses admiration, contempt, or regret: as, contendō tum illud nesciō quid praeclārum solēre existere, Arch. 15, I maintain that in such a combination the beau ideal of perfection always bursts into being. paulum nesciō quid, RA. 115 an unconsidered trifle. dīvīsa est sententia, postulante nesciō quō, Mil. 14. the question was divided, on motion of what’s his name. nesciō quō pactō, C. 31, unfortunately.

1790. The indicative is used in like manner with many expressions, originally exclamatory, which have become adverbs: such are immāne quantum, prodigiously, mīrum quantum, wonderfully, sānē quam, immensely, &c., &c. See 712 and the dictionary.

1791. Relative constructions often have the appearance of indirect questions, and care must be taken not to confound the two. Thus, ut is a relative in hanc rem, ut factast, ēloquar, Pl. Am. 1129, I’ll tell this thing as it occurred, i.e. not how it occurred. nōstī quae sequontur, TD. 4, 77, you know the things that follow, i.e. not what follows.

The Relative Sentence.

1792. Relative sentences are introduced by relative words, the most important of which is the pronoun quī, who, which, or that. The relative pronoun may be in any case required by the context, and may represent any of the three persons.

1793. The relative adverbs, ubī̆, quō, unde, often take the place of a relative pronoun with a preposition, chiefly in designations of place, and regularly with town and island names. Less frequently of persons, though unde is not uncommonly thus used.

1794. In a wider sense, sentences introduced by any relative conjunctive particle, such as ubī̆, when, are sometimes called relative sentences. Such sentences, however, are more conveniently treated separately, under the head of the several conjunctive particles.

1795. (1.) The relative pronoun, like the English relative who, which, was developed from the interrogative. Originally, the relative sentence precedes, and the main sentence follows, just as in question and answer.

Thus, quae mūtat, ea corrumpit, Fin. 1, 21, what he changes, that he spoils, is a modification of the older question and answer: quae mūtat? ea corrumpit, what does he change? that he spoils. With adjective relatives, the substantive is expressed in both members, in old or formal Latin: as, quae rēs apud nostrōs nōn erant, eārum rērum nōmina nōn poterant esse ūsitāta, Cornif. 4, 10, what things did not exist among our countrymen, of those things the names could not have been in common use.

1796. (2.) The relative sentence may also come last. As early as Plautus, this had become the prevalent arrangement, and the substantive of the main sentence is called the Antecedent: as,

ultrā eum locum, quō in locō Germānī cōnsēderant, castrīs idōneum locum dēlēgit, 1, 49, 1, beyond the place in which place the Germans had established themselves, he selected a suitable spot for his camp. The three words diēs, locus, and rēs, are very commonly expressed thus both in the antecedent and the relative sentence. This repetition is rare in Livy, and disappears after his time.

1797. In old Latin, rarely in classical poetry, a sentence sometimes begins with an emphasized antecedent put before the relative, and in the case of the relative: as, urbem quam statuō vostra est, V. 1, 573, the city which I found is yours; for quam urbem statuō, ea vostra est. In the main sentence, is, hīc, iste, or ille, is often used; less frequently, as in this example, an appellative.

1798. The main sentence often has the determinative or demonstrative, or the substantive, or both omitted: as,

(a.) ubī̆ intellēxit diem īnstāre, quō diē frūmentum mīlitibus mētīrī oportēret, 1, 16, 5, when he saw the day was drawing nigh, on which day the grain was to be measured out to his men. (b.) quōs āmīsimus cīvīs, eōs Mārtis vīs perculit, Marc. 17, what fellow-citizens we have lost, those the fury of the War-god smote down. (c.) Sabīnus quōs tribūnōs mīlitum circum sē habēbat, sē sequī iubet, 5, 37, 1, Sabinus ordered what tribunes of the soldiers he had about him, to follow him.

1799. The antecedent is often omitted when it is indefinite, or is obvious from the context: as,

sunt quī mīrentur, V. 1, 6, there be who wonder. dēlēgistī quōs Rōmae relinquerēs, C. 1, 9, you picked out people to leave in Rome. quod periīt, periīt, Pl. Cist. 703, gone is gone. Caesar cōgnōvit Cōnsidium, quod nōn vīdisset, prō vīsō sibī̆ renūntiāvisse, 1, 22, 4, Caesar ascertained that Considius had reported to him as seen what he had not seen.

1800. An ablative or nominative abstract in the relative sentence sometimes represents an ablative of manner or quality omitted from the main sentence: as, quā prūdentiā es, nihil tē fugiet, Fam. 11, 13, 1, with what sense you have, nothing will elude you, i.e. eā quā es prūdentiā, nihil tē fugiet. spērō, quae tua prūdentia est, tē valēre, Att. 6, 9, 1, I hope that, with your characteristic caution, you are well. at Āiāx, quō animō trāditur, mīlliēs oppetere mortem quam illa perpetī māluisset, Off. 1, 113, Ajax, on the contrary, with his traditional vehemence, would have chosen rather to die a thousand deaths than to submit to such indignities. This ellipsis begins with Cicero, and is found a few times only in later writers.

Agreement of the Relative.

1801. The agreement of the relative has already been spoken of in a general way (1082-1098). For convenience, however, it may be set forth here more explicitly.

1802. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number, but its case depends on the construction of the sentence in which it stands: as,

Hippiās glōriātus est ānulum quem habēret, pallium quō amictus, soccōs quibus indūtus esset, sē suā manū cōnfēcisse, DO. 3, 127, Hippias prided himself that he had made with his own hand the ring that he wore, the cloak in which he was wrapped, and the slippers that he had on. This holds of all relatives with inflected form, such as quīcumque, quālis, quantus, &c., &c.

1803. When the relative refers to two or more antecedents of different gender, its gender is determined like that of a predicate adjective (1087): as,

mātrēs et līberī, quōrum aetās misericordiam vestram requīrēbat, V. 5, 129, mothers and babies, whose years would appeal to your sympathy (1088). ōtium atque dīvitiae, quae prīma mortālēs putant, S. C. 36, 4, peace and prosperity, which the sons of men count chiefest of blessings (1089). fortūna, quam nēmō ab incōnstantiā et temeritāte sēiunget, quae digna nōn sunt deō, DN. 3, 61, fortune, which nobody will distinguish from caprice and hazard, qualities which are not befitting god (1089). Sometimes the relative agrees with the nearest substantive: as, eās frūges atque frūctūs, quōs terra gignit, DN. 2, 37, the crops, and the fruits of the trees that earth produces.

1804. The relative is sometimes regulated by the sense, and not by the form of the antecedent: as,

equitātum praemittit quī videant, 1, 15, 1, he sends the cavalry ahead, for them to see (1095). ūnus ex eō numerō, quī ad caedem parātī erant, S. I. 35, 6, one of the number that were ready to do murder (1095). duo prōdigia, quōs improbitās tribūnō cōnstrictōs addīxerat, Sest. 38, a pair of monstrosities, whom their depravity had delivered over in irons to the tribune. scrība pontificis, quōs nunc minōrēs pontificēs appellant, L. 22, 57, 3, a clerk of the pontiff, which clerks they call nowadays lesser pontiffs, i.e. quōs scrībās. Vēiēns bellum exortum, quibus Sabīnī arma coniūnxerant, L. 2, 53, 1, a Vejan war broke out, with whom the Sabines had allied themselves, i.e. bellum cum Vēientibus.

1805. A relative referring to a proper name and explanatory appellative combined, may take the gender of either: as, flūmine Rhēnō, quī agrum Helvētium ā Germānīs dīvidit, 1, 2, 3, by the river Rhine, which is the boundary between Helvetians and Germans. ad flūmen Scaldem quod īnfluit in Mosam, 6, 33, 3, to the river Scheldt, that empties itself into the Maas.

1806. With verbs of indeterminate meaning (1035), the relative pronoun sometimes agrees with the predicate substantive: as, Thēbae ipsae, quod Boeōtiae caput est, L. 42, 44, 3, Thebes itself, which is the capital of Boeotia. Often, however, with the antecedent: as, flūmen quod appellātur Tamesis, 5, 11, 8, the river which is called the Thames.

1807. When the relative is subject, its verb agrees with the person of the antecedent: as,

haec omnia is fēcī, quī sodālis Dolābellae eram, Fam. 12, 14, 7, all this I did, I that was Dolabella’s bosom friend. inīquos es, quī mē tacēre postulēs, T. Hau. 1011, thou art unfair, expecting me to hold my tongue. So also when the antecedent is implied in a possessive: as, cum tū nostrā, quī remānsissēmus, caede tē contentum esse dīcēbās, C. 1, 7, when you said you were satisfied with murdering us, who had staid behind.

1808. For an accusative of the relative with an ablative antecedent the ablative is rarely used: as, notante iūdice quō nōstī populō, H. S. 1, 6, 15, the judge condemning—thou know’st who—the world. This represents the older interrogative conception: notante iūdice—quō?—nōstī, populō (1795).

1809. A new substantive added in explanation of an antecedent is put after the relative, and in the same case: as, ad Amānum contendī, quī mōns erat hostium plēnus, Att. 5, 20, 3, I pushed on to Amanus, a mountain that was packed with the enemy. This use begins with Cicero; but from Livy on, the explanatory word is also put as an appositive, with the relative following: as, Decius Magius, vir cui nihil dēfuit, L. 23, 7, 4, Magius, a man that lacked nothing.

1810. An adjective, especially a comparative, superlative, or numeral, explanatory of a substantive in the main sentence, is often put in the relative sentence: as,

palūs quae perpetua intercēdēbat Rōmānōs ad īnsequendum tardābat, 7, 26, 2, a morass, that lay unbroken between, hindered the Romans from pursuit.

1811. When reference is made to the substance of a sentence, the neuter quod is used, or more commonly id quod, either usually in parenthesis: as,

intellegitur, id quod iam ante dīxī, imprūdente L. Sūllā scelera haec fierī, RA. 25, it is plain, as I have said once before, that these crimes are committed without the cognizance of Sulla. In continuations, quae rēs: as, nāvēs removērī iussit, quae rēs māgnō ūsuī nostrīs fuit, 4, 25, 1, he ordered the vessels to be withdrawn, a course which proved very advantageous for our people.

Moods in the Relative Sentence.

1812. The relative is sometimes equivalent to a conditional protasis. When thus used, it may have either the indicative or the subjunctive, as the sense requires: as,

(a.) quod beātum est, nec habet nec exhibet cuiquam negōtium, DN. 1, 85, whatsoever is blessed, has no trouble and makes none to anybody. quisquis hūc vēnerit, pugnōs edet, Pl. Am. 309, whoever comes this way, shall have a taste of fists (1796). omnia mala ingerēbat quemquem adspexerat, Pl. Men. 717, she showered all possible bad names on every man she saw (1795). (b.) haec quī videat, nōnne cōgātur cōnfitērī deōs esse, DN. 2, 12, whoso should see this would be forced, wouldn’t he? to admit the existence of gods. quī vidēret, equom Trōiānum intrōductum dīceret, V. 4, 52, whoever saw it would have sworn it was the Trojan horse brought in (1559).

The Indicative Mood.

1813. The indicative is used in simple declarations or descriptions introduced by a relative: as,

quem dī dīligunt, adulēscēns moritur, Pl. B. 816, whom the gods love, dies young. reliquī, qui domī mānsērunt, sē alunt, 4, 1, 5, the others, that stay at home, support themselves (1736). quōs labōrantēs cōnspexerat, hīs subsidia submittēbat, 4, 26, 4, to such as he saw in stress, he kept sending reinforcements (1736). tū quod volēs faciēs, QFr. 3, 4, 5, do what you like (1735).

1814. The indicative is also used with indefinite relative pronouns and adverbs: as, quidquid volt, valdē volt, Att. 14, 1, 2, whatever he wants, he wants mightily. quisquis est, TD. 4, 37, whoever he may be. quācumque iter fēcit, V. 1, 44, wherever he made his way. In later writers the imperfect or pluperfect is often in the subjunctive: see 1730.

1815. An original indicative often becomes subjunctive, particularly in indirect discourse (1722); or by attraction (1728); or to indicate repeated action (1730). See also 1727 and 1731.

The Subjunctive Mood.

1816. Relative pronoun sentences take the subjunctive to denote (1.) a purpose, (2.) a characteristic or result, (3.) a cause, reason, proof, or a concession.

Sentences of Purpose.

1817. (1.) Relative sentences of purpose are equivalent to subjunctive sentences introduced by ut, in order that, to (1947): as,

ea quī cōnficeret, C. Trebōnium relinquit, 7, 11, 3, he left Trebonius to manage this. quālis esset nātūra montis, quī cōgnōscerent, mīsit, 1, 21, 1, he sent some scouts to ascertain what the character of the mountain was. haec habuī dē amīcitiā quae dīcerem, L. 104, this was what I had to say of friendship. Sentences of purpose are an extension of the subjunctive of desire (1540).

Sentences of Characteristic or Result.

1818. (2.) Relative sentences of characteristic or result are equivalent to subjunctive sentences introduced by ut, so as to, so that (1947).

The main sentence sometimes has a word denoting character, such as is, eius modī, rarely tālis: as, neque is sum, quī mortis perīculō terrear, 5, 30, 2, but I am not the man to be scared by danger of death, no not I. Often, however, character is intimated by the mood alone: as, secūtae sunt tempestātēs quae nostrōs in castrīs continērent, 4, 34, 4, there followed a succession of storms to keep our people in camp. quod miserandum sit labōrātis, DN. 3, 62, you struggle away to a pitiable degree. Sentences of result are an extension of the subjunctive of action conceivable (1554).

1819. The subjunctive with quī is often used with dignus, indignus, or idōneus, usually with a form of sum: as, Līviānae fābulae nōn satis dignae quae iterum legantur, Br. 71, Livy’s plays are not worth reading twice. nōn erit idōneus quī ad bellum mittātur, IP. 66, he will not be a fit person to be sent to the war. Twice thus, aptus, once in Cicero, once in Ovid. In poetry and late prose these adjectives sometimes have the infinitive. dignus and indignus have also ut in Plautus, Livy, and Quintilian.

1820. Relative subjunctive sentences are sometimes coordinated by et or sed, with a substantive, adjective, or participle: as, audāx et coetūs possit quae ferre virōrum, J. 6, 399, a brazen minx, and one quite capable of facing crowds of men.

1821. Relative sentences after assertions or questions of existence or non-existence, usually take the subjunctive: as,

sunt quī putent, TD. 1, 18, there be people to think, there be who think, or some people think. nēmō est quī nesciat, Fam. 1, 4, 2, there is nobody that doesn’t know. sapientia est ūna quae maestitiam pellat ex animīs, Fin. 1, 43, wisdom is the only thing to drive sadness from the soul.

1822. Such expressions are: est (exsistit, exortus est), quī; sunt (reperiuntur, nōn dēsunt), quī; nēmō est, quī; quis est, quī; sōlus or ūnus est, quī; est, nihil est, quod; quid est, quod? habeō, nōn habeō, nihil habeō, quod, &c., &c. Indefinite subjects are sometimes used with these verbs: as, multī, quīdam, nōnnūllī, aliī, paucī; sometimes appellatives: as, hominēs, philosophī.

1823. The indicative, however, is not infrequently found in affirmative sentences, particularly in old Latin and in poetry: as, sunt quōs sciō esse amīcōs, Pl. Tri. 91, some men there are I know to be my friends. interdum volgus rēctum videt, est ubi peccat, H. E. 2, 1, 63, sometimes the world sees right, there be times when it errs. sunt item, quae appellantur alcēs, 6, 27, 1, then again there are what they call elks.

Sentences of Cause or Concession.

1824. (3.) Relative sentences of cause, reason, proof, or of concession, are equivalent to subjunctive sentences introduced by cum, since, though (1877): as,

(a.) hospes, quī nihil suspicārētur, hominem retinēre coepit, V. 1, 64, the friend, suspecting nothing, undertook to hold on to the man. Often justifying the use of a single word: as, ō fortūnāte adulēscēns, quī tuae virtūtis Homērum praecōnem invēnerīs, Arch. 24, oh youth thrice-blest, with Homer trumpeter of thy prowess. ad mē vēnit Hēraclīus, homo nōbilis, quī sacerdōs Iovis fuisset, V. 4, 137, I had a call from Heraclius, a man of high standing, as is proved by his having been a priest of Jupiter. (b.) Cicerō, quī mīlitēs in castrīs continuisset, quīnque cohortēs frūmentātum mittit, 6, 36, 1, though Cicero had kept his men in camp, he sends five cohorts foraging.

1825. With quī tamen, however, the indicative is usual: as, alter, quī tamen sē continuerat, nōn tenuit eum locum, Sest. 114, the other, though he had observed a quiet policy, did not hold the place.

1826. Oftentimes, where a causal relation might be expected, a simple declaratory indicative is used: as,

habeō senectūtī magnam grātiam, quae mihī̆ sermōnis aviditātem auxit, CM. 46, I feel greatly indebted to age, which has increased my eagerness for conversation. Particularly thus in old Latin: as, sed sumne ego stultus, quī rem cūrō pūblicam? Pl. Per. 75, but am I not a fool, who bother with the common weal? Compared with: sed ego sum īnsipientior, quī rēbus cūrem pūplicis, Pl. Tri. 1057, but I’m a very fool, to bother with the common weal. Often of coincident action (1733): as, stultē fēcī, quī hunc āmīsī, Pl. MG. 1376, I’ve acted like a fool, in letting this man off.

1827. The causal relative is often introduced by quippe, less frequently by ut, or ut pote, naturally: as,

‘convīvia cum patre nōn inībat;’ quippe quī nē in oppidum quidem nisi perrārō venīret, RA. 52, ‘he never went to dinner-parties with his father;’ why, of course not, since he never went to a simple country town even, except very rarely. dictātor tamen, ut quī magis animīs quam vīribus frētus ad certāmen dēscenderet, omnia circumspicere coepit, L. 7, 14, 6, but the dictator, naturally, since he went into the struggle trusting to mind rather than muscle, now began to be all on the alert. With quippe quī, the indicative only is used by Sallust, and is preferred by Plautus and Terence. Cicero has, with one exception, the subjunctive, Tacitus and Nepos have it always. Livy has either mood. Not in Caesar. ut quī has the subjunctive. It occurs a few times in Plautus, Cicero, once in Caesar, oftenest in Livy. With the indicative once in Cicero, and once in Tacitus. ut pote quī has the subjunctive. It is used by Plautus, by Cicero, once with the indicative, by Sallust, and Catullus.

1828. The indefinite ablative quī, somehow, surely, sometimes follows quippe or ut in old Latin, in which case it must not be confounded with the relative: as, quippe quī ex tē audīvī, Pl. Am. 745, why, sure I’ve heard from you; it cannot be the relative here, as the speaker is a woman.

1829. The subjunctive is used in parenthetical sentences of restriction: as,

quod sciam, Pl. Men. 500; T. Ad. 641; RA. 17, to the best of my knowledge and belief. quod sine molestiā tuā fīat, Fam. 13, 23, 2, as far as may be without trouble to yourself. quī is often followed by quidem: as, omnium ōrātōrum, quōs quidem ego cōgnōverim, acūtissimum iūdicō Q. Sertōrium, Br. 180, of all orators, at least of all that I have made the acquaintance of myself, I count Sertorius the sharpest.

1830. The indicative, however, is used in quod attinet ad, as to, and usually with quantum, and with forms of sum and possum: as, quod sine molestiā tuā facere poteris, Att. 1, 5, 7, as far as you can without troubling yourself.

Correlative Sentences.

1831. Sentences are said to be correlative, when a relative pronoun or adverb has a corresponding determinative or demonstrative pronoun or adverb in the main sentence.

Thus, the ordinary correlative of quī is is, less frequently hīc, ille, īdem. Similarly tot... quot are used as correlatives; also quō... eō, quantō... tantō; quantum... tantum; tam... quam; totiēns... quotiēns; tālis... quālis; ubī̆... ibī̆; ut... ita, sīc, or item; cum... tum.

Relative Sentences Combined.

(A.) Coordination of a Relative.

1832. (1.) When two coordinate relative sentences would have the second relative in the same case as the first, the second relative is usually omitted: as,

Dumnorīgī quī prīncipātum optinēbat, ac maximē plēbī acceptus erat, persuādet, 1, 3, 5, he prevails with Dumnorix, who held the headship, and was popular with the commons.

1833. (2.) When two coordinate relative sentences require two different cases of the relative, the relative is usually expressed with both, or else the second relative, which is usually nominative or accusative, is omitted, or is, hīc, ille, or īdem, is substituted for it: as,

(a.) cūr loquimur dē eō hoste, quī iam fatētur sē esse hostem, et quem nōn timeō? C. 2, 17, why am I talking about an enemy who admits himself he is an enemy, and whom I do not fear? (b.) Bocchus cum peditibus, quōs Volux addūxerat, neque in priōre pugnā adfuerant, S. I. 101, 5, Bocchus with the infantry whom Volux had brought up, and who had not been engaged in the first skirmish. (c.) Viriāthus, quem C. Laelius frēgit, ferōcitātemque eius repressit, Off. 2, 40, Viriathus, whom Laelius crushed, and curbed his fiery soul. This last use is chiefly limited to old Latin, Cicero, and Lucretius.

(B.) Subordination of a Relative.

1834. A sentence consisting of a main and a relative member, may be further modified by a more specific relative sentence: as,

proximī sunt Germānīs quī trāns Rhēnum incolunt (general), quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt (specific), 1, 1, 3, they are nearest to the Germans that live beyond the Rhine, with whom they carry on uninterrupted hostilities. īdem artifex Cupīdinem fēcit illum quī est Thespiīs (general), propter quem Thespiae vīsuntur (specific), V. 4, 4, the selfsame artist made the world-renowned Cupid at Thespiae, which is the attraction for tourists in Thespiae.

The Relative Introducing a Main Sentence.

1835. Besides the ordinary use of the relative, to introduce a subordinate sentence, it is often used like hīc, or is, or like et is, is autem, is enim, or is igitur, to append a fresh main sentence or period to the foregoing: as,

cōnsiliō convocātō sententiās exquīrere coepit, quō in cōnsiliō nōnnūllae huius modī sententiae dīcēbantur, 3, 3, 1, calling a council of war, he proceeded to ask their opinion, and in this council some opinions of the following import were set forth. centuriōnēs hostēs vocāre coepērunt; quōrum prōgredī ausus est nēmō, 5, 43, 6, the officers proceeded to call the enemy; but not a man of them ventured to step forward. perūtilēs Xenophōntis librī sunt; quos legite studiōsē, CM. 59, Xenophon’s works are extremely profitable reading; so do read them attentively. In Plautus this use is rare; but it becomes more and more prevalent, and in the time of Cicero the relative is one of the commonest connectives.

1836. From this use of the relative come many introductory formulas, such as quō factō, quā rē cōgnitā, quae cum ita sint, &c., &c.

1837. A connective quod is often used before sī, nisi, or etsī, less frequently before quia, quoniam, utinam, quī, &c.

This quod may be translated so, but, now, whereas, as to that, &c., or it is often best omitted in translation. See 2132.

The Conjunctive Particle Sentence.

quod.

1838. The conjunctive particle quod, originally the neuter of the relative pronoun, has both a declarative sense, that, and a causal sense, because. In both senses it regularly introduces the indicative (1721). For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is often used, and particularly in indirect discourse (1722).

1839. In some of its applications, particularly in old Latin, the conjunctive particle quod can hardly be distinguished from the pronoun quod, as follows:

1840. (1) In old Latin, quod, why, for what, is sometimes used with veniō and mittō. Thus, as in id vēnimus, Pl. MG. 1158, that’s why we’ve come, id is used to define the purpose of the motion (1144), so also quod, in quod vēnī, ēloquar, T. Hau. prol. 3, what I’ve come for, I’ll set forth. Instead of quod, more explicitly quam ob rem: as, quam ob rem hūc sum missa, Pl. R. 430, what I am sent here for.

1841. (2.) quod, why, for what, is used in such expansions as quid est quod? quid habēs quod? or nihil est quod: as,

quid est quod mē excīvistī? Pl. E. 570, why is it that you’ve called me out? (1144). Usually with the subjunctive (1563): as, quid est quod plūra dīcāmus? Clu. 59, what reason is there for saying more? For quod, sometimes quā rē, quam ob rem, cūr, &c. The question itself is also sometimes varied: as, quid fuit causae, cūr in Āfricam Caesarem nōn sequerēre? Ph. 2, 71, what earthly reason was there, why you should not have followed Caesar to Africa?

1842. (3.) quod, as to what, or that, is used, especially at the beginning of a sentence, to introduce a fact on which something is to be said, often by way of protest or refutation: as,

vērum quod tū dīcis, nōn tē mī īrāscī decet, Pl. Am. 522, but as to what you say, it is n’t right that you should get provoked with me. quod multitūdinem Germānōrum in Galliam trādūcat, id sē suī mūniendī causā facere, 1, 44, 6, as to his moving a great many Germans over to Gaul, that he did for self-protection (1722). This construction is particularly common in Caesar, and in Cicero’s letters.

1843. When quod, in case, suppose, although, introduces a mere conjecture or a concession, the subjunctive is used (1554): as, quod quispiam ignem quaerat, extinguī volō, Pl. Aul. 91, in case a man may come for fire, I want the fire put out. This use is principally found in old Latin, but once or twice also in Cicero.

1844. quod, that, the fact that, is often used in subordinate sentences which serve to complete the sense of the main sentence.

1845. The sentence with quod may represent a subject, as with accēdit; an object, as with praetereō, &c.; or any case of a substantive; frequently it is in apposition with a demonstrative or an appellative: as,

(a.) accēdēbat, quod suōs ab sē līberōs abstrāctōs dolēbant, 3, 2, 5, there was added this fact, that they lamented that their own children were torn from them; or less clumsily, then too they lamented. praetereō, quod eam sibī̆ domum sēdemque dēlēgit, in quā cōtīdiē virī mortis indicia vidēret, Clu. 188, I pass over the fact that she picked out a house to live in, in which she would see, day in day out, things to remind her of her husband’s death. illud minus cūrō, quod congessistī operāriōs omnēs, Br. 297, I am not particularly interested in the fact that you have lumped together all sorts of cobble and tinkers. (b.) Caesar senātūs in eum beneficia commemorāvit, quod rēx appellātus esset ā senātū, 1, 43, 4, Caesar told off the kindnesses of the senate to the man, the fact that ‘he had been styled king by the senate’ (1722). quō factō duās rēs cōnsecūtus est, quod animōs centuriōnum dēvinxit et mīlitum voluntātēs redēmit, Caes. C. 1, 39, 4, thus he killed two birds with one stone: he won the hearts of the officers, and he bought golden opinions of the rank and file. hōc ūnō praestāmus vel maximē ferīs, quod conloquimur inter nōs, DO. 1, 32, in this one circumstance do we perhaps most of all surpass brutes, that we can talk with each other. labōre et industriā et quod adhibēbat grātiam, in prīncipibus patrōnīs fuit, Br. 233, thanks to his untiring industry, and to his bringing his winning manners to bear, he figured among the leaders of the bar.

1846. accēdit, as the passive of addō, often has the subjunctive with ut: see 1965. addō quod, especially in the imperative form adde quod, occurs in Accius, Terence, Lucretius, Horace, and Ovid. adiciō quod begins with Livy.

1847. The sentence with quod is often introduced by a prepositional expression, such as eō with dē, ex, in, prō, rarely with cum; or id with ad in Livy, super in Tacitus.

1848. nisi quod, or in Plautus and Terence nisi quia, but for the fact that, except, only that, and praeter quam quod, besides the fact that, are used in limitations: as, nihil peccat, nisi quod nihil peccat, Plin. Ep. 9, 26, 1, he erreth naught, save that he naught doth err. Livy has also super quam quod. tantum quod in the sense of nisi quod is rare; more commonly of time, just, hardly.

1849. quid quod? for quid dē eō dīcam quod? what of the fact that, or nay more, marks an important transition: as, quid quod salūs sociōrum in perīculum vocātur? IP. 12, nay more, the very existence of our allies is endangered.

1850. With verbs of doing or happening, accompanied by some word of manner, quod introduces a verb of coincident action (1733): as,

bene facis quod mē adiuvās, Fin. 3, 16, you are very kind in helping me. videor mihī̆ grātum fēcisse Siculīs, quod eōrum iniūriās sum persecūtus, V. 2, 16, I flatter myself that I have won the gratitude of the Sicilians in acting as avenger of their wrongs. In this sense quī (1826) or cum (1874) is often used, or in Plautus and once in Horace quia.

1851. quod, that, because, is used to denote cause with verbs of emotion.

Thus, as with id in id gaudeō, T. Andr. 362, I’m glad of that (1144), so with an object sentence, as gaudeō quod tē interpellāvī, Leg. 3, 1, I’m glad that I interrupted you. Such verbs are: gaudeō, laetor; mīror; doleō, maereō, angor, indignor, suscēnseō, īrāscor, &c. In old Latin, Cicero’s letters, Livy, and rarely in Tacitus such verbs may have quia, sometimes quom (1875). For the accusative with the infinitive, see 2187.

1852. Verbs of praising, blaming, accusing, and condemning, often take quod: as,

quod bene cōgitāstī aliquandō, laudō, Ph. 2, 34, that you have ever had good intentions, I commend. laudat Africānum Panaetius, quod fuerit abstinēns, Off. 2, 76, Panaetius eulogizes Africanus, ‘for being so abstinent’ (1725). ut cum Sōcratēs accūsātus est quod corrumperet iuventūtem, Quintil. 4, 4, 5, as when Socrates was charged with ‘demoralizing the rising generation’ (1725). grātulor, congratulate, and grātiās agō, thank, have regularly quod or cum (1875). Verbs of accusing sometimes have cūr.

1853. Causal quod, owing to the fact that, because, introduces an efficient cause, or a reason or motive: as,

(a.) in hīs locīs, quod omnis Gallia ad septentriōnēs vergit, mātūrae sunt hiemēs, 4, 20, 1, in these parts the winter sets in early, owing to the fact that Gaul in general lies to the north. Helvētiī reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecēdunt, quod ferē cōtīdiānīs proeliīs cum Germānīs contendunt, 1, 1, 4, the Helvetians outshine the rest of the Gauls in bravery, because they do battle with the Germans almost every day. hōrum fortissimī sunt Belgae, proptereā quod a cultū prōvinciae longissimē absunt, 1, 1, 3, of these the stoutest fighting-men are the Belgians, for the reason that they live furthest away from the comforts of the province. (b.) T. Mānlius Torquātus fīlium suum, quod is contrā imperium in hostem pugnāverat, necārī iussit, S. C. 52, 30, Torquatus ordered his own son to be put to death, because the young man had fought with the enemy contrary to orders. exōrāvit tyrannum ut abīre licēret, quod iam beātus nōllet esse, TD. 5, 62, he induced the monarch to let him go, ‘because he didn’t care to be Fortune’s pet any longer’ (1725). Bellovacī suum numerum nōn contulērunt, quod sē suō arbitriō bellum esse gestūrōs dīcerent, 7, 75, 5, the Bellovacans would not put in their proper quota, saying they meant to make war on their own responsibility (1727).

1854. quod often has a correlative in the main sentence, such as eō, ideō, idcircō, proptereā. In Sallust, eā grātiā. In Plautus, causal quod is very rare compared to causal quia.

1855. An untenable reason is introduced in Plautus by nōn eō quia, in Terence by nōn eō quō; in Cicero very rarely by neque or non eō quō, usually by nōn quod or nōn quō; by nōn quia rarely in classical Latin, but commonly from Livy on. The valid reason follows, with sed quod, sed quia, or with sed and a fresh main sentence.

The mood is usually subjunctive (1725): as, pugilēs ingemīscunt, nōn quod doleant, sed quia prōfundendā vōce omne corpus intenditur, TD. 2, 56, boxers grunt and groan, not because they feel pain, but because by explosion of voice the whole system gets braced up. Sometimes, but very rarely in classical prose, the indicative. Correlatives, such as idcircō, ideō, &c., are not uncommon. Reversed constructions occur, with magis followed by quam, as: magis quod, quō, or quia, followed by quam quō, quod, or quia. The negative not that... not, is expressed by nōn quod nōn, nōn quō nōn, or nōn quīn.

quia.

1856. quia, a neuter accusative plural of the relative stem (701) is used in both a declarative and a causal sense, like quod (1838). It is, however, more prevalent in Plautus, less so from Terence on.

1857. For the uses of declarative quia, see under 1848, 1850, 1851.

1858. Causal quia, with or without a correlative, such as ideō, eō, proptereā, &c., is common in old Latin (1854) and poetry, unusual in prose (once in Caesar) before Tacitus. For nōn quia, &c., see 1855.

quom or cum .

1859. quom or cum (157, 711), used as a relative conjunctive particle (1794), has a temporal meaning, when, which readily passes over to an explanatory or causal meaning, in that, since or although. In both meanings it introduces the indicative in old Latin. In classical Latin, temporal cum in certain connections, and causal cum regularly, introduces the subjunctive. The subjunctive is also used with cum for special reasons, as in the indefinite second person (1731), by attraction (1728), and commonly by late writers to express repeated past action (1730). cum, when, is often used as a synonym of sī, if, and may then introduce any form of a conditional protasis (2016, 2110).

(A.) Temporal cum.

WITH THE INDICATIVE.

1860. cum, when, whenever, if, of indefinite time, may introduce any tense of the indicative required by the context: as,

facile omnēs, quom valēmus, rēcta cōnsilia aegrōtīs damus, T. Andr. 309, we all, when well, give good advice to sick folk easily. Rōmae videor esse, cum tuās litterās legō, Att. 2, 15, 1, I always fancy myself in Rome, when I am reading a letter from you. cum posuī librum, adsēnsiō omnis ēlābitur, TD. 1, 24, when I drop the book, all assent melts away (1613). incenderis cupiditāte lībertātis, cum potestātem gustandī fēceris, RP. 2, 50, you will inspire them with a passion for freedom, when you give them a chance to taste it (1627). hīs cum fūnēs comprehēnsī adductīque erant, praerumpēbantur, 3, 14, 6, every time the lines were caught by these and hauled taut, they would part (1618). The subjunctive is used, chiefly by late writers, rarely by Cicero and Caesar, to express repeated past action (1730): as, cum in convīvium vēnisset, sī quicquam caelātī adspexerat, manūs abstinēre nōn poterat, V. 4, 48, when he went to a dinner party, if he ever caught sight of a bit of chased work, he never could keep his hands off (2050).

1861. cum, when, of definite time, regularly introduces the indicative in old Latin, even where the subjunctive is required in classical Latin (1872): as,

nam illa, quom tē ad sē vocābat, mēmet esse crēdidit, Pl. Men. 1145, for when that lady asked you in, she thought ’twas I. postīculum hoc recēpit, quom aedīs vēndidit, Pl. Tri. 194, this back part he excepted, when he sold the house.

1862. cum, when, of definite time, regularly introduces the indicative of any action, not of past time: as,

sed dē hīs etiam rēbus, ōtiōsī cum erimus, loquēmur, Fam. 9, 4, but we will talk of this when we have time. cum ego P. Grānium testem prōdūxerō, refellitō, sī poteris, V. 5, 154, when I put Granius on the witness stand, refute him if you can.

1863. With cum, when, the indicative is used of definite past time to date the action of the main clause, as follows:

1864. (1.) The indicative imperfect is regularly used with cum, when, to denote a continued action parallel and coincident in duration with another continued action, also in the imperfect: as,

quom pugnābant maxumē, ego tum fugiēbam maxumē, Pl. Am. 199, while they were fighting hardest, then I was running hardest. tum cum rem habēbās, quaesticulus tē faciēbat attentiōrem, Fam. 9, 16, 7, as long as you were a man of substance, the fun of making money made you a little close.

1865. (2.) The indicative imperfect is often used with cum, when, denoting a continued action, to date an apodosis in the perfect: as,

legiōnēs quom pugnābant maxumē, quid in tabernāclō fēcistī? Pl. Am. 427, what did’st thou in the tent what time the legions fought their mightiest? hīs librīs adnumerandī sunt sex dē rē pūblicā, quōs tum scrīpsimus cum gubernācula rē̆ī pūblicae tenēbāmus, Div. 2, 3, to these books are to be added the six On the State, which I wrote at the time I was holding the helm of state. But when the object of the clause is not distinctly to date the apodosis, its verb is in the subjunctive (1872).

1866. (3.) The indicative perfect or present of vivid narration is used with cum, when, to date an apodosis in the perfect or present of vivid narration: as,

‘per tuās statuās’ vērō cum dīxit, vehementius rīsimus, DO. 2, 242, but when he uttered the words ‘by your statues’ we burst into a louder laugh. cum occīditur Sex. Rōscius, ibīdem fuērunt, RA. 120, when Roscius was murdered, they were on the spot. cum diēs vēnit, causā ipse prō sē dictā, damnātur, L. 4, 44, 10, when the day of the trial came, he spoke in his own defence and was condemned. The present is particularly common in old colloquial Latin: as, vivom, quom abīmus, līquimus, Pl. Cap. 282, we left him alive when we came away. For cum prīmum in narration, see 1925; for cum extemplō, 1926.

1867. (4.) The indicative perfect or present of vivid narration is regularly used with cum, when, to denote a momentary action when the apodosis denotes continued action: as,

cum Caesar in Galliam vēnit, alterīus factiōnis prīncipēs erant Aeduī, alterīus Sēquanī, 6, 12, 1, when Caesar came to Gaul, the leaders of one party were the Aeduans, of the other the Sequanians. eō cum veniō, praetor quiēscēbat, V. 4, 32, when I got there, the praetor was taking a nap.

1868. An emphatic indicative clause with cum, while, often follows the main action.

The clause with cum is usually inconsistent with the main action, and cum is often attended by intereā, interim, all the time, etiam tum, still, nōndum, hauddum, not yet, no longer, quidem, by the way, or tamen, nihilōminus, nevertheless: as,

caedēbātur virgīs in mediō forō Messānae cīvis Rōmānus, cum intereā nūllus gemitus audiēbātur, V. 5, 162, there was flogged with rods in open market place at Messana a citizen of Rome, while all the time not a groan was to be heard. ēvolārat iam ē cōnspectū quadrirēmis, cum etiam tum cēterae nāvēs ūnō in locō mōliēbantur, V. 5, 88, she had already sped out of sight, the four-banker, while the rest of the vessels were still struggling round in one and the same spot. This use is very rare in old Latin. Not in Caesar. With the infinitive of intimation, see 1539.

1869. An indicative clause with cum, usually expressing sudden or unexpected action, sometimes contains the main idea, and is put last.

In this case cum is often attended by subitō or repente, suddenly, and the first clause contains iam, already, by this time, vix, aegrē, hardly, vixdum, hardly yet, or nōndum, not yet. The first verb is commonly in the imperfect or pluperfect, and the second in the perfect or present of vivid narration: as,

dīxerat hoc ille, cum puer nūntiāvit venīre Laelium, RP. 1, 18, scarcely had he said this, when a slave announced that Laelius was coming. vix ea fātus eram, gemitū cum tālia reddit, V. 2, 323, scarce had I spoke the words, when with a groan he answers thus. Hannibal iam subībat mūrōs, cum repente in eum patē̆factā portā ērumpunt Rōmānī, L. 29, 7, 8, Hannibal was already moving up to the walls, when all of a sudden the gate flies open and the Romans come pouring out upon him. iamque hoc facere apparābant, cum mātres familiae repente prōcurrērunt, 7, 26, 3, they were already preparing to do it, when suddenly the married women rushed forward. This use is very rare in old Latin. From Sallust on, it is found occasionally with the infinitive of intimation (1539).

1870. A clause with cum is often used attributively with words denoting time, or with est, fuit, or erit.

The mood is the same as with a relative pronoun, sometimes the indicative, and regularly in old Latin, but usually the subjunctive: as, fuit quoddam tempus cum in agrīs hominēs vagābantur, Inv. 1, 2, there was an age of the world when men roved round in the fields (1813, 1823). fuit tempus cum rūra colerent hominēs, Varro, RR. 3, 1, 1, there was a time when men dwelt in the fields (1818, 1821). est cum exōrnātiō praetermittenda est, Cornif. 2, 30, sometimes ornamentation should be avoided. fuit anteā tempus, cum Germānōs Gallī virtūte superārent, 6, 24, 1, there was a time when the Gauls outdid the Germans in valour. The subjunctive is also used with audiō cum (1722), but with meminī cum the indicative: as, saepe ex socerō meō audīvī, cum is dīceret, DO. 2, 22, I have often heard my father-in-law saying. meminī cum mihī̆ dēsipere vidēbāre, Fam. 7, 28, 1, I remember when I thought you showed bad taste.

1871. The indicative present or perfect with cum is used in expressions equivalent to an emphasized accusative or ablative of time, the main verb being est or sunt: as, annī prope quadringentī sunt, cum hoc probātur, O. 171, it is nearly four hundred years that this has been liked. nōndum centum et decem annī sunt, cum lāta lēx est, Off. 2, 75, it is not a hundred and ten years yet since the law was passed. In old Latin, the clause with cum is made the subject of est, and the substantive of time is put in the accusative: as, hanc domum iam multōs annōs est quom possideō, Pl. Aul. 3, ’tis many years now I have occupied this house.

WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

1872. With cum, when, the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive is used to describe the circumstances under which the action of the main clause took place: as,

cum rēx Pyrrhus populō Rōmānō bellum intulisset cumque dē imperiō certāmen esset cum rēge potentī, perfuga ab eō vēnit in castra Fabriciī, Off. 3, 86, king Pyrrhus having made war on the Roman nation, and there being a struggle for sovereignty with a powerful king, a deserter from him came into Fabricius’s camp. eōdem tempore Attalus rēx moritur alterō et septuāgēsimō annō, cum quattuor et quadrāgintā annōs rēgnāsset, L. 33, 21, 1, the same year Attalus the king dies, in his seventy-second year, having reigned forty-four years. hīc pāgus, cum domō exīsset patrum nostrōrum memoriā, L. Cassium cōnsulem interfēcerat, 1, 12, 5, this canton, sallying out from home in our fathers’ recollection, had put Cassius, the consul, to death. nam cum inambulārem in xystō, M. ad mē Brūtus vēnerat, Br. 10, for as I was pacing up and down my portico, Brutus had come to see me. Antigonus in proeliō, cum adversus Seleucum et Lȳsimachum dīmicāret, occīsus est, N. 21, 3, 2, Antigonus was killed in battle fighting against Seleucus and Lysimachus. haec cum Crassus dīxisset, silentium est cōnsecūtum, DO. 1, 160, a deep silence ensued after Crassus had finished speaking. cum annōs iam complūrīs societās esset, moritur in Galliā Quīnctius, cum adesset Naevius, Quinct. 14, the partnership having lasted several years, Quinctius died in Gaul, Naevius being there at the time.

In this use, as the examples show, cum with the subjunctive is often equivalent to a participle or an ablative absolute. The use is not found in Plautus (1861). Ennius and Terence have possibly each an instance (disputed) of it, but it was certainly rare until the classical period, when it became one of the commonest of constructions. It must not be confounded with the special uses of the subjunctive mentioned in 1859.

1873. The difference in meaning between cum with the indicative and cum with the subjunctive may be illustrated by the following examples:

Gallō nārrāvī, cum proximē Rōmae fuī, quid audīssem, Att. 13, 49, 2, I told Gallus, when I was last in Rome, what I had heard (1866), a. d. III kal. Maiās cum essem in Cūmānō, accēpī tuās litterās, Fam. 4, 2, 1, I received your letter on the twenty-eighth of April, being in my villa at Cumae (1872). cum vāricēs secābantur C. Mariō, dolēbat, TD. 2, 35, while Marius was having his varicose veins lanced, he was in pain (1864). C. Marius, cum secārētur, ut suprā dīxī, vetuit sē adligārī, TD. 2, 53, Marius being under the surgeon’s knife, as above mentioned, refused to be bound (1872). num P. Decius, cum sē dēvovēret et in mediam aciem inruēbat, aliquid dē voluptātibus suīs cōgitābat? Fin. 2, 61, did Decius, offering himself up, and while he was dashing straight into the host, have any thought of pleasures of his own? (1872, 1864).

(B.) Explanatory and Causal cum.

1874. The indicative is often used with explanatory cum when the action of the protasis is coincident with that of the apodosis (1733).

In this use cum passes from the meaning of when to that, in that, or in or by with a verbal in -ing: as, hoc verbum quom illī quoidam dīcō, praemōstrō tibī̆, Pl. Tri. 342, in laying down this lesson for your unknown friend I’m warning you. cum quiēscunt, probant, C. 1, 21, their inaction is approval. Denoting the means: as, tūte tibi prōdes plūrumum, quom servitūtem ita fers ut ferrī decet, Pl. Cap. 371, you do yourself most good by bearing slavery as it should be borne. For similar uses of quod, quia, and quī, see 1850.

1875. Explanatory cum is also used with verbs of emotion; likewise with grātulor and grātiās agō: as, quom tu ’s līber, gaudeō, Pl. Men. 1148, that you are free, I’m glad. grātulor tibī̆, cum tantum valēs apud Dolābellam, Fam. 9, 14, 3, I give you joy that you stand so well with Dolabella. tibī̆ maximās grātiās agō, cum tantum litterae meae potuērunt, Fam. 13, 24, 2, I thank you most heartily in that my letter had such influence. For similar uses of quod and quia, see 1851, 1852.

1876. Explanatory cum is also used in the sense of since, although, or even though. In these meanings it introduces the indicative in old Latin (1878): as,

Denoting cause: istō tū pauper es, quom nimis sānctē piu ’s, Pl. R. 1234, that’s why you are poor yourself, since you are over-scrupulously good. quom hoc nōn possum, illud minus possem, T. Ph. 208, since this I can’t, that even less could I. Adversative cause: īnsānīre mē aiunt, quom ipsī īnsāniunt, Pl. Men. 831, they say I’m mad, whereas they are mad themselves. Concession: sat sīc suspectus sum, quom careō noxiā, Pl. B. 1005, I am enough distrusted as it is, even though I’m void of wrong.

1877. cum, since, although, even though, usually introduces the subjunctive: as,

Denoting cause: cum in commūnibus suggestīs cōnsistere nōn audēret, contiōnārī ex turrī altā solēbat, TD. 5, 59, since he did not dare to stand up on an ordinary platform, he always did his speaking from a lofty tower, of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse. Aeduī cum sē dēfendere nōn possent, lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittunt, 1, 11, 2, since the Aeduans could not defend themselves, they sent ambassadors to Caesar. Adversative cause: fuit perpetuō pauper, cum dīvitissimus esse posset, N. 19, 1, 2, he was always poor, whereas he might have been very rich, of Phocion. Pyladēs cum sīs, dīcēs tē esse Orestēn? Fin. 2, 79, whereas you are Pylades, will you declare yourself Orestes? Concession: ipse Cicerō, cum tenuissimā valētūdine esset, nē nocturnum quidem sibī̆ tempus ad quiētem relinquēbat, 5, 40, 7, Cicero himself, though he was in extremely delicate health, did not allow himself even the night-time for rest. ille Catō, cum esset Tusculī nātus, in populī Rōmānī cīvitātem susceptus est, Leg. 2, 5, the great Cato, though born at Tusculum, was received into the citizenship of the Roman nation.

1878. This use of the subjunctive is not found in Plautus. It is thought to have begun in the time of Terence, who may have a couple of instances (disputed). Thereafter, it grew common and was the regular mood used with explanatory and causal cum in the classical period.

1879. Explanatory cum is sometimes introduced by quippe, rarely by ut pote, naturally: as,

tum vērō gravior cūra patribus incessit, quippe cum prōdī causam ab suīs cernerent, L. 4, 57, 10, then the senators were still more seriously concerned, and naturally enough, since they beheld their cause betrayed by their own people. valētūdō, ē quā iam ēmerseram, ut pote cum sine febrī labōrāssem, Att. 5, 8, 1, an illness from which I had already recovered, naturally, since it was unaccompanied by fever. quippe cum occurs in Cicero, Nepos, and Livy; ut pote cum is used once in Cicero’s letters, once by Pollio to Cicero, and in late writers. For quippe and ut pote with a causal relative, see 1827.

1880. The adversative idea is often emphasized by the use of tamen in the main clause: as, cum prīmī ōrdinēs hostium concidissent, tamen ācerrimē reliquī resistēbant, 7, 62, 4, though the front ranks of the enemy had fallen, yet the rest made a most spirited resistance.

(C.) cum... tum.

1881. A protasis with cum is often followed by an emphatic apodosis introduced by tum.

The protasis denotes what is general or common or old; the apodosis what is special or strange or new. In classical Latin tum is often emphasized by maximē, in prīmīs, vērō, &c.

In this use the mood is more commonly the indicative and the time of the two verbs is apt to be identical: as, quom mihi paveō, tum Antiphō mē excruciat animī, T. Ph. 187, whilst for myself I tremble, Antipho puts me in a perfect agony of soul. But cum anteā distinēbar maximīs occupātiōnibus, tum hōc tempore multō distineor vehementius, Fam. 12, 30, 2, I was distracted by most important engagements before, but now I am very much more distracted. Less frequently the subjunctive, to denote cause or concession (1877): as, cum tē ā pueritiā tuā dīlēxerim, tum hōc multō ācrius dīligō, Fam. 15, 9, 1, whereas I have always loved you from your boyhood, for this I love you with a far intenser love. By abridgement of the sentence (1057), cum... tum come to be copulative conjunctions (1687): as, mōvit patrēs cōnscrīptōs cum causa tum auctor, L. 9, 10, 1, both the cause and its supporter touched the conscript fathers.

quoniam.

1882. quoniam, compounded of quom and iam, when now, refers primarily to time, but is seldom so used and only by early writers. The temporal meaning passed early into an exclusively causal meaning, since. In both meanings it regularly introduces the indicative (1721). For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is used, as in indirect discourse (1725), or by attraction (1728).

1883. (1.) quoniam, when now, used of time in early Latin, has sometimes as a correlative continuō, subitō, or extemplō; it usually introduces the present indicative (1590): as,

is quoniam moritur, numquam indicāre id fīliō voluit suō, Pl. Aul. 9, when he was on his dying bed, he ne’er would point it out to his own son, of a hidden treasure. quoniam sentiō quae rēs gererētur, nāvem extemplō statuimus, Pl. B. 290, when now I saw what was doing, we stopped the ship at once.

1884. (2.) quoniam, since, seeing that, now that, with the indicative, introduces a reason, usually one known to the person addressed, or one generally known: as,

vēra dīcō, sed nēquīquam, quoniam nōn vīs crēdere, Pl. Am. 835, the truth I speak, but all in vain, since thou wilt not believe. vōs, Quirītēs, quoniam iam nox est, in vestra tecta discēdite, C. 3, 29, do you, citizens, since it is now grown dark, depart and go to your own several homes. quoniam in eam ratiōnem vītae nōs fortūna dēdūxit, ut sempiternus sermō dē nōbīs futūrus sit, caveāmus, QFr. 1, 1, 38, since fortune has set us in such a walk of life that we are to be eternally talked about, let us be on our guard. Often in transition: as, quoniam dē genere bellī dīxī, nunc dē magnitūdine pauca dīcam, IP. 20, since I have finished speaking about the character of the war, I will now speak briefly about its extent. With the subjunctive in indirect discourse (1725): as, crēbrīs Pompēī litterīs castīgābantur, quoniam prīmō venientem Caesarem nōn prohibuissent, Caes. C. 3, 25, 3, they were rebuked in numerous letters of Pompey, ‘because they had not kept Caesar off as soon as he came.’

quotiēns , quotiēnscumque .

1885. The relative particle quotiēns (711), or quotiēnscumque, every time that, whenever, introduces the indicative: as,

quotiēns quaeque cohors prōcurrerat, magnus numerus hostium cadēbat, 5, 34, 2, as the cohorts successively charged, a great number of the enemy fell every time. quoius quotiēns sepulcrum vidēs, sacruficās, Pl. E. 175, every time you see her tomb, you offer sacrifice. nec quotiēnscumque mē vīderit, ingemīscet, Sest. 146, neither shall he fall a-groaning whenever he sees me (1736). quotiēnsque is late and rare.

1886. quotiēns has sometimes as a correlative totiēns, or a combination with tot which is equivalent to totiēns: as, quotiēns dīcimus, totiēns dē nōbīs iūdicātur, DO. 1, 125, every time we make a speech, the world sits in judgement on us. sī tot cōnsulibus meruisset, quotiēns ipse cōnsul fuit, Balb. 47, if he had been in the army as many years as he was consul.

1887. The subjunctive imperfect and pluperfect are common in the later writers to indicate repeated action (1730): as, quotiēns super tālī negōtiō cōnsultāret, ēditā domūs parte ac lībertī ūnīus cōnscientiā ūtēbātur, Ta. 6, 27, whenever he had recourse to astrologers, it was in the upper part of his house and with the cognizance of only a single freedman.

quam.

1888. quam, as or than, introduces an indicative protasis in periods of comparison. For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is used, as by attraction (1728), or of action conceivable (1731); see also 1896, 1897.

But usually periods of comparison are abridged (1057) by the omission of the verb or of other parts in the protasis (1325).

With the Indicative.

1889. (1.) quam, as, is used in the protasis of a comparative period of equality, generally with tam as correlative in the apodosis: as,

tam facile vincēs quam pirum volpēs comēst, Pl. Most. 559, you’ll beat as easily as Reynard eats a pear. tam excoctam reddam atque ātram quam carbōst, T. Ad. 849, I’ll have her stewed all out and black as is a coal. From Cicero on, the apodosis is in general negative or interrogative: as, quōrum neutrum tam facile quam tū arbitrāris concēditur, Div. 1, 10, neither of these points is as readily granted as you suppose. quid est ōrātōrī tam necessārium quam vōx? DO. 1, 251, what is so indispensable to the speaker as voice? Otherwise nōn minus... quam, no less than, just as much, or nōn magis... quam, just as little or just as much, is often preferred to tam... quam: as, accēpī nōn minus interdum ōrātōrium esse tacēre quam dīcere, Plin. Ep. 7, 6, 7, I have observed that silence is sometimes quite as eloquent as speech. nōn magis mihī̆ deerit inimīcus quam Verrī dēfuit, V. 3, 162, I shall lack an enemy as little as Verres did. domus erat nōn dominō magis ōrnāmentō quam cīvitātī, V. 4, 5, the house was as much a pride to the state as to its owner.

1890. Instead of tam, another correlative is sometimes used in the apodosis. Thus, aequē... quam occurs in Plautus and in Livy and later writers, generally after a negative expression; perinde... quam in Tacitus and Suetonius; iūxtā... quam once in Livy. Sometimes the apodosis contains no correlative.

1891. tam... quam become by abridgement coordinating words: as,

tam vēra quam falsa cernimus, Ac. 2, 111, we make out things both true and false.

1892. The highest possible degree is expressed by tam... quam quī and a superlative without a verb; or by quam and a superlative with or without a form of possum (1466); sometimes by quantus or ut: as,

(a.) tam sum misericors quam vōs; tam mītis quam quī lēnissimus, Sull. 87, I am as tender-hearted as you; as mild as the gentlest man living. tam sum amīcus rē̆ī pūblicae quam quī maximē, Fam. 5, 2, 6, I am as devoted a patriot as anybody can be. (b.) quam maximīs potest itineribus in Galliam contendit, 1, 7, 1, he pushes into Gaul by as rapid marches as he can. cōnstituērunt iūmentōrum quam maximum numerum coëmere, 1, 3, 1, they determined to buy up the greatest possible number of beasts of burden. (c.) tanta est inter eōs, quanta maxima potest esse, mōrum distantia, L. 74, there is the greatest possible difference of character between them. Or without any superlative: fuge domum quantum potest, Pl. Men. 850, run home as quick as e’er you can. ut potuī accūrātissimē tē tūtātus sum, Fam. 5, 17, 2, I defended you as carefully as I could.

1893. quam... tam, with two comparatives or superlatives, is equivalent to the more common quō... eō with two comparatives (1973): as,

(a.) magis quam id reputō, tam magis ūror, Pl. B. 1091, the more I think it over, the sorer do I feel. This use is found in Plautus, Lucretius, and Vergil. (b.) quam quisque pessumē fēcit, tam maxumē tūtus est, S. I. 31, 14, the worse a man has acted, the safer he always is. This use is found in Plautus, Terence, Cato, Varro, and Sallust.

1894. (2.) quam, than, is used in the protasis of a comparative period of inequality, with a comparative in the apodosis: as,

meliōrem quam ego sum suppōnō tibī̆, Pl. Cu. 256, I give you in my place a better man than I am. plūra dīxī quam voluī, V. 5, 79, I have said more than I intended. Antōniō quam est, volō peius esse, Att. 15, 3, 2, I hope Antony may be worse off than he is. doctrīna paulō dūrior quam nātūra patitur, Mur. 60, principles somewhat sterner than nature doth support. potius sērō quam numquam, L. 4, 2, 11, better late than never. corpus patiēns algōris suprā quam cuiquam crēdibile est, S. C. 5, 3, a constitution capable of enduring cold beyond what anybody could believe. suprā quam is found in Cicero, Sallust, and often in late writers; īnfrā and ultrā quam in Cicero, Livy, and late writers (īnfrā quam also in Varro); extrā quam in Ennius, Cato, and in legal and official language in Cicero and Livy.

1895. quam is also used with some virtual comparatives: thus, nihil aliud, nōn aliud quam, no other than, often as adverb, only; secus quam with a negative, not otherwise than; bis tantō quam, twice as much as; and prae quam in old Latin, in comparison with how; and similar phrases: as,

(a.) per bīduum nihil aliud quam stetērunt parātī ad pugnandum, L. 34, 46, 7, for two days they merely stood in battle array. This use occurs first in Sallust, then in Nepos, Livy, and later writers. (b.) mihī̆ erit cūrae nē quid fīat secus quam volumus, Att. 6, 2, 2, I will see to it that nothing be done save as we wish. This use occurs in Plautus, Terence, Sallust, Cicero, Livy, and later writers. With both aliud and secus the clause is rarely positive, with aliud not before Livy. For atque (ac) instead of quam when the first clause is negative, see 1654. (c.) bis tantō valeō quam valuī prius, Pl. Merc. 297, I am twice as capable as I was before. (d.) nīl hōc quidem est trīgintā minae, prae quam aliōs sūmptūs facit, Pl. Most. 981, oh, this is nothing, thirty minae, when you think what other sums he spends. prae quam is found only in Plautus rarely. Similar phrases are: contrā quam, in Cicero, Livy, and later writers; praeter quam, in Plautus, Naevius, and frequently in other writers when followed by quod (1848); super quam quod (1848) and īnsuper quam in Livy; prō quam in Lucretius; advorsum quam, once in Plautus. prae quam is sometimes followed by a relative clause: as, prae quam quod molestumst, Pl. Am. 634, compared with what is painful. For ante (or prius) and post quam, see 1911, 1923.

With the Subjunctive.

1896. The subjunctive is used with quam or quam ut after comparatives denoting disproportion (1461): as,

quicquid erat oneris Segestānīs impōnēbat, aliquantō amplius quam ferre possent, V. 4, 76, he would impose every possible burden on the Segestans, far too much for them to bear. quis nōn intellegit Canachī sīgna rigidiōra esse, quam ut imitentur vēritātem? Br. 70, who does not feel that the statues of Canachus are too stiff to be true to nature? clārior rēs erat quam ut dissimulārī posset, L. 26, 51, 11, the thing was too notorious to be hushed up. Instead of ut, quī is also used by Livy and later writers: as, maior sum quam cui possit Fortūna nocēre, O. 6, 195, too strong am I for Fortune to break down, says infatuated Niobe. All these sentences are extensions of the subjunctive of action conceivable (1554, 1818).

1897. The subjunctive is used in clauses introduced by potius quam, rather than, to denote action merely assumed. citius, ante, or prius, sooner, is sometimes used in the sense of potius: as,

potius quam tē inimīcum habeam, faciam ut iusseris, T. Eu. 174, rather than make you my enemy, I will do as you tell me. dēpugnā potius quam serviās, Att. 7, 7, 7, fight it out rather than be a slave. potius vituperātiōnem incōnstantiae suscipiam, quam in tē sim crūdēlis, V. 5, 105, I will submit to the charge of inconsistency rather than be cruel towards you. animam omittunt prius quam locō dēmigrent, Pl. Am. 240, they lose their lives sooner than yield their ground. Livy has also potius quam ut. All these sentences are extensions of the subjunctive of desire (1540, 1817).

With the Infinitive.

1898. When the main clause is an infinitive, quam is often followed by an infinitive: as,

mālim morīrī me͡os quam mendīcārier, Pl. Vid. 96, better my bairns be dead than begging bread. vōcēs audiēbantur prius sē cortice ex arboribus vīctūrōs, quam Pompēium ē manibus dīmissūrōs, Caes. C. 3, 49, 1, shouts were heard that they would live on the bark of trees sooner than let Pompey slip through their fingers.

quamquam.

1899. (1.) quamquam is used in old Latin as an indefinite adverb, ever so much, however much: as,

quamquam negōtiumst, sī quid veis, Dēmiphō, nōn sum occupātus umquam amīcō operam dare, Pl. Mer. 287, however busy I may be (1814), if anything you wish, dear Demipho, I’m not too busy ever to a friend mine aid to lend. id quoque possum ferre, quamquam iniūriumst, T. Ad. 205, that also I can bear, however so unfair. From an adverb, quamquam became a conjunction, although.

1900. (2.) quamquam, although, introduces the indicative in the concession of a definite fact. In the later writers it is also sometimes used with the subjunctive, sometimes with a participle or an adjective.

(a.) quamquam premuntur aere aliēnō, dominātiōnem tamen exspectant, C. 2, 19, though they are staggering under debt, they yet look forward to being lords and masters. quamquam nōn vēnit ad fīnem tam audāx inceptum, tamen haud omnīnō vānum fuit, L. 10, 32, 5, though the bold attempt did not attain its purpose, yet it was not altogether fruitless. This is the classical use; but see 1901. (b.) nam et tribūnīs plēbis senātūs habendī iūs erat, quamquam senātōrēs nōn essent, Varro in Gell. 14, 8, 2, for even the tribunes of the people, though they were not senators, had the right to hold a meeting of the senate. haud cunctātus est Germānicus, quamquam fingī ea intellegeret, Ta. 2, 26, Germanicus did not delay, though he was aware this was all made up. This use is found first in Varro, often in the Augustan poets, sometimes in Livy, always in Juvenal. It does not become common before Tacitus and the younger Pliny. (c.) sequente, quamquam nōn probante, Amynandrō, L. 31, 41, 7, Amynander accompanying though not approving (1374). nē Aquītānia quidem, quamquam in verba Othōnis obstricta, diū mānsit, Ta. H. 1, 76, Aquitania, though bound by the oath of allegiance to Otho, did not hold out long either. This use is found once each in Cicero and Sallust, half a dozen times in Livy, oftener in Tacitus.

1901. The subjunctive is also used often with quamquam for special reasons, as by attraction (1728), in indirect discourse (1725), and of action conceivable (1731).

1902. For quamquam appending a fresh main sentence, see 2153; for its use with the infinitive, 2317.

quam vīs or quamvīs .

1903. quam vīs or quamvīs is used as an indefinite adverb (712), as much as you please, and is often joined with an adjective or other adverb to take the place of a superlative: as,

quam vīs rīdiculus est, ubī̆ uxor nōn adest, Pl. Men. 318, he’s as droll as you please when his wife isn’t by. quamveis īnsipiēns poterat persentīscere, Pl. Merc. 687, the veriest dullard could detect. quamvīs paucī adīre audent, 4, 2, 5, the merest handful dares attack. quamvīs callidē, V. 2, 134, ever so craftily. quamvīs is also sometimes used to strengthen a superlative (1466), though not in classical prose.

1904. (1.) The indefinite adverb quam vīs, as much as you please, is often used in subjunctive clauses of concession or permission; such subjunctives are sometimes coordinated with licet: as,

quod turpe est, id quam vīs occultētur, tamen honestum fierī nūllō modō potest, Off. 3, 78, if a thing is base, let it be hidden as much as you will, yet it cannot be made respectable (1553). locus hīc apud nōs, quam vīs subitō veniās, semper līber est, Pl. B. 82, our house is always open, come as sudden as you may (1553). praeter eōs quam vīs ēnumerēs multōs licet, nōnnūllōs reperiēs perniciōsōs tribūnōs, Leg. 3, 24, besides these you may tell off as many as you please, you will still find some dangerous tribunes (1710). The combination with licet occurs first in Lucretius, then in Cicero.

Instead of vīs, other forms are sometimes used: as, volumus, volent, velit, &c.: thus, quam volent facētī sint, Cael. 67, they may be as witty as they please (1735). quam volet Epicūrus iocētur et dīcat sē nōn posse intellegere, numquam mē movēbit, DN. 2, 46, Epicurus may joke and say he can’t understand it as much as he likes, he will never shake me. From an adverb, quam vīs became a conjunction, however much, even if.

1905. (2.) The subjunctive with the conjunction quamvīs, however much, even if, though, denotes action merely assumed; when the action is to be denoted as real, ut or sīcut or the like, with the indicative, usually follows in the best prose (1943): as,

(a.) quamvīs sint hominēs quī Cn. Carbōnem ōderint, tamen hī dēbent quid metuendum sit cōgitāre, V. 1, 39, though there may be men who hate Carbo, still these men ought to consider what they have to fear. nōn enim possīs, quamvīs excellās, L. 73, you may not have the power, however eminent you may be. This use begins with Cicero and Varro, and gets common in late writers. Not in Livy. (b.) illa quamvīs rīdicula essent, sīcut erant, mihī̆ tamen rīsum nōn mōvērunt, Fam. 7, 32, 3, droll as this really was, it nevertheless did not make me laugh. quamvīs enim multīs locīs dīcat Epicūrus, sīcutī dīcit, satis fortiter dē dolōre, tamen nōn id spectandum est quid dīcat, Off. 3, 117, even though Epicurus really does speak in many places pretty heroically about pain, still we must not have an eye to what he says. In the Augustan poets rarely, and often in Tacitus, the younger Pliny, and late writers, the subjunctive, without a parenthetical phrase introduced by ut or the like, is used of an action denoted as real: as, expalluit notābiliter, quamvīs palleat semper, Plin. Ep. 1, 5, 13, he grew pale perceptibly, though he is always a pale man. maestus erat, quamvīs laetitiam simulāret, Ta. 15, 54, sad he was, though he pretended to be gay.

1906. quamvīs, even if, though, is also sometimes used with the indicative (1900): as,

erat dignitāte rēgiā, quamvīs carēbat nōmine, N. 1, 2, 3, he had the authority of a king, though not the title. quamvīs tacet Hermogenēs, cantor est, H. S. 1, 3, 129, though he open not his mouth, Hermogenes remains a singer still. This use occurs twice in Lucretius, once in Cicero, Nepos, and Livy each, in Varro, in the Augustan poets, and sometimes in late writers. Not in Tacitus, Pliny the younger, Juvenal, Martial, or Suetonius.

1907. It may be mentioned here that the indefinite adverb quamlibet, however you please, is used in subjunctive clauses of concession or permission (1904) once or twice by Lucretius, Ovid, and Quintilian. Velleius has it with the participle, a construction sometimes found with quamvīs in late writers.

tamquam.

1908. tamquam, just as, introduces an indicative protasis in periods of comparison.

The tam properly belongs to the apodosis and is attracted to the protasis. tamquam has sometimes as correlative sīc or ita.

tē hortor ut tamquam poētae bonī solent, sīc tū in extrēmā parte mūneris tuī dīligentissimus sīs, QFr. 1, 1, 46, I urge you to be very particular at the end of your task, just as good poets always are. tamquam philosophōrum habent disciplinae ex ipsīs vocābula, parasītī ita ut Gnathōnicī vocentur, T. Eu. 263, that so parasites may be called Gnathonites even as schools of philosophy are named from the masters. Usually, however, ut (1944) or quemadmodum is used in this sense; and tamquam occurs oftenest in abridged sentences (1057), particularly to show that an illustration is untrue or figurative: as, Odyssīa Latīna est sīc tamquam opus aliquod Daedalī, Br. 71, the Odyssey in Latin is, you may say, a regular work of Daedalus. oculī tamquam speculātōrēs altissimum locum obtinent, DN. 2, 140, the eyes occupy the highest part, as a sort of watchmen.

1909. In late writers, especially in Tacitus, tamquam is often used to introduce a reason or motive, or a thought indirectly expressed: as,

invīsus tamquam plūs quam cīvīlia agitāret, Ta. 1, 12, hated on the ground that his designs were too lofty for a private citizen (1725). lēgātōs increpuit, tamquam nōn omnēs reōs perēgissent, Plin. Ep. 3, 9, 36, he reproved the embassy ‘for not having completed the prosecution of all the defendants’ (1852, 1725). suspectus tamquam ipse suās incenderit aedīs, J. 3, 222, suspected of having set his own house afire.

1910. For tamquam instead of tamquam sī, see 2118; with a participle, 2121.

antequam , priusquam .

1911. antequam and priusquam accompany both the indicative and the subjunctive.

ante and prius properly belong to the apodosis, and regularly stand with it if it is negative; but otherwise they are usually attracted to the protasis.

antequam is very seldom found in old Latin, and it is in general much rarer than priusquam, except in Tacitus.

IN GENERAL STATEMENTS.

1912. In general present statements, antequam and priusquam regularly introduce the perfect indicative or the present subjunctive: as,

membrīs ūtimur priusquam didicimus cuius ea causā ūtilitātis habeāmus, Fin. 3, 66, we always use our limbs before we learn for what purposes of utility we have them (1613). priusquam lūcet, adsunt, Pl. MG. 709, before ’tis light they’re always here; here lūcet is equivalent to inlūxit. ante vidēmus fulgōrem quam sonum audiāmus, Sen. QN. 2, 12, 6, we always see the flash before we hear the sound. priusquam sēmen mātūrum siet, secātō, Cato, RR. 53, always cut before the seed is ripe (1575). With the perfect subjunctive in the indefinite second person (1030): as, hoc malum opprimit antequam prōspicere potuerīs, V. 1, 39, this calamity always overwhelms you before you can anticipate it (1731, 1558). For prius quam, sooner than, see 1897.

1913. The future indicative is used a few times in general statements by old and late writers, and the perfect subjunctive after a negative clause rarely by Tacitus: as, bovēs priusquam in viam agēs, pice cornua īnfima unguitō, Cato, RR. 72, always smear the hoofs of your oxen with pitch before you drive them on the road (1625, 1577). deū̆m honor prīncipī nōn ante habētur quam agere inter hominēs dēsierit, Ta. 15, 74, divine honours are not paid to an emperor before he has ceased to live among men. Cicero has the perfect subjunctive in a definition: thus, prōvidentia, per quam futūrum aliquid vidētur antequam factum sit, Inv. 2, 160, foresight is the faculty through which a future event is seen before it has taken place. He also has the present indicative once: Div. 1, 120.

1914. In general past statements antequam and priusquam introduce the subjunctive imperfect or pluperfect; but this use is very rare: as, dormīre priusquam somni cupīdō esset, S. C. 13, 3, a-sleeping always before they felt sleepy. ita saepe magna indolēs virtūtis, priusquam rē̆ī pūblicae prōdesse potuisset, extīncta est, Ph. 5, 47, thus character of unusual promise was oftentimes cut off, before it could do the government any good.

IN PARTICULAR STATEMENTS.

1915. In particular present or future statements, antequam and priusquam introduce a present, either indicative or subjunctive; in future statements the future perfect is also used, and regularly when the main verb is future perfect: as,

antequam ad sententiam redeō, dē mē pauca dīcam, C. 4, 20, before I come back to the motion, I will say a little about myself (1593). est etiam prius quam abīs quod volo loquī, Pl. As. 232, there’s something else I want to say before you go. antequam veniat in Pontum, litterās ad Cn. Pompēium mittet, Agr. 2, 53, before he reaches Pontus, he will send a letter to Pompey. prius quam ad portam veniās, est pistrīlla, T. Ad. 583, there’s a little bakery just before you get to the gate. nihil contrā disputābō priusquam dīxerit, Fl. 51, I will not argue to the contrary before he has spoken (1626). neque prius, quam dēbellāverō, absistam, L. 49, 39, 9, and I will not leave off before I have brought the war to an end. sī quid mihī̆ acciderit priusquam hōc tantum malī vīderō, Mil. 99, if anything shall befall me before I see this great calamity. neque prōmittō quicquam neque respondeō prius quam gnātum vīderō, T. Ph. 1044, I’m not promising anything nor making any answer before I see my son (1593). Tacitus uses neither the present indicative nor the future perfect.

1916. In old Latin the future and the perfect subjunctive also occur: as,

prius quam quoiquam convīvae dabis, gustātō tūte prius, Pl. Ps. 885, before you help a single guest, taste first yourself; but Terence does not use the future, and it is found only once or twice later. nūllō pactō potest prius haec in aedīs recipī, quam illam āmīserim, Pl. MG. 1095. on no terms can I take my new love to the house, before I’ve let the old love drop; but usually the perfect subjunctive is due to indirect discourse.

1917. In particular past statements antequam and priusquam introduce the perfect indicative, especially when the apodosis is negative. The imperfect subjunctive rarely occurs, chiefly in late writers.

(a.) omnia ista ante facta sunt quam iste Ītaliam attigit, V. 2, 161, all these incidents occurred before the defendant set foot in Italy. neque prius fugere dēstitērunt quam ad Rhēnum pervēnērunt, 1, 53, 1, and they did not stay their flight before they fairly arrived at the Rhine. prius quam hinc abiīt quīndecim mīles minās dederat, Pl. Ps. 53, the captain had paid down fifteen minae before he left here. (b.) nec prius sunt vīsī quam castrīs adpropinquārent, 6, 37, 2, they were not seen before they drew near to the camp. This use of the imperfect subjunctive, not to be confounded with that mentioned in 1919, is not found in old Latin or in Cicero. It is found in Nepos and Livy.

1918. The present indicative also occurs in particular past statements in old Latin: as, is priusquam moritur mihi dedit, Pl. Cu. 637, before he died he gave it me. The indicative imperfect occurs four times in Livy and once in late Latin, the pluperfect once in old Latin and once in Cicero.

1919. When the action of the protasis was forestalled, or when action conceivable or purpose is expressed, antequam and priusquam regularly introduce the imperfect subjunctive in particular past statements: as,

plērīque interfectī sunt, priusquam occultum hostem vidērent, L. 35, 29, 3, most of them were slain before they could see the hidden enemy. antequam verbum facerem, dē sellā surrēxit, V. 4, 147, before I could utter a word he arose from his seat. pervēnit priusquam Pompēius sentīre posset, Caes. C. 3, 67, 4, he arrived before Pompey should be able to learn of his coming (1725). The present and perfect subjunctive occur rarely, generally when the main clause contains a present of vivid narration (1590). The imperfect is not found in old Latin.

1920. The perfect indicative or imperfect subjunctive with antequam is often used attributively with nouns denoting time: as,

fābulam docuit, annō ipsō ante quam nātus est Ennius, Br. 72, he exhibited a play just a year before Ennius was born. ducentīs annīs ante quam Rōmam caperent, in Ītaliam Gallī trānscendērunt, L. 5, 33, 5, two hundred years before they took Rome, the Gauls crossed over to Italy. The pluperfect also occurs, when the main verb is pluperfect: as, Stāiēnus bienniō antequam causam recēpisset, sescentīs mīllibus nummūm sē iūdicium conruptūrum dīxerat, Clu. 68, Stajenus had said two years before he undertook the case, that he would bribe the court for six hundred thousand sesterces.

1921. The pluperfect subjunctive is rarely introduced by antequam or priusquam except in indirect discourse: as,

antequam dē meō adventū audīre potuissent, in Macedoniam perrēxī, Pl. 98, before they should be able to hear of my arrival, I proceeded to Macedonia (1725). āvertit equōs in castra priusquam pābula gustāssent Trōiae Xanthumque bibissent, V. 1, 472, he drave the horses off to camp, or ever they should taste of Troja’s grass and Xanthus drink (1725).

1922. It may be mentioned here that postrīdiē quam and prīdiē quam occur a few times in Plautus and Cicero with the indicative; postrīdiē quam with the indicative in Suetonius; and prīdiē quam with the subjunctive in Livy, Valerius Maximus, and Suetonius.

posteā quam or postquam .

ubī̆, ut, cum prīmum, simul atque.

1923. With posteā quam, postquam (posquam), after, the following words may conveniently be treated: ubī̆, ut, when; ubī̆ prīmum, ut prīmum, cum prīmum, when first, and in Plautus quom extemplō; simul atque (or ac, less frequently et or ut, or simul alone), at the same time with, as soon as.

postquam, ubī̆, ut, cum prīmum, simul atque, accompany the indicative.

For examples of the use of tenses, see 1924-1934.

1924. In clauses introduced by posteā quam or postquam, the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive, found a dozen times in the manuscripts of Cicero’s works and elsewhere, is generally corrected in modern editions or usually the conjunctive particle is emended to posteā quom (cum). But the subjunctive may of course be used with this and the other particles mentioned in 1923 for special reasons, as with the indefinite second person (1731), by attraction (1728), and in indirect discourse (1725). For the subjunctive of repeated past action with ubī̆ and ut, see 1932. The infinitive of intimation occurs in Tacitus (1539): as, postquam exuī aequālitās, prōvēnēre dominātiōnēs, Ta. 3, 26, after equality between man and man was dropped, there came a crop of tyrants.

1925. In narration the perfect indicative is regularly used in clauses introduced by postquam, ubī̆, ut, cum prīmum, simul atque (1739): as,

postquam tuās litterās lēgī, Postumia tua mē convēnit, Fam. 4, 2, 1, after I read your letter, your Postumia called on me. postquam aurum abstulimus, in nāvem cōnscendimus, Pl. B. 277, after we got away the money, we took ship. ubī̆ ad ipsum vēnī dēvorticulum, cōnstitī, T. Eu. 635, when I came exactly to the side street, I pulled up. ubī̆ sē diūtius dūcī intellēxit, graviter eōs accūsat, 1, 16, 5, when he came to see that he was put off a good while, he takes them roundly to task. quī ut perōrāvit, surrēxit Clōdius, QFr. 2, 3, 2, when he had finished speaking, up jumped Clodius. ut abiī abs tē, fit forte obviam mihi Phormiō, T. Ph. 617, when I left you, Phormio happened to fall in my way. crīmen eius modī est, ut, cum prīmum ad mē dēlātum est, ūsūrum mē illō nōn putārem, V. 5, 158, the charge is of such a sort that, when first it was reported to me, I thought I should not use it. cum prīmum Crētae lītus attigit, nūntiōs mīsit, L. 37, 60, 4, as soon as he touched the shore of Crete, he sent messengers. ut prīmum loquī posse coepī, inquam, RP. 6, 15, as soon as I began to be able to speak, I said. quem simul atque oppidānī cōnspexērunt, mūrum complēre coepērunt, 7, 12, 5, as soon as the garrison espied him, they began to man the wall. at hostēs, ubī̆ prīmum nostrōs equitēs cōnspexērunt, impetū factō celeriter nostrōs perturbāvērunt, 4, 12, 1, but as soon as the enemy caught sight of our cavalry, they attacked and threw our men into disorder. The conjunction simul atque is very rarely found in old Latin.

1926. The present indicative of vivid narration (1590) sometimes occurs: as,

postquam iam puerī septuennēs sunt, pater onerāvit nāvim magnam, Pl. Men. prol. 24, after the boys were seven year olds, their father freighted a big ship. quid ait, ubi mē nōminās, T. Hau. 303, what sayeth she when you name me? ubī̆ neutrī trānseundī initium faciunt, Caesar suōs in castra redūxit, 2, 9, 2, neither party taking the initiative in crossing, Caesar marched his men back to camp. Verbs of perceiving, especially videō, occur oftenest in this use, which is common in Plautus and Terence: as, postquam videt nūptiās adparārī, missast ancilla īlicō, T. Andr. 513, after she sees a marriage on foot, her maid is sent forthwith. abeō ab illīs, postquam videō mē lūdificārier, Pl. Cap. 487, seeing myself made game of, I leave them. quem posteā quam videt nōn adesse, ardēre atque furere coepit, V. 2, 92, seeing that the man does not appear, he began to rage and fume. ubī̆ hoc videt, init cōnsilium importūnī tyrannī, V. 5, 103, seeing this, he adopted the policy of a savage tyrant. Plautus uses also quom extemplō. Such protases often take on a causal sense (see also 1930).

1927. The present or perfect with postquam or ut is sometimes used in expressions equivalent to an emphasized accusative or ablative of time, the main verb being est or sunt: as, septingentī sunt annī postquam inclita condita Rōma est, E. in Varro, RR. 3, 1, 2, ’tis seven hundred years since glorious Rome was founded. domō ut abiērunt hic tertius annus, Pl. St. 29, this is the third year since they left home. annus est octāvus ut imperium obtinēs, Ta. 14, 53, it is the eighth year since you acquired empire. For a similar use of cum, see 1871.

1928. The pluperfect with postquam, denoting resulting state (1615), occurs less frequently: as,

tum cum P. Āfricānus, posteā quam bis cōnsul fuerat, L. Cottam in iūdicium vocābat, Caecil. 69, at the time when Africanus, after he had twice been consul, was bringing Cotta to judgement. postquam omnium oculōs occupāverat certāmen, tum āversam adoriuntur Rōmānam aciem, L. 22, 48, 4, when every eye was fairly riveted on the engagement, that instant they fell upon the Romans in the rear. Not in Plautus, once in Terence, and rare in classical writers.

1929. The pluperfect, less frequently the perfect, with postquam is used attributively with nouns denoting time.

In this use post is often separated from quam, and two constructions are possible: (a.) Ablative: annō post quam vōta erat aedēs Monētae dēdicātur, L. 7, 28, 6, the temple of Moneta is dedicated a year after it was vowed. Without post: quadringentēsimō annō quam urbs Rōmanā condita erat, patriciī cōnsulēs magistrātum iniēre, L. 7, 18, 1, four hundred years after Rome town was founded, patrician consuls entered into office. (b.) Accusative, with an ordinal, and post as a preposition, or, sometimes, intrā: post diem tertium gesta rēs est quam dīxerat, Mil. 44, the deed was done the next day but one after he said it. See 2419.

1930. The imperfect with postquam expresses action continuing into the time of the main action. Such a protasis, especially when negative, usually denotes the cause of the main action: as,

Appius, postquam nēmō adībat, domum sē recēpit, L. 3, 46, 9, Appius, finding that nobody presented himself, went back home. posteā quam ē scaenā explōdēbātur, cōnfūgit in huius domum, RC. 30, after being repeatedly hissed off the stage, he took refuge in my client’s house.

In old Latin this use is found only once, in Plautus; it is most common in Livy, but occurs frequently in Tacitus. So occasionally the present, generally when the main action is present (see also 1926): as, postquam nec ab Rōmānīs vōbīs ūlla est spēs, nec vōs moenia dēfendunt, pācem adferō ad vōs, L. 21, 13, 4, now that it has become plain that you have no hope from the Romans, and that your walls are no protection to you, I bring peace unto you. postquam līberast, ubī̆ habitet dīcere admodum incertē sciō, Pl. E. 505, now that she’s free, I’m quite too ill informed to say where she lives. quae omnia intellegit nihil prōdesse, posteā quam testibus convincitur, V. 5, 103, he knows that all this is fruitless, now that he is being refuted by witnesses. The perfect with postquam or ut occurs occasionally in this use with the present in the main clause: as, animus in tūtō locōst, postquam iste hinc abiīt, Pl. Ps. 1052, my mind is easy, now that fellow’s gone. nam ut in nāvī vecta’s, crēdō timida ‘s, Pl. B. 106, for after your voyage, of course you’re nervous.

1931. postquam and ut have sometimes the meaning of ever since or as long as: as,

postquam nātus sum, satur numquam fuī, Pl. St. 156, since I was born I’ve never had enough to eat. tibī̆ umquam quicquam, postquam tuos sum, verbōrum dedī? Pl. Most. 925, have I once ever cheated you as long as I have been your slave? neque meum pedem intulī in aedīs, ut cum exercitū hinc profectus sum, Pl. Am. 733, I have n’t set foot in the house ever since I marched out with the army. ut illōs dē rē pūblicā librōs ēdidistī, nihil ā tē posteā accēpimus, Br. 19, we have had nothing from you since you published the work On the State.

ubī̆ , ut , simul atque .

1932. ubī̆, ut, or simul atque (ac) often introduces a clause denoting indefinite or repeated action: as,

adeō obcaecat animōs fortūna, ubī̆ vim suam refringī nōn vult, L. 5, 37, 1, so completely does fortune blind the mind when she will not have her power thwarted. ubī̆ salūtātiō dēflūxit, litterīs mē involvō, Fam. 9, 20, 3, when my callers go, I always plunge into my book (1613). omnēs profectō mulierēs tē amant, ut quaeque aspexit, Pl. MG. 1264, all the ladies love you, every time one spies you. simul atque sē īnflēxit hīc rēx in dominātum iniūstiōrem, fit continuō tyrannus, RP. 2, 48, for the moment our king turns to a severer kind of mastery, he becomes a tyrant on the spot. Messānam ut quisque nostrūm vēnerat, haec vīsere solēbat, V. 4, 5, any Roman, who visited Messana, invariably went to see these statues (1618). hostēs, ubī̆ aliquōs singulārēs cōnspexerant, adoriēbantur, 4, 26, 2, every time the enemy saw some detached parties, they would charge. The imperfect in this use is not common in classical writers, and occurs but once, with ubī̆, in old Latin; the pluperfect is rare before the silver age. Clauses with ut generally contain some form of quisque (2396). Plautus uses quom extemplō with the present and perfect. The subjunctive is found with ubī̆ and ut quisque in cases of repeated past action (1730).

1933. ubī̆, ut, or simul atque rarely introduces an imperfect or pluperfect of definite time: as,

quid ubi reddēbās aurum, dīxistī patrī, Pl. B. 685, what did you tell your father when you were returning the money? ubī̆ lūx adventābat, tubicinēs sīgna canere, S. I. 99, 1, when daylight was drawing on, the trumpeters sounded the call. ubī̆ nēmō obvius ībat, plēnō gradū ad hostium castra tendunt, L. 9, 45, 14, finding nobody came to meet them, they advanced double quick upon the enemy’s camp (1930). The use of these tenses referring to definite time is very rare in old Latin, and found only with ut in Cicero.

1934. ubī̆ or simul atque, referring to definite time, introduces the future or future perfect, when the apodosis is also future: as,

simul et quid erit certī, scrībam ad tē, Att. 2, 20, 2, as soon as there is anything positive, I will write to you. ego ad tē statim habēbō quod scrībam, simul ut vīderō Cūriōnem, Att. 10, 4, 12, I shall have something to write you, as soon as ever I see Curio. nam ubī̆ mē aspiciet, ad carnuficem rapiet continuō senex, Pl. B. 688, when the old man sees me, he’ll hurry me off to Jack Ketch without any ado. ubi prīmum poterit, sē illinc subdūcet, T. Eu. 628, she’ll steal away as soon as she can. Plautus has also quom extemplō in this use, and Pliny the Younger ut primum.

utī or ut .

1935. The relative adverb utī or ut (711) is found in the oldest Latin in the form utei, but ut was the prevalent form even in the time of Plautus. As a conjunctive particle, it accompanies both the indicative and the subjunctive. For ut in wishes, see 1540; in questions, 1568.

WITH THE INDICATIVE.

(A.) ut, where.

1936. utī or ut in the rare signification of where, accompanies the indicative: as, atque in eōpse adstās lapide, ut praecō praedicat, Pl. B. 815, and there you stand right on the auction block, just where the crier always cries. sīve in extrēmōs penetrābit Indōs, lītus ut longē resonante Eōā tunditur undā, Cat. 11, 2, or shall he pierce to farthest Ind, where by the long-resounding eastern wave the strand is lashed. In classical Latin, ut in this sense is used only by the poets, as here and there in Lucilius, Catullus, Cicero’s Aratēa, and Vergil. ubī̆ is the word regularly used. For ut, when, see 1923.

(B.) ut, as.

1937. The indicative is used in the protasis of a comparative period introduced by utī or ut, as.

ut often has as a correlative ita, item, itidem, sīc, perinde, or similiter, and sometimes in old Latin and poetry aequē, adaequē, pariter, nōn aliter, nōn secus, īdem. sīc is sometimes drawn to the protasis, making sīcutī, sīcut; utī is sometimes strengthened by vel, making velutī, velut, even as, just as. quemadmodum often, and quōmodo sometimes, stands for ut. For the use of ut in old Latin in sentences in which classical Latin would employ the indirect question, see 1791. For coordinated comparative sentences without ut, see 1704.

perge ut īnstituistī, RP. 2, 22, go on as you have begun. ut volēs mēd esse, ita erō, Pl. Ps. 240, as you will have me be, so will I be (1625). ut sēmentem fēceris, ita metēs, DO. 2, 261, as you sow, y’are like to reap (1626). ut nōn omnem frūgem in omnī agrō reperīre possīs, sīc nōn omne facinus in omnī vītā nāscitur, RA. 75, every crime does not start into being in every life, any more than you can find every fruit in every field (1731). Also in asseverations: ita mē dī amābunt, ut ego hunc auscultō lubēns, Pl. Aul. 496, so help me heaven, as I am glad to hear this man (1622).

1938. ut... ita or sīc, as... so, often stand where concessive and adversative conjunctions might be used; while... nevertheless, although... yet, certainly... but: as,

ut nihil bonī est in morte, sīc certē nihil malī, L. 14, while there is nothing good after death, yet certainly there is nothing bad. quō factō sīcut glōriam auxit, ita grātiam minuit, Suet. Oth. 1, by this action he increased his reputation, but lessened his popularity. nec ut iniūstus in pāce rēx, ita dux bellī prāvus fuit, L. 1, 53, 1, but while he was an unjust king in peace, he was not a bad leader in war. This adversative correlation is found sometimes in Cicero, but is far more common in late writers.

1939. ut quisque, commonly with a superlative expression, is used in the protasis of a comparative period of equality, with ita or sīc and commonly another superlative expression in the apodosis: as,

ut quaeque rēs est turpissima, sīc maximē vindicanda est, Caec. 7, the more disgraceful a thing is, the more emphatically does it call for punishment. ut quisque optimē Graecē scīret, ita esse nēquissimum, DO. 2, 265, that the better Greek scholar a man was, the greater rascal he always was (1722). This construction is often abridged: as, sapientissimus quisque aequissimō animō moritur, CM. 83, the sage always dies with perfect resignation. optimus quisque praeceptor frequentiā gaudet, Quint. 1, 2, 9, the best teachers always revel in large classes. See 2397.

1940. ut often introduces a parenthetical idea, particularly a general truth or a habit which accounts for the special fact expressed in the main sentence: as,

nēmō, ut opīnor, in culpā est, Clu. 143, nobody, as I fancy, is to blame. excitābat flūctūs in simpulō, ut dīcitur, Grātidius, Leg. 3, 36, Gratidius was raising a tempest in a teapot, as the saying is. paulisper, dum sē uxor, ut fit, comparat, commorātus est, Mil. 28, he had to wait a bit, as is always the case, while his wife was putting on her things. hōrum auctōritāte adductī, ut sunt Gallōrum subita cōnsilia, Trebium retinent, 3, 8, 3, influenced by these people they detain Trebius, as might have been expected, sudden resolutions being always characteristic of the Gauls. sēditiōne nūntiātā, ut erat laenā amictus, ita vēnit in cōntiōnem, Br. 56, an outbreak was reported, and he came to the meeting all accoutred as he was, with his sacrificial robe on. Often elliptically: as, acūtī hominis, ut Siculī, TD. 1, 15, a bright man, of course, being a Sicilian. Aequōrum exercitus, ut quī permultōs annōs imbellēs ēgissent, trepidāre, L. 9, 45, 10, the army of the Aequians alarmed and irresolute, and naturally, since they had passed a great many years without fighting (1824, 1827).

1941. ut, as for example, is used in illustrations, particularly in abridged sentences (1057): as,

genus est quod plūrēs partēs amplectitur, ut ‘animal.’ pars est, quae subest generī, ut ‘equos,’ Inv. 1, 32, a class is what embraces a number of parts, as ‘living thing’; a part is what is included in a class, as ‘horse.’ sunt bēstiae in quibus inest aliquid simile virtūtis, ut in leōnibus, ut in canibus, Fin. 5, 38, there are brutes in which there is a something like the moral quality of man, as for instance the lion and the dog.

1942. The parenthetical clause with ut or prout sometimes makes an allowance for the meaning of a word, usually an adjective, in the main sentence: as,

cīvitās ampla atque flōrēns, ut est captus Germānōrum, 4, 3, 3, a grand and prosperous community, that is according to German conceptions. ut captus est servōrum, nōn malus, T. Ad. 480, not a bad fellow, as slaves go. Sthenius ab adulēscentiā haec comparārat, supellēctilem ex aere ēlegantiōrem, tabulās pīctās, etiam argentī bene factī prout Thermītānī hominis facultātēs ferēbant, satis, V. 2, 83, Sthenius had been a collector from early years of such things as artistic bronzes, pictures; also of curiously wrought silver a goodly amount, that is as the means of a Thermae man went. Often in abridged sentences: as, scrīptor fuit, ut temporibus illīs, lūculentus, Br. 102, he was a brilliant historian for the times. multae etiam, ut in homine Rōmānō, litterae, CM. 12, furthermore, extensive reading, that is for a Roman. ut illīs temporibus, praedīves, L. 4, 13, 1, a millionaire, for those times.

1943. ut, as indeed, as in fact, with the indicative, is used to represent that an action supposed, conceded, or commanded, really occurs: as,

sit Ennius sānē, ut est certē, perfectior, Br. 76, grant, for aught I care, that Ennius is a more finished poet, as indeed he is. utī erat rēs, Metellum esse ratī, S. I. 69, 1, supposing that it was Metellus, as in fact it was. This use begins in the classical period. It is found particularly with quamvīs, 1905; with sī, see 2017.

1944. ut, as, like, sometimes shows that a noun used predicatively is not literally applicable, but expresses an imputed quality or character: as,

Cicerō ea quae nunc ūsū veniunt cecinit ut vātēs, N. 25, 16, 4, Cicero foretold what is now actually occurring, like a bard inspired. canem et faelem ut deōs colunt, Leg. 1, 32, they bow the knee to dog and cat as gods. quod mē sīcut alterum parentem dīligit, Fam. 5, 8, 4, because he loves me like a second father. rēgiae virginēs, ut tōnstrīculae, tondēbant barbam patris, TD. 5, 58, the princesses used to shave their father, just like common barber-girls. In an untrue or a merely figurative comparison tamquam (1908) or quasi is used.

1945. In old Latin, prae is combined with ut: praeut, compared with how: as, parum etiam, praeut futūrumst, praedicās, Pl. Am. 374, you say too little still compared with how ’twill be. praeut is sometimes followed by a relative clause: as, lūdum iocumque dīcet fuisse illum alterum, praeut huius rabiēs quae dabit, T. Eu. 300, he’ll say the other was but sport and play, compared with what this youth will in his frenzy do.

1946. In Plautus sīcut, with the indicative, has once or twice the meaning of since: as, quīn tū illam iubē abs tē abīre quō lubet: sīcut soror eius hūc gemina vēnit Ephesum, MG. 974, why, bid her go away from you wherever she may choose, since her twin sister here to Ephesus is come.

WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

utī or ut.
NEGATIVE ut nē, nē, or ut nōn.

1947. The subjunctive with ut is: (A.) That of action desired (1540), in clauses of purpose; in these the negative is nē, or sometimes ut nē, and and that not, nēve or neu, rarely neque or nec. ut nē, though used at all periods (not by Caesar, Sallust, or Livy), is chiefly found in older Latin; afterwards nē alone took its place (1706). ut nōn is used when the negative belongs to a single word. (B.) That of action conceivable (1554), in clauses of result; in these the negative is ut nōn, ut nēmō, ut nūllus, &c.; or with emphasis on the negative, nēmō ut, nūllus ut, nihil ut; also vix ut, paene ut, prope ut.

1948. Final and consecutive clauses with ut are of two classes: I. Complementary clauses, that is, such as are an essential complement of certain specific verbs or expressions; such clauses have the value of a substantive, and may represent a subject, an object, or any oblique case. II. Pure final or consecutive clauses, in which the purpose or result of any action may be expressed, and which are not essential to complete the sense of a verb.

(A.) Purpose.

I. Complementary Final Clauses.

1949. (1.) The subjunctive with ut or nē is used in clauses which serve to complete the sense of verbs of will or aim.

1950. (a.) Verbs of will include those of desire, request, advice, resolution, stipulation, command, or permission.

Will may be suggested by a general verb or expression: as, dīcō, respondeō, nūntiō, &c.; or denoted by specific ones, of which some of the commonest are: desire: volō (mālō), concupīscō, optō. request: petō, postulō, flāgitō, ōrō, rogō, precor, obsecrō, implōrō, instō, urge, invītō. advice: suādeō, persuādeō, persuade, moneō, bid, admoneō, hortor, cēnseō, propose, vote. resolution, stipulation: dēcernō, statuō, decree, cōnstituō, placet, sanciō, pacīscor, pepigī. command: imperō, praecipiō, praescrībō, mandō, negōtium dō, ēdīcō, ferō, caveō, interdīcō. permission: concēdō, allow, permittō, committō, potestātem faciō, veniam dō, sinō, nōn patior.

1951. (b.) Verbs of aim include those of striving, accomplishing, or inducing; such are:

striving: agō or id agō, animum indūcō, temptō, operam dō, labōrō, nītor, ēnītor, mōlior, videō, prōspiciō, cūrō, nihil antīquius habeō quam, contendō, studeō, pūgnō. accomplishing: faciō (efficiō, perficiō), praestō; mereō; impetrō, adsequor, cōnsequor, adipīscor. inducing: moveō, excitō, incitō, impellō, perpellō, cōgō.

(a.) optāvit ut in currum patris tollerētur, Off. 3, 94, he asked to be lifted into his father’s chariot. optō nē sē illa gēns moveat, Fam. 12, 19, 2, I hope and pray that that nation may not stir. Ubiī ōrābant, ut sibī̆ auxilium ferret, 4, 16, 5, the Ubians begged that he would help them. Pausaniās ōrāre coepit nē ēnūntiāret, N. 4, 4, 6, Pausanias began to beg that he would not tell. hortātus est utī in officiō manēret, 5, 4, 2, he urged him to remain steadfast in duty. hortātur eōs nē animō dēficiant, Caes. C. 1, 19, 1, he urges them not to get disheartened (1752). suīs, ut idem faciant, imperat, 5, 37, 1, he orders his men to do the same. suīs imperāvit nē quod omnīnō tēlum rēicerent, 1, 46, 2, he ordered his men not to throw any weapon at all back. huic permīsit, utī in hīs locīs legiōnem conlocāret, 3, 1, 3, he allowed this man to quarter his legion in these parts. neque suam neque populī Rōmānī cōnsuētūdinem patī, utī sociōs dēsereret, 1, 45, 1, that his practice and that of the Roman nation would not allow him to desert his allies.

(b.) neque id agere ut exercitum teneat ipse, sed nē illī habeant quō contrā sē ūtī possint, Caes. C. 1, 85, 11, and that his object was not to hold the army himself, but to prevent the other side from having an army which they could use against him. XII nāvibus āmissīs, reliquīs ut nāvigārī commodē posset effēcit, 4, 31, 3, a dozen vessels were lost, but he managed to sail comfortably with the rest. eius bellī fāma effēcit nē sē pugnae committerent Sappīnātēs, L. 5, 32, 4, the story of this war prevented the Sappinatians from hazarding an engagement. sī ā Chrȳsogonō nōn impetrāmus ut pecūniā nostrā contentus sit, vītam nē petat, RA. 150, if we do not succeed in making Chrysogonus satisfied with our money without his aiming at our life. Aulum spē pactiōnis perpulit, utī in abditās regiōnēs sēsē īnsequerētur, S. I. 38, 2, Aulus he induced by the hope of a pecuniary settlement to follow him to distant regions. Antōnium pactiōne prōvinciae perpulerat, nē contrā rem pūblicam sentīret, S. C. 26, 4, by agreeing to let Antony have a province, he had induced him not to be disaffected toward the government.

1952. Many of these verbs often have a coordinated subjunctive (1705-1713), or, according to the meaning, admit other constructions, which must in general be learned by reading, or from the dictionary. The following points may be noticed:

1953. (a.) The verbs of resolving, statuō, cōnstituō, and dēcernō, and of striving, nītor, and temptō, have usually the complementary infinitive (2169), unless a new subject is introduced. For volō (mālō), and cupiō, see also 2189; for iubeō, vetō, sinō, and patior, 2198. postulō, expect, often has the same construction as volō, especially in old Latin (2194). For imperō, see 2202.

1954. (b.) Some of the above verbs, with the meaning think or say, have the accusative with the infinitive (2175, 2195): as, volō, contendō, maintain, concēdō, admit, statuō, assume, dēcernō, judge, moneō, remind, persuādeō, convince.

1955. (c.) Verbs of accomplishing sometimes express result rather than purpose, and when the result is negative, are completed by a clause with ut nōn (1965). For the infinitive with such verbs, see 2196.

1956. est with a predicate noun is sometimes equivalent to a verb of will or aim, and has the same construction.

So with words like iūs, lēx, mūnus, &c.: as, iūs esse bellī ut quī vīcissent hīs quōs vīcissent imperārent, 1, 36, 1, that rules of war entitled conquerors to lord it over conquered. quis nescit prīmam esse historiae lēgem, nē quid falsī dīcere audeat? DO. 2, 62, who does not know that the first rule of history is that it shall not venture to say anything false? iūstitiae prīmum mūnus est ut nē cui quis noceat, Off. 1, 20, the first duty of justice is that a man harm nobody. nam id arbitror adprīmē in vītā esse ūtile, ‘ut nē quid nimis,’ T. Andr. 60, for this I hold to be a rule in life that’s passing useful, ‘naught in overplus.’

1957. (2.) The subjunctive with ut or nē is used in clauses which complete expressions of fear, anxiety, or danger.

ut, that not, may not, and nē, lest, may, were originally signs of a wish (1540): thus, vereor, ut fīat, I am afraid; may it come to pass, acquires the meaning of I am afraid it may not come to pass (1706); and vereor, nē fīat, I am afraid; may it not come to pass, of I am afraid it may come to pass. metuō ut is common in old Latin, and is used by Horace, but not by Caesar or Sallust, once by Cicero in the orations. timeō ut is rare, and first used by Cicero. vereor ut is not uncommon.

at vereor ut plācārī possit, T. Ph. 965, but I’m afraid she can’t be reconciled. nē uxor rescīscat metuit, Pl. As. 743, he is afraid his wife may find it out. ō puer, ut sīs vītālis metuō, et maiōrum nē quis amīcus frīgore tē feriat, H. S. 2, 1, 60, my boy, you’ll not see length of days I fear, and that some grander friend may with his coldness cut you dead. nēquid summā dēperdat metuēns aut ampliet ut rem, H. S. 1, 4, 31, in dread lest from his store he something lose or may not add to his estate. metuō nē nōs nōsmet perdiderīmus uspiam, Pl. MG. 428, I’m afraid we’ve lost ourselves somewhere. sollicitus nē turba perēgerit orbem, J. 5, 20, apprehensive that the throng may have finished its round. nē nōn is often, though rarely in old Latin, used for ut, and regularly when the expression of fear is negative: as, nōn vereor nē hoc officium meum P. Servīliō nōn probem, V. 4, 82, I have no fear but I may make my services acceptable in the eyes of Servilius. For nōn metuō quīn, see 1986.

1958. vereor nē is often equivalent to I rather think, and vereor ut to hardly. vidē (videāmus, videndum est) nē, and similar expressions, are sometimes used for vereor nē, to introduce something conjectured rather than proved: as,

vereor nē barbarōrum rēx fuerit, RP. 1, 58, I rather think he was king over savages. vidē nē mea coniectūra multō sit vērior, Clu. 97, I rather think my conjecture is in better keeping with the facts.

1959. Other constructions with expressions of fear are: (a.) Indirect question. (b.) Accusative with infinitive. (c.) Complementary infinitive: as,

(a.) erī semper lēnitās verēbar quorsum ēvāderet, T. Andr. 175, I was afraid how master’s always gentleness would end. timeō quid sit, T. Hau. 620, I have my fears what it may be. timeō quid rērum gesserim, Pl. MG. 397, I am concerned to think what capers I have cut. metuō quid agam, T. Hau. 720, I’m scared and know not what to do (1731). (b.) ego mē cupiditātis rēgnī crīmen subitūrum timērem? L. 2, 7, 9, was I to fear being charged with aspiring to a throne? (c.) vereor cōram in ōs tē laudāre, T. Ad. 269, I am afraid to disgrace you with praise to the face (2168).

1960. (3.) The subjunctive with nē is used in clauses which serve to complete the sense of verbs of avoiding, hindering, and resisting.

Such are: avoiding: caveō, mē ēripiō, vītō. hindering: intercēdō, interdīcō, recūsō, repugnō, temperō; also the following which often have quōminus (1977): dēterreō, impediō, obsistō, obstō, officiō, prohibeō, teneō. resisting: resistō, repugnō, recūsō; with these last often quōminus. Some of the above verbs when preceded by a negative also take quīn (1986); prohibeō and impediō have also the accusative with the infinitive (2203). For the subjunctive coordinated with cavē̆, see 1711.

nē quid eīs noceātur neu quis invītus sacrāmentum dīcere cōgātur ā Caesare cavētur, Caes. C. 1, 86, 4, all precaution is taken by Caesar that no harm be done them, and that nobody be compelled to take the oath against his will. per eōs, nē causam dīceret, sē ēripuit, 1, 4, 2, thanks to this display of retainers he succeeded in avoiding trial. plūra nē scrībam, dolōre impedior, Att. 11, 13, 5, grief prevents me from writing more. nē qua sibī̆ statua pōnerētur restitit, N. 25, 3, 2, he objected to having a statue erected in his honour.

II. Pure Final Clauses.

1961. The subjunctive with ut or nē is used to denote the purpose of the main action.

The purpose is often indicated in the main sentence by an expression like ideō, idcircō, proptereā, eā mente, &c.

vigilās dē nocte, ut tuīs cōnsultōribus respondeās, Mur. 22, you have to get up early in the morning to give advice to your clients. maiōrēs nostrī ab arātrō addūxērunt Cincinnātum, ut dictātor esset, Fin. 2, 12, our fathers brought Cincinnatus from his plough, to be dictator. dīcam auctiōnis causam, ut damnō gaudeant, Pl. St. 207, I’ll tell the reason for the sale, that o’er my losses they may gloat. quīn etiam nē tōnsōrī collum committeret, tondēre fīliās suās docuit, TD. 5, 58, why, he actually taught his own daughters to shave, so as not to trust his throat to a barber. Caesar, nē graviōrī bellō occurreret, ad exercitum proficīscitur, 4, 6, 1, to avoid facing war on a more formidable scale, Caesar goes to the army. tē ulcīscar, ut nē inpūne in nōs inlūseris, T. Eu. 941, I’ll be revenged on you, so that you shan’t play tricks on me for nothing (1947). nē īgnōrārētis esse aliquās pācis vōbīs condiciōnēs, ad vōs vēnī, L. 21, 13, 2, I have come to you to let you know that you have some chances of peace (1754). ita mē gessī nē tibī̆ pudōrī essem, L. 40, 15, 6, I comported myself in such a way that I might not be a mortification to you. Mariōnem ad tē eō mīsī, ut tēcum ad mē venīret, Fam. 16, 1, 1, I sent Mario to you with the intention of having him come with you to me. idcircō nēmō superiōrum attigit, ut hīc tolleret? ideō C. Claudius rettulit, ut C. Verrēs posset auferre? V. 4, 7, was that the reason why no former officials laid a finger on it, that this man might swoop it away? was that why Claudius returned it, that a Verres might carry it off? danda opera est, ut etiam singulīs cōnsulātur, sed ita, ut ea rēs aut prōsit aut certē nē obsit rē̆ī pūblicae, Off. 2, 72, we must be particular in regarding the interests of individuals as well, but with this restriction, that our action may benefit, or at any rate may not damage the country.

1962. The subjunctive with ut or nē is often used not to express the purpose of the main action, but in a parenthetical clause, as though dependant upon some verb unexpressed: as,

ut in pauca cōnferam, testāmentō factō mulier moritur, Caec. 17, to cut a long story short, the woman makes her will and dies. sed ut hīc nē īgnōret, quae rēs agātur: dē nātūrā agēbāmus deōrum, DN. 1, 17, but that our friend here may know what is up: we were just on the nature of the gods. The tense is present, in late writers the perfect, as ut sīc dīxerim, Quint. 1, 6, 1. Here may also be mentioned the use of nēdum (rarely nē or, from Livy on, nēdum ut) with the present subjunctive (rarely the imperfect): as, satrapa numquam sufferre eius sūmptūs queat: nēdum tū possīs, T. Hau. 452, a prince couldn’t stand her extravagance, much less could you. This is found in Terence and Lucretius once each, in Cicero, and later; not in Caesar. The preceding clause is negative or involves a negative idea. From Livy on, the verb may be omitted: as, vix clāmōrem eōrum, nēdum impetum tulēre, L. 34, 20, 7, they hardly stood their war cry, much less their charge.

1963. The subjunctive is used in an assumption or concession with ut or nē, or if the negation belongs to a single word, with ut nōn, nēmō, &c.: as,

ut taceam, quoivīs facile scītū est quam fuerim miser, T. Hec. 296, even supposing I say nothing, anybody can understand how unhappy I was. sed ut haec concēdantur, reliqua quī concēdī possunt? DN. 3, 41, but even supposing this be admitted, how can the rest be admitted? nē sit summum malum dolor, malum certē est, TD. 2, 14, grant that suffering is not the chiefest evil, an evil it assuredly is (1553). vērum ut hoc nōn sit, tamen praeclārum spectāculum mihī̆ prōpōnō, Att. 2, 15, 2, but suppose this be not the case, still I anticipate a gorgeous show. ac iam ut omnia contrā opīniōnem acciderent, tamen sē plūrimum nāvibus posse perspiciēbant, 3, 9, 6, and even supposing everything turned out contrary to expectation, still they saw clearly that they had the advantage by sea. ut enim nēminem alium nisi T. Patinam rogāsset, scīre potuit prōdī flāminem necesse esse, Mil. 46, for even supposing he had asked nobody but Patina, he might have known that a priest must be appointed. This use is common in Cicero, not found in Plautus or Sallust.

1964. The subjunctive with ut or nē, generally with ita as a correlative, sometimes has the force of a proviso: as,

ita probanda est clēmentia, ut adhibeātur sevēritās, Off. 1, 88, mercy is to be commended, provided that strictness is employed. satis memoriae meae tribuent, ut maiōribus meīs dignum crēdant, Ta. 4, 38, they will pay respect enough to my memory, provided they consider me worthy of my ancestors.

(B.) Result.

I. Complementary Consecutive Clauses.

1965. The subjunctive with ut or ut nōn is used in clauses which serve to complete the sense of certain verbs and expressions, chiefly of bringing to pass, happening, and following.

Such are: (a.) faciō, efficiō (unless they imply purpose, 1951); fit, accidit, contingit, ēvenit, est, it is the case; similarly mōs est, cōnsuētūdō est, &c. (b.) proximum est, reliquum est, extrēmum est, relinquitur, restat, accēdit. Or, of logical sequence, sequitur, efficitur.

(a.) fēcērunt ut cōnsimilis fugae profectiō vidērētur, 2, 11, 1, they made their march look exactly like a stampede. splendor vester facit ut peccāre sine summō perīculō nōn possītis, V. 1, 22, your conspicuous position makes it impossible for you to do wrong without great peril. hīs rēbus fīēbat, ut minus lātē vagārentur, 1, 2, 4, so it came to pass that they did not rove round much. fit ut nātūrā ipsā ad ōrnātius dīcendī genus excitēmur, DO. 2, 338, it is sometimes the case that we are roused to a loftier style in oratory by sheer circumstance. potest fierī ut fallar, Fam. 13, 73, 2, it is possible that I am mistaken. fierī nōn potest ut eum tū nōn cōgnōverīs, V. 2, 190, it must be the case that you have made his acquaintance yourself. eādem nocte accidit, ut esset lūna plēna, 4, 29, 1, it came to pass on the same night that there was a full moon (1758). negāvit mōris esse Graecōrum ut in convīviō virōrum accumberent mulierēs, V. 1, 66, he said it was not etiquette among the Greeks for women to go to men’s dinner parties. est hōc commūne vitium in līberīs cīvitātibus, ut invidia glōriae comes sit, N. 12, 3, 3, this is a common trouble in free communities, that envy is the attendant of a great name.

(b.) proximum est, ut doceam, DN. 2, 73, my next task is to prove. relinquēbātur ut neque longius ab āgmine legiōnum discēdī Caesar paterētur, 5, 19, 3, the consequence was that Caesar could not allow any very distant excursion from the main line of march. restat ut doceam omnia hominum causā facta esse, DN. 2, 154, lastly, I must prove that everything is made for man. accēdēbat ut tempestātem ferrent, 3, 13, 9, then, too, they could stand the gale. accēdit ut is not found in old Latin; for accēdit quod, see 1845. ita efficitur ut omne corpus mortāle sit, DN. 3, 30, thus it follows that every bodily substance is mortal. sequitur and efficitur, it follows, often have the accusative with the infinitive (2207). For the subjunctive with quam ut after a comparative of disproportion, see 1896. For fore and futūrum esse ut as the periphrasis for the future infinitive, see 2233.

1966. Verbs of happening may often be rendered best by compacter expressions: thus, hīs rēbus fīēbat ut, consequently; fit ut, once in a while, sometimes, often; fierī potest ut, possibly; accidit ut, accidentally, unfortunately.

1967. faciō ut, or with a negative, commonly committō ut, is used in circumlocutions for emphasis: as,

faciundum mihī̆ putāvī, ut tuīs litterīs brevī respondērem, Fam. 3, 8, 1, I thought I ought to take hold and write a few lines in answer to your letter. ego vērō nōn committam, ut tibī̆ causam recūsandī dem, DO. 2, 233, no, no, sir, I will not be guilty, not I, of giving you an excuse to back out. So particularly with invītus, libenter, prope: as, invītus fēcī ut L. Flāminīnum ē senātū ēicerem, CM. 42, it was with great reluctance that I expelled Flamininus from the senate.

1968. A subjunctive clause with ut is often used to define a preceding idea indicated in a general way by a neuter pronoun: as,

post eius mortem nihilō minus Helvētiī id, quod cōnstituerant, facere cōnantur, ut ē fīnibus suīs exeant, 1, 5, 1, after his death the Helvetians attempted just the same to carry out their resolution of moving out of their abodes (1752). omnibus Gallīs idem esse faciendum, quod Helvētiī fēcerint, ut domō ēmigrent, 1, 31, 14, that all the Gauls must do just as the Helvetians had done and move away from home. Helvētiī, cum id, quod ipsī diēbus XX aegerrimē cōnfēcerant, ut flūmen trānsīrent, illum ūnō diē fēcisse intellegerent, lēgātōs mittunt, 1, 13, 2, when the Helvetians learned that the Roman commander had done in a single day what they had found it hard themselves to do in twenty, namely cross the river, they sent deputies (1752). id aliquot dē causīs acciderat, ut subitō Gallī bellī renovandi cōnsilium caperent, 3, 2, 2, it was due to a variety of reasons that the Gauls suddenly conceived the idea of making war again (1758). hocine bonī esse officium servī exīstumas, ut erī suī corrumpat et rem et fīlium? Pl. Most. 27, is this what you think the duty of a good slave, to waste his own master’s property and corrupt his son?

1969. tantum abest, so far from, is sometimes followed by a double ut, the first introducing an unreal, and the second a real action: as,

tantum abest ut haec bēstiārum causā parāta sint, ut ipsās bēstiās hominum grātiā generātās esse videāmus, DN. 2, 158, so far from these things being made for brutes, we see that brutes themselves were created for man. This use, very rarely personal, begins with Cicero, and is common in his writings and in Livy. Not in Caesar, Sallust, or Tacitus. Sometimes instead of ut the second sentence is coordinated (1700): tantum abfuit ut īnflammārēs nostrōs animōs, somnum vix tenēbāmus, Br. 278, so far from your firing our heart, we could hardly keep awake. Or, the idea is expressed by ita nōn... ut: as, erat ita nōn timidus ad mortem, ut in aciē sit ob rem pūblicam interfectus, Fin. 2, 63, so far from being afraid of death, he fell in battle for his country.

II. Pure Consecutive Clauses.

1970. The subjunctive is used with ut or ut nōn to denote result.

The result may be the result of an action or of a thing named in the main sentence. The main sentence often has a correlative to ut, expressing (a.) degree: as, tantus, so great, tam, so (with adjectives or adverbs), adeō, tantopere. (b.) quality: as, is (hīc, ille, iste), such, tālis, ita, sīc.

mōns altissimus impendēbat, ut facile perpaucī prohibēre possent, 1, 6, 1, an exceeding high mountain hung over, so that a very few could block the way. dictitābant sē domō expulsōs, omnibus necessāriīs egēre rēbus, ut honestā praescrīptiōne rem turpissimam tegerent, Caes. C. 3, 32, 4, they stoutly declared that they were driven out of house and home, and lacked the necessaries of life, thus veiling dishonour under the name of respectability.

(a.) Ariovistus tantōs sibī̆ spīritūs sūmpserat, ut ferendus nōn vidērētur, 1, 33, 5, Ariovistus had put on such high and mighty airs as to seem intolerable. adeō angustō marī cōnflīxit, ut eius multitūdō nāvium explicārī nōn potuerit, N. 2, 4, 5, he went into action in such cramped sea-room, that his armada could not deploy, of Xerxes (1757).

(b.) eōs dēdūxī testēs ut dē istīus factō dubium esse nēminī possit, V. 4, 91, I have brought such witnesses that nobody can entertain a doubt of the defendant’s guilt. ita sē recipiēbat ut nihil nisi dē perniciē populī Rōmānī cōgitāret, Ph. 4, 4, he retreated, it is true, but retreated with his mind running on nothing but how to ruin the country. illa, ex tūribulīs quae ēvellerat, ita scītē in aureīs pōculīs inligābat, ut ea ad illam rem nāta esse dīcerēs, V. 4, 54, what he had torn from the censers he attached to golden cups so cunningly that you would have said it was just made for that very purpose (1731, 1559).

For the imperfect subjunctive connected with a main general present, see 1751; for the independent present or perfect subjunctive with a main secondary tense, see 1757.

ubī̆.

1971. ubī̆, in the sense of where (709), has the ordinary construction of a relative (1812-1831). For ubī̆, when, see 1923-1926 and 1932-1934; as a synonym of sī, if, see 2110.

quō or quī .

1972. quō, whereby, wherewith, or in old Latin sometimes quī (689), is the instrumental ablative from the relative and interrogative stem qui-. Combined with minus, the less, not, quō gives quōminus.

WITH THE INDICATIVE.

1973. The indicative is used with quō and a comparative in the protasis of a comparative period, with eō or hōc and a comparative as correlative (1393): as,

quō dēlictum maius est, eō poena est tardior, Caec. 7, the greater the sin is, the slower is the punishment. The eō or hōc is sometimes omitted: as, quō plūrēs sumus, plūribus rēbus egēbimus, L. 34, 34, 6, the more numerous we are, the more things we shall need. In late writers, the comparative is sometimes omitted in the main clause, very rarely in the subordinate clause. quantō... tantō are also used like quō... eō: as, quantō diūtius cōnsīderō, tantō mihī̆ rēs vidētur obscūrior, DN. 1, 60, the longer I puzzle over it, the more incomprehensible the question seems to me. quantō magis extergeō, tenuius fit, Pl. R. 1301, the more I polish, the slimmer it gets. This form is sometimes used with quisque or quis of indefinite persons, instead of the commoner ut... ita or sīc (1939): as, quō quisque est sollertior, hōc docet labōriōsius, RC. 31, the brighter a man is, the more wearisome he finds teaching. quō quisque est maior, magis est plācābilis īrae, O. Tr. 3, 5, 31, the greater be the man, the easier ’tis his anger to appease.

WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

1974. The subjunctive is used with quō to express purpose.

quō differs but little in meaning from ut of purpose. It is used (a.) particularly in clauses containing a comparative expression, or (b.) in solemn law language.

(a.) equitēs omnibus in locīs pugnant, quō sē legiōnāriīs mīlitibus praeferrent, 2, 27, 2, the troopers fought on every kind of ground, hoping to outshine the regular infantry thereby. medicō putō aliquid dandum esse, quō sit studiōsior, Fam. 16, 4, 2, I think it would be well to fee your medical man, to make him more attentive. id amābō adiūtā mē quō id fīat facilius, T. Eu. 150, help me in that, I pray, that it may be the easier done. sublāta erat celebritās virōrum ac mulierum, quō lāmentātiō minuerētur, Leg. 2, 65, the large attendance of both sexes was done away with, to make the weeping and wailing less harrowing. (b.) hominī mortuō nē ossa legitō, quō pos fūnus faciat, Twelve Tables in Leg. 2, 60, he shall not gather up the bones of a dead man, with intent to celebrate the funeral a second time (1586). quī eōrum coiīt, coierit, quō quis iūdiciō pūblicō condemnārētur, law in Clu. 148, whosoever of that number conspired or shall have conspired to have anybody condemned in a criminal court. Otherwise rarely used without a comparative expression, yet occasionally found thus in Plautus, Terence, Sallust, and Ovid: as, hanc simulant parere quō Chremētem absterreant, T. Andr. 472, they’re pretending that she’s lying in, to frighten Chremes off. So often in Tacitus.

1975. quō nē, in a negative clause of purpose, is found in a disputed passage in Horace, but not again until late Latin. For nōn quō, nōn eō quō, introducing an untenable reason, see 1855.

1976. In old Latin quī, whereby, wherewith, withal, is partly felt as a live relative pronoun in the ablative, and partly as a mere conjunction of purpose; as a pronoun it may even take a preposition; as a conjunction, it may refer to a plural antecedent (689): as, quasi patriciīs puerīs aut monērulae aut anitēs aut cōturnīcēs dantur, quīcum lūsitent: itidem mī haec upupa, quī mē dēlectem datast, Pl. Cap. 1002, as to the sons of gentlemen or daws or ducks or quails are given, wherewith to play; just so to me this crow is given, to entertain myself withal. enim mihi quidem aequomst dari vehicla quī vehar, Pl. Aul. 500, in sooth ‘t were fair that carriages be given me, to ride withal. The indicative occurs where the subjunctive would be used in classical Latin: as, multa concurrunt simul, quī coniectūram hanc faciō, T. Andr. 511, a thousand things combine whereby I come to this conjecture.

quōminus.

1977. The subjunctive with quōminus (1972) is used to complete the sense of verbs of hindering or resisting.

Such verbs are: impediō, teneō, hinder, interclūdō, dēterreō, obstō, obsistō, resistō, repugnō, nōn recūsō; these verbs often have a subjunctive with nē (1960). Cicero rarely and Caesar never uses quōminus with impediō or prohibeō. For the accusative and infinitive with these verbs, see 2203. quōminus is also used with moveor, am influenced, fit, it is owing to, stat per aliquem, somebody is responsible, or indeed any expression implying hindrance. When the verb of hindering has a negative with it, quīn is often used; see 1986.

nōn dēterret sapientem mors, quōminus rē̆ī pūblicae suīsque cōnsulat, TD. 1, 91, death does not hinder the wise man from working for country and friends. quid obstat, quōminus sit beātus? DN. 1, 95, what is to hinder his being happy? neque recūsāvit quōminus lēgis poenam subīret, N. 15, 8, 2, and he did not decline to submit to the penalty of the law. Caesar, ubī̆ cōgnōvit per Āfrānium stāre quōminus proeliō dīmicārētur, castra facere cōnstituit, Caes. C. 1, 41, 3, when Caesar learned that owing to Afranius there was no battle, he resolved to build a camp. sī tē dolor corporis tenuit, quōminus ad lūdōs venīrēs, fortūnae magis tribuō quam sapientiae tuae, Fam. 7, 1, 1, if it was bodily suffering that kept you from coming to the performances, I think more highly of your luck than of your sense. Terence first uses quōminus thus, but only rarely. He also sometimes uses the parts separately so that the true relative and negative forces appear: as, sī sēnserō quicquam in hīs tē nūptiīs fallāciae cōnārī, quō fīant minus, T. Andr. 196, if I catch you trying on any trick in the matter of this marriage through which it may not come off (1451).

1978. In Tacitus, quōminus is sometimes found where quīn would be used in classical Latin (1986): as, nec dubitātum quōminus pācem concēderent, Ta. H. 2, 45, there was no hesitation in granting peace.

1979. It may be mentioned here that quō sētius with the subjunctive, instead of quōminus, is found twice in Cicero’s earliest extant prose, and twice in older Latin.

quīn.

1980. quīn is composed of quī, the ablative or locative of the interrogative and relative stem qui- (689), and -ne, not. It is used in simple sentences and as a conjunctive particle.

1981. For the use of quīn, why not, in questions with the indicative, see 1526. Such questions have the sense of an affirmative command or exhortation (1531): as, quīn abīs, Pl. MG. 1087, why won’t you begone? or get you gone. quīn cōnscendimus equōs, L. 1, 57, 7, why not mount, or to horse, to horse. For the use of quīn without interrogative force, see 1527.

1982. quīn is found occasionally with the subjunctive in a direct question in Plautus, Terence, Lucilius, Lucretius, Cicero, and Tacitus: thus, quīn ego hōc rogem? Pl. MG. 426, why shouldn’t I ask this? (1563).

1983. The subjunctive with the conjunctive particle quīn is used, particularly in old Latin, in connection with the common formula nūlla causa est or its equivalents.

Such a subjunctive may be regarded as original (1786) or as due to the indirect form of question (1773).

nūlla causast quīn mē condōnēs crucī, Pl. R. 1070, there’s no reason why you shouldn’t deliver me up to execution. quīn dēcēdam, nūlla causa est, Fam. 2, 17, 1, there is no reason why I should not retire. quid causaest quīn in pistrīnum rēctā proficīscar viā? T. Andr. 600, what’s the reason I don’t march straight into the mill? haud causificor quīn eam habeam, Pl. Aul. 755, I don’t quibble against keeping her.

1984. mīrum quīn with the subjunctive is used by Plautus in sarcastic expressions where mīrum is ironical: as, mīrum quīn tū illō tēcum dīvitiās ferās, Pl. Tri. 495, strange enough, how you can’t take your money there with you, that is to Hades.

1985. The subjunctive with quīn (or ut nōn) is used after nōn possum, or nōn possum with an infinitive, usually facere, and with fierī nōn potest: as,

nōn enim possum quīn exclāmem, eugē, eugē, Lȳsitelēs, πάλιν, Pl. Tri. 705, upon my word I must cry bravo, bravo, Lysiteles; encore! facere nōn potuī quīn tibī̆ sententiam dēclārārem, Fam. 6, 13, 1, I could not help giving you my views. fierī nūllō modō poterat, quīn Cleomenī parcerētur, V. 5, 104, it was impossible not to spare Cleomenes. ēheu, nequeō quīn fleam, quom abs tē abeam, Pl. MG. 1342, O well-a-day, I needs must weep, for that from thee I part. nōn potuistī ūllō modō facere, ut mihī̆ illam epistulam nōn mitterēs, Att. 11, 21, 1, you could not get along at all without writing me that letter (1965).

1986. The subjunctive with quīn is used in clauses which complete the sense of verbs of restraining, abstaining, delaying, or doubting, when such verbs have a negative, expressed or implied.

Such verbs are (a.) restraining: temperō mihī̆, teneō, restrain, retineō, contineō, dēterreō, reprimō. abstaining: praetermittō, intermittō. delaying: cunctor, differō, exspectō, recūsō; nōn multum, nihil, paulum abest. (b.) doubting: dubitō, dubium est; a doubt may also be implied in other words, or forms of words: as, nōn metuō, nōn abest suspīciō, &c.

(a.) neque sibī̆ hominēs barbarōs temperātūrōs exīstimābat, quīn in prōvinciam exīrent, 1, 33, 4, and he thought, as they were savages, they would not restrain themselves, but would sally out into the province. vix mē contineō quīn involem mōnstrō in capillum, T. Eu. 859, I scarce can keep from flying at the caitiff’s hair. nihil praetermīsī, quīn Pompēium ā Caesaris coniūnctiōne āvocārem, Ph. 2, 23, I left no stone unturned to prevent Pompey from joining Caesar. abstinēre quīn attingās nōn queās, Pl. B. 915, you can’t keep from touching it. (b.) nōn dubitat, quīn tē ductūrum negēs, T. Andr. 405, he doesn’t doubt that you’ll refuse to marry. quis dubitet, quīn in virtūte dīvitiae sint? Par. 48, who can doubt that there is money in virtue? neque abest suspīciō quīn ipse sibī̆ mortem cōnscīverit, 1, 4, 4, and ground is not wanting for the belief that he made away with himself.

1987. nōn dubitō has other constructions: (a.) Indirect question. (b.) Accusative with the infinitive (in some authors: chiefly Nepos and Livy and later writers). (c.) Meaning not hesitate, the infinitive alone (2169). quīn seldom follows this meaning.

(a.) nōn dubitō, quid nōbīs agendum putēs, Att. 10, 1, 2, I have no doubt about what you think is our duty to do. (b.) neque enim dubitābant hostem ventūrum, L. 22. 55, 2, for they firmly believed the enemy would come. (c.) quid dubitāmus pultāre? Pl. B. 1117, why do we hesitate to knock? nōlīte dubitāre quīn huic crēdātis omnia, IP. 68, do not hesitate to trust all to him.

1988. The subjunctive with quīn is often used after general negative assertions, or questions implying a negative: as,

nēmō fuit omnīnō mīlitum quīn vulnerārētur, Caes. C. 3, 53, 3, there was absolutely not a single soldier but was wounded. nūllust Ephesī quīn sciat, Pl. B. 336, there’s not a soul at Ephesus but knows. quis in circum vēnit, quīn is ūnōquōque gradū dē avāritiā tuā commonērētur? V. 1, 154, who came to the circus without being reminded of your avarice at each and every step? nūlla fuit cīvitās quīn partem senātūs Cordubam mitteret, nōn cīvis Rōmānus quīn convenīret, Caes. C. 2, 19, 2, there was not a community but sent a part of its local senate to Corduba, not a Roman citizen, but went to the meeting. For quī nōn after such expressions, see 1821. The main sentence often has tam, ita, sīc, or tantus: as, nēmō est tam fortis, quīn rē̆ī novitāte perturbētur, 6, 39, 3, there was nobody so brave but was demoralized by the strangeness of the situation. nīl tam difficilest quīn quaerendō investīgārī possiet, T. Hau. 675, there’s naught so hard but may by searching be tracked out. Instead of quīn, ut nōn or quī nōn is often used in such combinations (1821).

1989. The subjunctive in an untenable reason, negatively put, is sometimes introduced by nōn quīn instead of nōn quod nōn or nōn quō nōn (1855): as, nōn quīn parī virtūte aliī fuerint, Ph. 7, 6, not that others may not have been his peers in virtue.

1990. quīn is used very rarely instead of quōminus to introduce clauses completing the sense of verbs which have no negative expressed or implied: as, once each in the Bellum Alexandrīnum, in Tacitus, and in Seneca’s prose.

dum , dōnec , quoad , quamdiū .

1991. With the temporal particles dum, while, until, and dōnec, until (in old Latin dōnicum and in Lucretius dōnique), may be conveniently treated the relative quaad or quoad (that is quā or quō combined with ad), while, until, and the comparative quamdiū, as long as.

1992. dum, while, means originally a while (1151): as, circumspice dum, Pl. Tri. 146, look round you a while, a minute, just look round (1573). dum servī meī perplacet mihi cōnsilium, dum haud placet, Pl. Merc. 348, one while my slave’s plan suits me completely, another while it doesn’t suit. dum... dum, Accius in DN. 2, 89, one while... another.

1993. As a pure conjunctive particle, dum, while, means either (A.) in the time while, or (B.) all the time while; in the latter sense quoad and quamdiū are also used. From all the time while, dum comes to mean (C.) as long as, provided; and (D.) until; in this sense quoad and dōnec are also used.

1994. The indicative is used in a protasis introduced by dum, quoad, or quamdiū, while; and the subjunctive in a protasis introduced by dum, provided, or until.

The subjunctive is also used for special reasons, as in indirect discourse (1725), by attraction (1728), of action conceivable (1731), or by late writers to express repeated past action (1730). See also 1997 and 2009, end.

(A.) dum, in the time while.

1995. The present indicative is regularly used with dum, in the time while (1739).

dum sometimes has as correlative subitō, repente; iam, intereā, &c.

The main verb may be present, future, or past; as, dum haec dīcit, abiīt hōra, T. Eu. 341, while he thus prated, sped an hour away. īnficī dēbet iīs artibus quās sī, dum est tener, combiberit, ad maiōra veniet parātior, Fin. 3, 9, he should be imbued with such arts as will, if absorbed while he is young, render him the better equipped to deal with weightier business. nunc rem ipsam, ut gesta sit, dum breviter vōbīs dēmōnstrō, attendite, Tul. 13, now give your attention to the case itself, while I set forth to you briefly how it occurred. dum in hīs locīs Caesar morātur, ad eum lēgātī vēnērunt, 4, 22, 1, while Caesar tarried in these regions, some envoys came to him. dum haec aguntur, vōce clārā exclāmat, Pl. Am. 1120, while this was going on, with clarion voice he cries aloud. haec dum aguntur, intereā Cleomenēs iam ad Helōrī lītus pervēnerat, V. 5, 91, while this was going on, Cleomenes meantime had already arrived at the shore of Helorum. The phrase dum haec geruntur, meanwhile, is often used by the historians to shift the scene: as, dum haec in Venetīs geruntur, Q. Titūrius Sabīnus in fīnēs Venellōrum pervēnit, 3, 17, 1, while this was going on among the Veneti, Sabinus arrived in the territory of the Venelli. The present indicative is sometimes retained in indirect discourse, chiefly in poetry or late prose: as, dīc, hospes, Spartae nōs tē hīc vīdisse iacentīs, dum sānctīs patriae lēgibus obsequimur, TD. 1, 101, tell it at Sparta, friend, that thou hast seen us lying here, obedient to our country’s holy laws. dīcit sēsē illī ānulum, dum lūctat, dētrāxisse, T. Hec. 829, he says that, in the struggle, he pulled off her ring.

1996. The future is rare and chiefly confined to old Latin: as,

animum advortite, dum huius argūmentum ēloquar cōmoediae, Pl. prol. Am. 95, attention lend, while I set forth the subject of this comedy. dum pauca dīcam, breviter attendite, V. 3, 163, while I speak briefly, give me your attention a few moments.

1997. The imperfect indicative is rare; the imperfect subjunctive is sometimes used, chiefly by the poets and historians: as,

(a.) dum haec Vēīs agēbantur, interim capitōlium in ingentī perīculō fuit, L. 5, 47, 1, while this was going on at Vei, the capital meanwhile was in terrible peril. The pluperfect of resulting state is rarer: as, dum in ūnam partem oculōs hostium certāmen āverterat, plūribus locīs capitur mūrus, L. 32, 24, 5, while the eyes of the enemy were turned away in one direction toward the fight, the wall is carried in several places (1615). (b.) dum sē rēx āverteret, alter ēlātam secūrim in caput dēiēcit, L. 1, 40, 7, while the king was looking another way, the second man raised his axe and brought it down on his head.

1998. The clause with dum often denotes the cause of the main action, particularly when the subjects of both verbs are the same and the action of the protasis is coincident with that of the apodosis (1733).

dum docent, discunt, Sen. E. 7, 8, while they are teaching, they are learning, or, by teaching they learn. nīmīrum didicī etiam, dum in istum inquīrō, artificum nōmina, V. 4, 4, preposterous as it may seem, in hunting up evidence against the defendant, I have actually learned artists’ names. The main action is often one not anticipated or desired: as, ita dum pauca mancipia retinēre volt, fortūnās omnīs lībertātemque suam perdidit, Caecil. 56, so in her attempt to keep a few human chattels, she sacrificed all her possessions and her own liberty. dum vītant stultī vitia, in contrāria currunt, H. S. 1, 2, 24, while fools essay a vice to shun, into its opposite they run. Sometimes with the perfect: as, dum Alexandrī similis esse voluit, L. Crassī inventus est dissimillimus, Br. 282, from his desire to be like Alexander, he came out just the opposite of Crassus.

(B.) dum, quoad, quamdiū (dōnec), all the time while.

1999. dum, quoad, or quamdiū, all the time while, often has as correlative tamdiū, tantum, tantummodo, tantisper, usque, or ita. When tamdiū is used, quam often stands for quamdiū.

2000. (1.) When the main verb is present or future, the protasis with dum, quoad, or quamdiū, all the time while, is usually in the same tense as the main verb: as,

mane dum scrībit, Pl. B. 737, wait while he writes. aegrōtō dum anima est, spēs esse dīcitur, Att. 9, 10, 3, as long as a sick man has breath he is said to have hope. vidua vīvitō vel usque dum rēgnum optinēbit Iuppiter, Pl. Men. 727, may’st widowed live e’en long as Jupiter shall reign. ego tē meum esse dīcī tantisper volō, dum quod tē dignumst faciēs, T. Hau. 106, I’ll have thee called my son but just so long as thou shalt act as doth become thee. dum Latīnae loquentur litterae, quercus huic locō nōn deerit, Leg. 1, 2, as long as Latin literature has the gift of speech, this spot will not lack its oak (1733). quamdiū quisquam erit quī tē dēfendere audeat, vīvēs, C. 1, 6, as long as there shall be a soul who will venture to defend you, you shall live on. discēs quamdiū volēs, tamdiū autem velle dēbēbis quoad tē quantum prōficiās nōn paenitēbit, Off. 1, 2, you shall study as long as you want to, and it will be proper for you to want to, as long as you are satisfied with your progress. dandum hordeum et furfurēs usque quaad erunt lactantēs, Varro R. R. 2, 7, 12, give them barley and bran as long as they are sucklings. quoad, as long as, is not found in Terence.

2001. (2.) With quamdiū the perfect is used when the main verb is perfect; with dum or quoad the perfect or imperfect is used when the main verb is perfect or pluperfect, and the imperfect usually when the main verb is imperfect: as,

(a.) quōrum quamdiū mānsit imitātiō, tamdiū genus illud dīcendī vīxit, DO. 2, 94, as long as the imitation of these men lasted, so long was that style in vogue. tenuit locum tamdiū quam ferre potuit labōrem, Br. 236, he held the position as long as he could stand the work. In this use quamdiū is found first in Cicero.

(b.) vīxit, dum vīxit, bene, T. Hec. 461, he lived well all the time he lived (1733). avus noster quoad vīxit, restitit M. Grātidiō, Leg. 3, 36, our grandfather as long as he lived, opposed Gratidius.

(c.) Massiliēnsēs quoad licēbat, circumvenīre nostrōs contendēbant, Caes. C. 1, 58, 1, as long as the Massilia people had a chance, they kept trying to surround our men. dum necesse erat, rēsque ipsa cōgēbat, ūnus omnia poterat, RA. 139, as long as it had to be, and circumstances demanded, one man controlled the world (1733). From Sallust on, the present of vivid narration (1590) is occasionally found with dum in this sense.

2002. In poetry and in late prose writers, beginning with Lucretius and Livy, dōnec is used in the sense of all the time while, usually with the indicative, but sometimes with the subjunctive of repeated past action: as, dōnec grātus eram tibī, Persārum viguī rēge beātior, H. 3, 9, 1, as long as I was loved of thee, I flourished happier than the Persians’ king. dōnec armātī cōnfertīque abībant, peditum labor in persequendō fuit, L. 6, 13, 4, as long as they were moving off under arms and in close array, the task of pursuit fell to the infantry. vulgus trucīdātum est dōnec īra et diēs permānsit, Ta. 1, 68, the rank and file were butchered as long as wrath and daylight held out. nihil trepidābant, dōnec continentī velut ponte agerentur, L. 21, 28, 10, the elephants were not a bit skittish as long as they were driven along what seemed a continuous bridge (1730). The future is rare: as, nātus enim dēbet quīcumque est velle manēre in vītā, dōnec retinēbit blanda voluptās, Lucr. 5, 177, whoe’er is born must wish in life to abide, so long as him fond pleasure shall detain. dōnec eris fēlīx, multōs numerābis amīcōs, O. Tr. 1, 9, 5, as long as fortune smiles, thou troops shalt count of friends.

(C.) dum, as long as, provided, so.

2003. The present and imperfect subjunctive are used in provisos introduced by dum, as long as, provided, so.

dum is sometimes accompanied by modo, only, or quidem, that is; or (from Terence on) modo is used without dum. The negative is nē (from Ovid on, sometimes nōn); nē sometimes has as correlative ita.

ōderint dum metuant, Poet. in Suet. Cal. 30, let them hate, so they fear. absit, dum modo laude partā domum recipiat sē, Pl. Am. 644, let him go, so only he come home with glory won. postulābant prō homine miserrimō, quī vel ipse sēsē in cruciātum darī cuperet, dum dē patris morte quaererētur, RA. 119, they made the request in behalf of a pitiable wretch, who would be only too glad to be put to the rack himself, so his father’s death might be investigated. itaque dum locus comminus pugnandī darētur, aequō animō singulās bīnīs nāvibus obiciēbant, Caes. C. 1, 58, 4, therefore, so a chance was given to fight hand to hand, they did not mind pitting one of their vessels against two of the enemy’s. sī ē̆ī permissum esset, ita id sacrum faceret, dum nē plūs quīnque sacrificiō interessent, L. 39, 18, 9, if he were allowed, he might perform the sacrifice far better, provided that not more than five people should have a part in the ceremonial. dum quidem nēquid percontēris quod nōn lubeat prōloquī, Pl. Aul. 211, provided at least you ask nothing that I may not like to disclose. volet, cīvis modo haec sit, T. Eu. 889, he’ll consent, only let her be a free born maid. magnō mē metū līberābis, dum modo inter mē atque tē mūrus intersit, C. 1, 10, you will relieve me of great fear, provided only there be a wall interposed between you and myself.

(D.) dum, quoad, dōnec, until.

2004. dum, quoad or dōnec, until, often has as correlative usque, usque eō, usque ad eum fīnem or tamdiū.

dum, until.

2005. The subjunctive present is used in a protasis introduced by dum, until, when the main verb denotes either indefinite or present time, and the subjunctive imperfect when the main verb is past.

The subjunctive is an extension of the subjunctive of desire (1540); the clause denotes something expected or proposed.

is dum veniat sedens ibī̆ opperībere, Pl. B. 48, you shall sit there waiting till he comes. ōrandī sunt, ut sī quam habent ulcīscendī vim, differant in tempus aliud, dum dēfervēscat īra, TD. 4, 78, we must always ask such people, if they have any chance to take vengeance, to put it off to some other time, till their rage cool down. cēnseō latendum tantisper ibīdem, dum effervēscit haec grātulātiō et simul dum audiāmus, quemadmodum negōtium cōnfectum sit, Fam. 9, 2, 4, I advise lying low where you are, while the present congratulation excitement is cooling off, and at the same time till we may hear how the job was done. dum reliquae nāvēs eō convenīrent, in ancorīs exspectāvit, 4, 23, 4, he waited at anchor till the rest of the vessels should gather there (1725). Verginius dum collēgam cōnsuleret morātus, dictātōrem dīxit, L. 4, 21, 10, Verginius, after waiting till he should consult his colleague, appointed a dictator. observāvit dum dormitāret canēs, Pl. Tri. 170, he watched till the dog should be napping.

2006. The present indicative with dum, while, is sometimes used where the subjunctive might be expected with dum, until (1593). Other indicative tenses are rarely thus used: as,

(a.) expectābō, dum venit, T. Eu. 206, I will wait while he comes. ego hīc tantisper, dum exīs, tē opperiar, Pl. Most. 683, I’ll wait for you here a while till you come out. ego in Arcānō opperior, dum ista cōgnōscō, Att. 10, 3, for myself I am waiting at the Arcae place, till I ascertain this. (b.) mihī̆ quidem usque cūrae erit, quid agās, dum quid ēgerīs, scierō, Fam. 12, 19, 3, for me I shall be anxious all the time to know what you are doing, till I know what you have done. mānsit in condiciōne usque ad eum fīnem dum iūdicēs rēiectī sunt, V. a. pr. 16, he stuck to his bargain till the jurors were challenged.

quoad, dōnec, until.

2007. quoad or dōnec, until, introduces a protasis in the present subjunctive when the main verb is present or future; and in the perfect indicative when the main verb is past or a general present.

quoad is found once in Plautus with the imperfect subjunctive (2008); in other authors here and there with both moods; not in Tacitus. With dōnec the present subjunctive is found once in Plautus, rarely in late Latin and in poetry; the perfect indicative is found at all periods; the present indicative (1590), found once in Plautus, is poetic and late. But dōnec is rarely used by Cicero, and never by Caesar or Sallust. dōnicum is found in old Latin (not in Terence) with the indicative (2009), and once in Nepos with the subjunctive of indirect discourse. dōnique is found four times in Lucretius with the indicative, always before vowels (2009). dōneque and dōneque cum seem to occur a few times in Vitruvius.

(a.) ego hīc cōgitō commorārī, quoad mē reficiam, Fam. 7, 26, 2, I am thinking of staying here till I feel better. ea continēbis, quoad ipse tē videam, Att. 13, 21, 4, you will keep this back till I see you myself. expergēfactīque secuntur inānia saepe cervōrum simulācra, dōnec discussīs redeant errōribus ad sē, Lucr. 4, 995, and when awakened, often they still keep hunting the shadowy forms of stags, until the delusion is shaken off and they come to themselves. magnus mīrandusque cliēns sedet ad praetōria rēgis, dōnec Bīthȳnō libeat vigilāre tyrannō, J. 10, 160, a vassal great and strange he sits in the king’s gate, till it may suit his oriental majesty to wake. inter eadem pecora dēgunt, dōnec aetās sēparet ingenuōs, Ta. G. 20, they always live among the same flocks and herds, till maturity puts the free-born by themselves.

(b.) nostrī reppulērunt neque fīnem sequendī fēcērunt, quoad equitēs praecipitēs hostēs ēgērunt, 5, 17, 3, our people routed them and did not give up the pursuit till the cavalry drove the enemy headlong. Milō cum in senātū fuisset eō diē quoad senātus est dīmissus, domum vēnit, Mil. 28, after staying in the senate that day till the senate adjourned, Milo went home. numquam dēstitit ōrāre usque adeō dōnec perpulit, T. Andr. 660, he never ceased to tease until he gained his point. usque eō timuī, dōnec ad rēiciundōs iūdicēs vēnimus, V. 1, 17, I was afraid all the time till we came to challenging jurors. The present indicative of vivid narration (1590) is found in Vergil and Livy: as, sociī cōnsurgere tōnsīs, dōnec rōstra tenent siccum et sēdēre carīnae omnēs innocuae, V. 10, 299, with one accord the shipmates rose to oars, until the beaks dry land attain, and keels all sat unscathed.

2008. An imperfect subjunctive is rarely found with quoad, until (1725): as, haec diēs praestitūtast, quoad referret, Pl. Ps. 623, this day was set by which he was to pay. exercēbātur currendō et lūctandō ad eum fīnem, quoad stāns complectī posset, N. 15, 2, 5, he used to practise running and wrestling, till he could give a grip standing. For dōnec, see 2009 at the end.

2009. Other constructions occur, chiefly in old Latin or poetry, with dōnec, or dōnicum, until. (a.) The future perfect: as, haud dēsinam, dōnec perfēcerō hōc, T. Ph. 419, I shall not stop till I have finished this. dēlīcta maiōrum luēs, dōnec templa refēceris, H. 3, 6, 1, for sins of sires thou shalt atone, till thou hast shrines repaired. (b.) The future: coquitō usque dōnec conmadēbit bene, Cato, RR. 156, 5, boil until it is very soft. ter centum rēgnābitur annōs, dōnec geminam partū dabit Īlia prōlem, V. 1, 272, for thrice a hundred years there will be kings, till Ilia gives birth to twins. (c.) The perfect indicative, less frequently the present, introductory to a general present: impedit piscīs usque adeō, dōnicum ēdūxit forās, Pl. Tru. 38, he always draws his net about the fish, until he’s brought them out (1613). usque mantant neque id faciunt, dōnicum parietēs ruont, Pl. Most. 116, they keep waiting and don’t do it until the walls are falling. (d.) The pluperfect indicative: horriferīs accībant vōcibus Orcum, dōnique eōs vītā prīvārant vermina saeva, Lucr. 5, 996, with horrid cries on Death they’d call till gripings sore had set them free from life. The imperfect indicative is found once in Tacitus, who also has the infinitive of intimation (1539) once or twice. An imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive sometimes occurs where purpose is intimated, and in Livy and late Latin to express repeated past action: as, dōnec ēgregius properāret exsul, H. 3, 5, 45, till he could hasten forth a peerless exile. trepidātiōnis aliquantum ēdēbant, dōnec quiētem ipse timor fēcisset, L. 21, 28, 11, the elephants always displayed some nervousness, till terror itself restored quiet (1730). But the habit of using the imperfect subjunctive is very common in Tacitus where neither purpose nor repetition is intimated: as neque proelium omīsit dōnec caderet, Ta. 3, 20, he ceased not fighting till he fell.

quandō.

2010. quandō, originally a temporal particle, has the meaning when, which readily passes over to a causal meaning, since, because. In both meanings it introduces the indicative. For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is used, as in indirect discourse (1725) or of action conceivable (1731). quandō is also used to introduce a conditional protasis (2110).

In simple sentences, temporal quandō is used in pronoun questions (1526). As an indefinite adverb it has the meaning ever.

(A.) Temporal quandō.

2011. quandō, when, introduces a temporal clause with the indicative.

The time is often indefinite or iterative; so usually in old Latin. quandō often has tum as correlative.

fīō Iuppiter quandō lubet, Pl. Am. 864, I turn into Jupiter at my sweet will. laudātō quandō illud quod cupis effēcerō, Pl. Cu. 364, cry your bravo when I’ve done what you desire. quandō occāsiō illaec periīt, post sērō cupit, Pl. Aul. 249, when that chance is lost, he wants it all too late (1613). quandō omnēs creātī sunt, tum ad eōs deus fātur, Tim. 40, when all were created, then to them spake the god. quandō pars maior in eandem sententiam ībat, bellum erat cōnsēnsum, L. 1, 32, 12, when the majority voted for the same motion, war was always agreed upon. Temporal quandō is found sporadically at all periods; not in Terence or Caesar.

2012. quandōque, whenever, is found once in the Twelve Tables, a few times in Cicero (chiefly in legal formulae), three times in Horace, and here and there in later authors. Not in Caesar.

(B.) Causal quandō.

2013. quandō, since, seeing that, introduces a causal clause with the indicative.

The reason is usually one known to the person addressed or one generally known (1884). quandō is often strengthened by quidem.

quandō hīc serviō, haec patriast mea, Pl. Per. 641, now that I am a slave here, this is my country. quīn ergō abeis, quandō respōnsumst? Pl. MG. 1085, why don’t you go then, since you’ve had your answer? melius est, quandōquidem hoc numquam mī ipse voluit dīcere, T. Ad. 639, better so, since he wouldn’t ever tell me about it of his own accord. quandō mē in hunc locum dēdūxit ōrātiō, docēbō. DN. 3, 43, seeing that my discourse has brought me to this point, I will show. haec dētur cūra cēnsōribus, quandōquidem eōs in rē pūblicā semper volumus esse, Leg. 3, 47, let this be the charge of the censors, seeing that we want such officers always in our state. prō urbe ac penātibus dīmicandum esse, quandō Ītaliam tuērī nequīssent, L. 22, 8, 7, that they must fight for home and country, now that they had failed to preserve Italy (1724). Causal quandō is found at all periods, though not in Caesar, and in Cicero’s orations only with quidem.

2014. quandōque, inasmuch as, is used a few times in a formal or legal sense in Cicero and Livy: as, quandōque hīsce hominēs iniussū populī Rōmānī Quirītium foedus ictum īrī spopondērunt, L. 9, 10, 9, inasmuch as these persons have promised that a covenant should be made, without the order of the Roman nation of Quirites.

sī.

2015. sī, in early Latin sei, is originally a locative, meaning under those circumstances, so. With the enclitic -ce, it forms sīce or sīc, so. The two are sometimes found as correlatives in colloquial style: as, sīc scrībēs aliquid, sī vacābis, Att. 12, 38, 2, so you shall have time, so you will write something. See 708.

Conditional Periods.

2016. A protasis introduced by sī, so, if, or nisi, unless, if not, states a condition; the apodosis states action occurring under that condition. The conditional protasis and apodosis combined make a Conditional Period.

Thus, sī diēs est, if it is day, is a conditional protasis; combined with an apodosis, lūcet, it is light, it makes a conditional period: sī diēs est, lūcet, Inv. 1, 86, if it is day, it is light.

2017. A parenthesis with ut (1943) is added when the speaker asserts that the action of the protasis is not only assumed, but actually occurs: as, sī virtūs digna est glōriātiōne, ut est, beātus esse poterit virtūte ūnā praeditus, Fin. 4, 51, if virtue is entitled to glorification, as it really is, he will find it possible to be happy in the possession of virtue alone. sī nox opportūna est ēruptiōnī, sīcut est, haec profectō noctis aptissima hōra est, L. 7, 35, 10, if night is always favourable for a sortie, and it always is, this particular hour of the night is surely the very best time.

2018. The apodosis is usually declarative. Often, however, it is interrogative, exclamatory, or imperative, or it may take any other form which the thought or the context may require. The apodosis has rarely a correlative to sī: as, igitur, it follows that, idcircō, for all that, tum, then, ita, sīc, only, eā condiciōne, on condition; at, but, tamen, nevertheless, certē, saltem, at any rate, tum dēnique, tum dēmum, then and not till then.

2019. sī is sometimes followed by quidem or, from Cicero on, by modo: sī quidem, that is if, since, even if, sī modo, if only. sī tamen, at least if, is found in Lucretius, Sallust, the Augustan poets and in late writers. sīve... sīve (seu... seu) or, in old Latin, sī... sīve, whether... or, with the indicative or the subjunctive of the indefinite second person (1556), leaves a choice between two cases possible. By abbreviation of the protasis sīve becomes a coordinating particle: see 1672.

2020. The negative of sī is sī nōn, if not (sī nēmō, sī nūllus, &c.), or nisi, unless, if not, used especially of an exception or after a negative, nisi sī, chiefly in old, colloquial, or late Latin, or, particularly in solemn language or poetry, nī is sometimes used for nisi. A restriction, usually an ironical afterthought, may be introduced by nisi forte (rare before Cicero) or nisi vērō (in Cicero and Pliny the Younger) with the indicative.

nisi is sometimes found in an adversative sense in old and colloquial Latin, especially after nesciō; from Cicero on, it may be strengthened by tamen. For nisi quod, see 1848.

2021. When a second conditional period is opposed to a first, it is sometimes introduced by sī (or sī autem), but usually by sīn (or sīn autem). If the second period is negative, and its verb is not expressed, minus or aliter is preferred to nōn.

CLASSES OF CONDITIONAL PROTASES.

2022. Conditional protases may be divided into two classes:

2023. I. Indeterminate protases, that is such as merely suppose an action, without implying either its occurrence or its non-occurrence; these may take:

(A.) Any tense of the indicative required by the sense; or (B.) the present subjunctive, less frequently the perfect subjunctive, to express a condition in the future.

2024. II. Protases of ACTION NON-OCCURRENT, that is such as suppose action not taking place. These take the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive.

Thus, in the period sī diēs est, lūcet, Inv. 1, 86, if it is day, it is light, the protasis if it is day is indeterminate, neither implying that it is, or is not day. But in sī vīveret, verba eius audīrētis, if he were alive, you would hear his evidence, RC. 42, the protasis denotes action non-occurrent, if he were alive, implying but he is not. The whole period, like the protasis, is either an Indeterminate Period or a Period of Action non-occurrent.

I. INDETERMINATE PROTASES.

(A.) INDICATIVE USE.

2025. The indicative in a conditional protasis may state present, past, or future time.

The mood and tense of the apodosis are determined by the sense. The following combinations occur:

(1.) Protasis in the Present.

2026.

(a.) Apodosis in the Present.

sī sunt dī, beneficī in hominēs sunt, Div. 2, 104, if there are gods, they are kind to men. sī nescīs, tibī̆ īgnōscō, Fam. 10, 26, 3, if you do not know, I pardon you. deus sum, sī hoc itast, T. Hec. 843, I am a god, if this is so. erus sī tuos domīst, quīn prōvocās? Pl. Ps. 638, in case your master is at home, why don’t you call him out? hōc mortuō, aut sī quī ex reliquīs excellit dignitāte, succēdit, aut, sī sunt plūrēs parēs, dē prīncipātū contendunt, 6, 13, 9, when this man dies, if there is any one of the rest superior in position, he always takes his place; or if there are several with equal claims, they have a contest about the supremacy. sī vīs, potes, H. S. 2, 6, 39, you can, if you will. in corpore sī quid eius modī est quod reliquō corporī noceat, id ūrī secārīque patimur, Ph. 8, 15, in the human body if there is anything likely to damage the rest of the body, we always allow it to be cauterized and cut. sī cui vēnae sīc moventur, is habet febrim, Fat. 15, if a man’s pulse beats thus and so, he always has fever. The present is sometimes loosely used of future time (1593): as, sī illum relinquō, e͡i͡us vītae timeō, T. Andr. 210, if I desert him, I tremble for his life. assequor omnia, sī properō; sī cunctor, āmittō, Att. 10, 8, 5, I shall compass all my ends, if I hurry; if I delay, I shall lose everything. castra nunc vōbīs hostium praedae dō, sī mihī̆ pollicēminī vōs fortiter operam nāvātūrōs, L. 7, 16, 4, I give you the camp of the enemy as booty now, if you promise me you will quit you like men.

2027.

(b.) Apodosis in the Perfect.

sī hominēs ratiōnem ā dīs datam in fraudem convertunt, nōn darī illam quam darī hūmānō generī melius fuit, DN. 3, 78, if men apply reason, the gift of the gods, to purposes of mischief, it would have been better it should not be given to the human race than given (1495). The perfect of the apodosis is ordinarily used of future time (1612): as, occidī, sī tū vēra memorās, Pl. Most. 369, I’m a dead man, if what you say is true. nunc sī indicium faciō, interiī; sī taceō, interiī tamen, Pl. MG. 306, now if I tell, I’m dead and gone; if I keep dark, I’m dead and gone the same. nī illōs hominēs expellō, ego occidī plānissumē, Pl. St. 401, if I don’t drive those people off, all’s up with me. nam sī argentum prius adfert, continuō nōs ambō exclūsī sumus, Pl. As. 360, for if he brings the money first, then we’re at once left out in the cold.

2028.

(c.) Apodosis in the Imperfect.

sed sī domīst, Dēmaenetum volēbam, Pl. As. 452, but if he is at home, Demaenetus I wanted. iam tum erat senex, senectūs sī verēcundōs facit, T. Ph. 1023, he was already old, if age is what makes shamefastness. sī singula vōs forte nōn movent, ūniversa certē tamen movēre dēbēbant, DN. 2, 163, if these points taken severally do not affect you, yet collectively they surely should have done so (1495).

2029.

(d.) Apodosis in the Pluperfect.

cesseram, sī aliēnam ā mē plēbem fuisse voltis, quae nōn fuit, invidiae, Sest. 64, I had yielded, if you will have it that the commons were opposed to me, though they were not, to hatred. hoc mī ūnum relicuom fuerat malum, sī puerum ut tollam cōgit, T. Hec. 570, this was the only evil left in store for me, if he compels me to adopt the child.

2030.

(e.) Apodosis in the Future.

sī interpellās, ego tacēbō, Pl. Men. 1121, if you persist in breaking in, I’ll hold my tongue. hīc tū sī laesum tē esse dīcis, patiar et concēdam; sī iniūriam tibī̆ factam quereris, dēfendam et negābō, Caecil. 58, if you assert that you are hurt in this matter, I am perfectly willing to admit it; but if you complain that it is a violation of your rights, I shall stoutly maintain the contrary. Often in this combination the present is loosely used of future time (1593): as, nunc sī ille hūc salvos revenit, reddam suom sibī̆; sī quid eō fuerit, habeō dōtem unde dem, Pl. Tri. 156, now if our absent friend comes safely back, I’ll give him back his own again; if anything befalls him, I’ve wherewith a dower to give. nisi id cōnfestim facis, ego tē trādam magistrātuī, N. 15, 4, 3, if you do not do it at once, I will hand you over to a magistrate. sī pāce fruī volumus, bellum gerendum est; sī bellum omittimus, pāce numquam fruēmur, Ph. 7, 19, if we wish to enjoy peace, we shall have to make war; if we give up war, we never shall enjoy peace. convincam, sī negās, C. 1, 8, I will bring it home to you, if you deny it. tibi dīvitiās dabō, sī impetrās, Pl. MG. 1213, I’ll make you rich, if you succeed.

2031.

(f.) Apodosis in the Future Perfect.

sī nequeō facere ut abeās, egomet abierō, Pl. Poen. 442, if I can’t make you go, I’ll instantly begone myself (1629). sī id nōn facis, ego quod mē in tē sit facere dignum invēnerō, T. Hau. 107, if you don’t do it, I will have a proper course devised to use with you.

2032.

(g.) Apodosis in the Imperative.

dā mihī̆ hoc, mel meum, sī mē amās, Pl. Tri. 244, give me this, honey mine, an thou lov’st me. redargue mē, sī mentior, Clu. 62, refute me, if I am not speaking the truth. dēsilīte, mīlitēs, nisi vultis aquilam hostibus prōdere, 4, 25, 3, jump overboard, men, unless you choose to abandon your eagle to the enemy. nī iūdicātum facit, sēcum dūcitō, vincitō compedibus, Twelve Tables in Gell. 20, 1, 45, unless he satisfies the judgement, the complainant shall take him with him, and put him in gyves (1593, 1575). quā rē, sī haec ita sunt, sīc mē colitōte ut deum, CM. 81, therefore, if this is so, you are to honour me as a god.

2033.

(h.) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.

sī quid habēs certius, velim scīre, Att. 4, 10, 1, if you have anything more definite, I should like to know (1554). sīn aliter animātus es, bene, quod agās, ēveniat tibī̆, Pl. Tri. 715, but if you’re minded otherwise, may all you do betide you well (1540). quod sī nōn possumus facere, moriāmur, Ph. 7, 14, if we cannot do it, let us die (1547). sī mihī̆ fīlius genitur, isque prius moritur, et cētera, tum mihī̆ ille sit hērēs, DO. 2, 141, if a son is born to me, and the boy dies before &c., &c., then so and so is to be my heir (1593, 1548). sī est spēs nostrī reditūs, eam cōnfirmēs, Fam. 14, 4, 3, if there is a hope of my coming back, strengthen that hope (1550). eum sī reddis mihi, praetereā ūnum nummum nē duīs, Pl. Cap. 331, if you restore my boy to me, you needn’t give one penny more (1551). sī hīc pernoctō, causae quid dīcam? T. Ad. 531, if I sleep here, what reason can I give (1563)?

(2.) Protasis in the Perfect.

2034.

(a.) Apodosis in the Present.

sī quid vēnāle habuit Heius, sī id quantī aestimābat, tantī vēndidit, dēsinō quaerere cūr ēmeris, V. 4, 10, if Hejus had anything for sale, if he sold it at his own valuation, I stop enquiring why you bought. sī vērē est ā nōbīs philosophia laudāta, eius trāctātiō optimō quōque dignissima est, Ac. 2, 6, if philosophy has been extolled by me with justice, its study is eminently worthy of the good. sī honōris causā statuam dedērunt, inimīcī nōn sunt, V. 2, 150, if they contributed a statue as a compliment, they are not enemies. postēs quoiusmodī?... etiam nunc satis bonī sunt, sī sunt inductī pice, Pl. Most. 818, what think you of the posts?... they’re pretty good even now, if they are only smeared with pitch. This combination is common in general conditional periods (1613): as, hominēs aegrī sī aquam gelidam bibērunt, prīmō relevārī videntur, C. 1, 31, if sick people drink cold water, at first they always seem refreshed. sī quod est admissum facinus, īdem dēcernunt, 6, 13, 5, if a crime has been committed, they also act as judges. abiūrant, sī quid crēditumst, Pl. Cur. 496, they always swear they haven’t it, if anything is trusted them. sī puer parvus occidit, aequō animō ferendum putant, TD. 1, 93, if a baby dies, they always think the affliction should be borne with resignation.

2035.

(b.) Apodosis in the Perfect.

sī peccāvī, īnsciēns fēcī, T. Hau. 631, if I’ve done wrong, it was in ignorance. haec bona in tabulās pūblicās sī rediērunt, tabulae pūblicae conruptae sunt, RA. 128, if this property has been entered on the state books, then the state books have been tampered with. quō in bellō sī fuit error, commūnis ē̆ī fuit cum senātū, Ph. 11, 34, if there was a mistake in this war, it was common to him and the senate. interiī, sī abiīt, Pl. Ps. 910, I’m lost, if he has gone (1608). Also in general periods (1613): as, animī sī quandō vēra vīdērunt, ūsī sunt fortūnā atque cāsū, Div. 2, 108, if the mind has ever seen the truth, it has used in every case luck and chance. studiōsē equidem ūtor nostrīs poētīs, sed sīcubi illī dēfēcērunt, vertī multa dē Graecīs, TD. 2, 26, I use our own poets carefully, it is true: but whenever they have failed me, I have always translated a great deal from Greek.

2036.

(c.) Apodosis in the Pluperfect.

sī illud iūre rogātum dīcere ausī sunt, oblītīne erant? PC. 45, if they ventured to say that that measure was brought forward in due form, had not they forgotten?

2037.

(d.) Apodosis in the Future.

sī quis oriente canīculā nātus est, is in marī nōn moriētur, if anybody is born when the dogstar is rising, he will never die at sea (general): sī Fabius oriente canīculā nātus est, Fabius in marī nōn moriētur, Fat. 12, if Fabius was born when the dogstar was rising, Fabius will not die at sea (particular). sī parum intellēxtī, dīcam dēnuō, Pl. R. 1103, if you don’t understand, I’ll say again. nōn ūtar eā cōnsuētūdine, sī quid est factum clēmenter, ut dissolūtē factum crīminer, V. 5, 19, I will not avail myself of the common practice, and if a thing has been done in a spirit of mercy, charge that it was done in a lax way. nisi iam factum aliquid est per Flaccum, fīet ā mē, Fam. 3, 11, 3, unless something or other has been done already through Flaccus, it will be done by me.

2038.

(e.) Apodosis in the Imperative.

sī plūs minusve secuērunt, sē fraude estō, Twelve Tables in Gell. 20, 1, 49, if they cut too much or too little, it shall be without penalty (1613). sī vīdistis, dīcite, Pl. R. 323, if ye have seen, declare. sī quid est peccātum ā nōbīs, prōfer, T. Hec. 253, declare it, if we’ve erred at all. sī numquam avārē pretium statuī artī meae, exemplum statuite in mē, T. Hau. 48, if never like a miser I have set a price upon my art, a pattern set in me. sī quōs propīnquus sanguī̆s patrōnōs dedit, iuvāte perīclitantem, Ta. 3, 12, if relationship has made any of you his advocates, help him in his straits.

2039.

(f.) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.

sī nūlla colōris prīncipiīs est reddita nātūra, extemplō ratiōnem reddere possīs, Lucr. 2, 757, if atoms have no colour, you might explain at once (1556). meritō maledīcās mī, sī nōn id ita factumst, Pl. Am. 572, you might with perfect right abuse me, if it is not so (1556).

2040.

(g.) Apodosis in the Imperfect Subjunctive.

sī nēmō hāc praeteriīt, postquam intrō abiī, cistella hīc iacēret, Pl. Cist. 683, if nobody has passed along this way, since I went in, a casket must have been lying here (1560). nam cūr tam variae rēs possent esse requīrō, ex ūnō sī sunt ignī pūrōque creātae? Lucr. 1, 645, for how could things so motley be, I ask, if they are made of pure and simple fire (1565)?

2041.

(h.) Apodosis in the Pluperfect Subjunctive.

sī Antōniō Crassus ēloquēns vīsus nōn est, tibī̆ numquam Cotta vīsus esset, O. 106, if Antony did not hold Crassus eloquent, you would never have held Cotta so (1561).

(3.) Protasis in the Imperfect.

2042.

(a.) Apodosis in the Present.

sī tum nōn pertimēscēbās, nē nunc quidem perhorrēscis? V. 4, 78, if you were not getting afraid then, are you not getting scared even now? sī quī senēs āc dēfōrmēs erant, eōs in hostium numerō dūcit, V. 5, 64, if any were old and homely, he considers them in the light of enemies (1590). sī ad illum hērēditās veniēbat, vērī simile est ab illō necātum, Inv. 1, 89, if the inheritance was coming to so and so, it is likely that the murder was committed by that man. adulēscentī nihil est quod suscēnseam, sī illum minus nōrat, T. Ph. 361, I have no cause for anger with the youth, if he was not acquainted with the man.

2043.

(b.) Apodosis in the Perfect.

sed sī properābās magis, prīdiē nōs tē hūc dūxisse oportuit, Pl. Poen. 525, but if you were in greater haste, you should have brought us here the day before.

2044.

(c.) Apodosis in the Imperfect.

This combination is used chiefly of contemporaneous action (1732), in general conditional periods: as, sī quod erat grande vās, laetī adferēbant, V. 4, 47, if any good-sized vase was ever found, they would always bring it to him in high glee. atque ea sī erant, magnam habēbās dīs grātiam, Pl. As. 143, and if them you ever had, you were monstrous grateful to the gods. sī quae rēs erat maior, populus commovēbātur, Sest. 105, if a thing of more than ordinary importance occurred, the populace was always aroused. hī, sī quid erat dūrius, concurrēbant, 1, 48, 6, whenever there was any pretty sharp work, these men would always fall to. For the subjunctive in such protases, see 2071.

2045.

(d.) Apodosis in the Future.

flēbunt Germānicum etiam īgnōtī: vindicābitis vōs, sī mē potius quam fortūnam meam fovēbātis, Ta. 2, 71, as for weeping for Germanicus, that will be done by strangers too; vengeance will be yours, if you honoured in me more the man than the position. See Att. 14, 1, 1.

2046.

(e.) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.

fāc animō magnō sīs, et sī turbidissima sapienter ferēbās, tranquilliōra laetē ferās, Fam. 6, 14, 3, be of great heart, and if you bore anarchy like a stoic, bear a more orderly condition of things with good cheer (1550).

2047.

(f.) Apodosis in the Imperfect Subjunctive.

sī amābās, invenīrēs mūtuom, Pl. Ps. 286, you should have borrowed, if you were in love (1559). quod sī meīs incommodīs laetābantur, urbis tamen periculō commovērentur, Sest. 54, if they did exult over my mishaps, still they ought to have been touched by the danger to Rome (1559).

(4.) Protasis in the Pluperfect.

2048.

(a.) Apodosis in the Present.

sī hoc ita fātō datum erat, ut ad pācem petendam venīrem, laetor tē mihī̆ sorte potissimum datum, ā quō peterem, L. 30, 30, 3, if it was so ordained by fate that I should come to sue for peace, I am glad that you are allotted me, of all men in the world, to sue from.

2049.

(b.) Apodosis in the Perfect.

tum id, sī falsum fuerat, fīlius quōr nōn refellit? T. Ph. 400, if that had been untrue, why did not at the time your son disprove it? vel officiō, sī quid dēbuerat, vel errōrī, sī quid nescierat, satis factum esse dūxit, D. 13, he thought he had done enough for duty, if he had been under any obligation, enough for delusion, if he had been acting under mistaken ignorance.

2050.

(c.) Apodosis in the Imperfect.

sed in aedibus quid tibi meīs nam erat negōtī mē absente, nisi ego iusseram? Pl. Aul. 427, but what business had you in my house in my absence, unless I had ordered? sī nihil in istā pugnā Rōsciī fēcerant, quam ob causam tantīs praemiīs dōnābantur? RA. 108, if the Rosciuses had not done service in that fight, why were they presented with such rewards? Often of antecedent action, in general conditional periods: as, sī quicquam caelātī adspexerat, manūs abstinēre, iūdicēs, nōn poterat, V. 4, 48, if he ever caught sight of a bit of chased work, why, gentlemen, he never could keep his hands off. stomachābātur senex, sī quid asperius dīxeram, DN. 1, 93, the old gentleman was always nettled, if I said anything harsh. ac seu longum post tempus vēnerat hospes, sīve convīva per imbrem vīcīnus, bene erat nōn piscibus urbe petītīs, H. S. 2, 2, 118, and if a friend dropped in, after an absence long, or neighbour, come to take pot-luck upon a rainy day, we feasted not on fish brought out from town. For the subjunctive in such protases, see 2071.

2051.

(d.) Apodosis in the Imperfect Subjunctive.

ante sōlem exorientem nisi in palaestram vēnerās, haud mediocrīs poenās penderēs, Pl. B. 426, ere sunrise so you came not to the wrestling school, amercement strong you had to pay (1552).

(5.) Protasis in the Future.

2052.

(a.) Apodosis in the Present.

eam sei cūrābeis, perbonast, Pl. Merc. 526, if you’ll take care of her, she is first-rate. quod sī perferre nōn poterō, opprimī mē mālō, RA. 10, if I cannot succeed in bearing it, I would rather be crushed.

2053.

(b.) Apodosis in the Perfect.

quam nisi dēfendēs, Rōmulus nōn bene vīdit avēs, Prop. 4 (5), 6, 43, unless thou savest her, ’twas ill that Romulus espied his birds. āctumst, sī quidem tū mē hīc lūdificābere, T. Eu. 717, all’s up, that is in case you fool me here (1612). cui sī esse in urbe licēbit, vīcimus, Att. 14, 20, 3, if he shall be allowed to stay in town, the day is ours (1612).

2054.

(c.) Apodosis in the Future.

sī erum īnsimulābis malitiae, male audiēs, T. Ph. 359, you’ll hear what you won’t like, if you insinuate anything wrong against master. vīcīnīs bonus estō: sī tē libenter vīcīnitās vidēbit, facilius tua vēndēs; sī aedificābis, operīs, iūmentīs, māteriē adiuvābunt, Cato, RR. 4, be obliging to your neighbours: if the neighbourhood looks on you with favour, you will find a readier sale for your produce; if you fall to building, they will help you with labour, draught animals, and building material. sī id audēbis dīcere, causam inimīcī tuī sublevābis, Caecil. 12, if you venture to say that, you will promote the cause of your enemy. sī fortūna volet, fīēs dē rhētore cōnsul; sī volet haec eadem, fīēs dē cōnsule rhētor, J. 7, 197, if fortune shall ordain, a magnate from a teacher thou shalt be; again shall she ordain, a teacher from a magnate shalt thou be. nōn modo nōn laedētur causa nōbilitātis, sī istīs hominibus resistētis, vērum etiam ōrnābitur, RA. 138, the interests of the nobility will not be damaged, if you resist those creatures; oh no, on the contrary, they will be promoted. The clause with sī is apt to take the future perfect (2061). The future in the apodosis often denotes action holding good at all times: as, dēfēnsor prīmum, sī poterit, dēbēbit vītam eius, quī īnsimulābitur, quam honestissimam dēmōnstrāre, Inv. 2, 35, the advocate ought in the first place, if he can, to prove that the life of the accused is eminently respectable. quod adsequēmur, sī cavēbimus nē in perturbātiōnēs incidāmus, Off. 1, 131, we shall attain this end if we take care not to be subject to fits of passion. Sometimes in exemplifications: sī patriam prōdere cōnābitur pater, silēbitne fīlius? Off. 3, 90, if a father shall try to betray his country, will the son keep silent? But see 2090.

2055.

(d.) Apodosis in the Future Perfect.

oculum ego ecfodiam tibī̆:: dīcam tamen; nam sī sīc nōn licēbit, luscus dīxerō, Pl. Tri. 463, I’ll dig your eye out:: but I’ll speak, nathless; for if I may not as I am, I’ll say my say as one-eyed man. sed sī tē aequō animō ferre accipiet, neclegentem fēceris, T. Andr. 397, but if he sees you take it placidly, you’ll have him off his guard. The more usual combination is as in 2062.

2056.

(e.) Apodosis in the Imperative.

vir tuos sī veniet, iube domī opperīrier, Pl. Cist. 592, in case your husband comes, tell him to wait at home. Almost always the second imperative is used (1577): as, sī volet, suō vīvitō, Twelve Tables in Gell. 20, 1, 45, if the prisoner wish, he may subsist on his own food. sī veniet nūntius, facitō ut sciam, Pl. St. 148, if a messenger shall come, be sure you let me know. sī dē mē ipsō plūra dīcere vidēbor, īgnōscitōte, Sest. 31, if I seem to harp too much on myself, you must excuse me.

2057.

(f.) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.

sī quid erit, quod scrībendum putēs, velim faciās, Att. 11, 13, 5, if there shall be anything which you think worth writing, I wish you would write (1555). nam sī altera illaec magis īnstābit, forsitan nōs reiciat, T. Ph. 717, for if the other lady presses more, perhaps he’ll throw us out (1554). peream, sī tē ferre poterunt, Brut. in Fam. 11, 23, 2, may I die, if they shall find it possible to endure you (1541). sī quandō illa dīcet ‘Phaedriam intrō mittāmus,’ Pamphilam cantātum prōvocēmus, T. Eu. 441, if ever she shall say ‘let us have Phaedria in,’ then let us call out Pamphila to sing (1548). habeat, sī argentum dabit, Pl. R. 727, she’s welcome to them, if she pays the cash (1548).

2058.

(g.) Apodosis in the Perfect Subjunctive.

sī mē audiētis, adulēscentēs, sōlem alterum nē metuerītis, RP. 1, 32, if you will hearken to me, my young friends, never fear a double sun (1551). sīn erit ille gemitus ēlāmentābilis, vix eum virum dīxerim, TD. 2, 57, but if his groan be a long-drawn wail, I could scarcely call him a man (1558).

(6.) Protasis in the Future Perfect.

2059.

(a.) Apodosis in the Present.

salvae sunt, sī istōs flūctūs dēvītāverint, Pl. R. 168, they are saved, if they escape those waves (1593). rēx sum, sī ego illum hominem adlexerō, Pl. Poen. 671, I’m a millionaire, if I allure the man (1593). crīmen probāre tē cēnsēs posse, sī nē causam quidem maleficī prōtuleris? RA. 72, do you think you can prove your charge, if you do not even bring forward a motive for the crime? quod sī meam spem vīs improbōrum fefellerit, commendō vōbīs meum parvum fīlium, C. 4, 23, but if the might of the wicked disappoints my hope, unto your keeping do I commend the little son of mine.

2060.

(b.) Apodosis in the Perfect.

victus sum, sī dīxeris, Pl. Am. 428, I am beaten if you tell (1612). sī sēnserit, periī, T. Andr. 213, if he scents it, I’m done for (1612). sī cōnservātus erit, vīcimus, Fam. 12, 6, 2, if he is saved, our success is assured (1612). tum, hercule, illō diē quō ego cōnsul sum creātus, male gesta rēs pūblica est, sī tuleritis, L. 3, 19, 11, in that case it was indeed a bad day for the country when I was made consul, if you make the proposition (1608).

2061.

(c.) Apodosis in the Future.

perībō, sī nōn fēcerō, sī faxō vāpulābō, Pl. in Gell. 3, 3, 8, I shall be done for if I don’t do it, if I do, I shall be done up too (1626). oculum ego ecfodiam tibī̆, sī verbum addideris, Pl. Tri. 463, I’ll gouge your eye out for you, if you say another word. sī tē interficī iusserō, residēbit in rē pūblicā reliqua coniūrātōrum manus, C. 1, 12, if I order you to be dispatched, the rest of the gang of conspirators will be left in the state.

2062.

(d.) Apodosis in the Future Perfect.

sī dīxerō mendācium, solēns me͡o mōre fēcerō, Pl. Am. 198, if fiction I relate, I shall have done but in my usual way. sī tū argentum attuleris, cum illō perdiderō fidem, Pl. Ps. 376, if you, sir, bring the cash, I’ll break my word to him. respīrārō, sī tē vīderō, Att. 2, 24, 5, I shall be myself again, if I see you. pergrātum mihī̆ fēceris, sī dē amīcitiā disputāris, L. 16, you will do me a very great favour, if you will discourse on friendship.

2063.

(e.) Apodosis in the Imperative.

Generally the longer forms of the imperative are used (1577): patrōnus sī clientī fraudem fēcerit, sacer estō, Twelve Tables in Serv. to V. 6, 609, if a patron shall cheat his client, let him be doomed. servītum tibi mē abdūcitō, nī fēcerō, Pl. Ps. 520, if I don’t do it, take me off to be your slave. hoc sī effēceris, quodvīs dōnum ā mē optātō, T. Eu. 1056, if you do this, ask any gift you please of me. sī mē adsequī potueris, ut tibī̆ vidēbitur, sepelītō, TD. 1, 103, if you can ever find me, then bury me as you think best. Rarely the shorter forms: inpinge pugnum, sī muttīverit, Pl. B. 800, drive your fist into him if he says booh. sī tumidōs accēdere fastūs sēnseris, inceptō parce referque pedem, O. AA. 1, 715, if thou shalt see disdain come swelling high, give o’er and beat retreat.

2064.

(f.) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.

sibī̆ habeat, sī nōn extemplō ab eō abdūxerō, Pl. Per. 164, he may keep her, if I don’t carry her off that minute (1548). caecum mē ferrī cōnfitear, sī tē potuisse superārī dīxerō, Planc. 6, if I say that you can be surpassed, I should own myself swept along like a blind man (1556). tum magis adsentiāre, sī ad maiōra pervēnerō, RP. 1, 62, you would agree all the more if I come at once to weightier points (1556).

Some Special Uses.

2065. An indicative protasis with sī is often used to assume a general truth as a proof either for another general truth, or for a particular fact.

(a.) sī voluptātis sēnsum capit, dolōrēs etiam capit, DN. 3, 32, if it is susceptible of pleasure, it is also susceptible of pain. sī omnēs, quī rē̆ī pūblicae cōnsulunt, cārī nōbīs esse dēbent, certē in prīmīs imperātōrēs. sī ferae partūs suōs dīligunt, quā nōs in līberōs nostrōs indulgentiā esse dēbēmus, DO. 2, 168, if all people who are devoted to the public service are dear to us, then assuredly our military men ought always to be particularly dear. If wild beasts always love their young, how kind ought we always to be to our own children. (b.) sī pietātī summa tribuenda laus est, dēbētis movērī, cum Q. Metellum tam piē lūgēre videātis, DO. 2, 167, if filial affection is always to be held in high honour, you ought to be touched in this instance, seeing such affectionate grief in Metellus. sī nox opportūna est ēruptiōnī, sīcut est, haec profectō noctis aptissima hōra est, L. 7, 35, 10, if night is always favourable for a sortie, and it always is, this particular hour of the night is the very best time.

2066. An indicative protasis with sī often assumes a fact, past or present, as an argument for another fact, or for a general truth.

In this case the apodosis, which is usually a question, often takes the subjunctive (1565).

sī Sūlla potuit efficere, ut dictātor dīcerētur, cūr hīc nōn possit? Att. 9, 15, 2, if Sulla could succeed in being appointed dictator, why cannot this man? sī Zēnōnī licuit inaudītum rē̆ī nōmen impōnere, cūr nōn liceat Catōnī? Fin. 3, 15, if Zeno was allowed to give a new name to a thing, why should not Cato be allowed? quod sī Graecī leguntur ā Graecīs, quid est cūr nostrī ā nostrīs nōn legantur? Fin. 1, 6, but if Greeks are read by Greeks, why should not Romans be read by Romans?

2067. An indicative protasis with sī often assumes a fact which is declared in the apodosis to be no reason for another fact.

In this case the negative usually begins the period. sī, for which quia or etsī is sometimes substituted, sometimes has idcircō, īlicō, or continuō, rarely proptereā or ideō, as correlative in the apodosis.

nōn, sī tibī̆ anteā prōfuit, semper prōderit, Ph. 8, 12, even if it has done you good in the past, that is no reason why it always will in the future. nōn sī Opīmium dēfendistī, idcircō tē istī bonum cīvem putābunt, DO. 2, 170, suppose you did defend Opimius, that is no reason why your friends will think you a patriot. nec sī omne ēnūntiātum aut vērum aut falsum est, sequitur īlicō, esse causās immūtābilīs, quae prohibeant secus cadere atque cāsūrum sit, Fat. 28, and even if every declaration is either true or false, it does not follow without any further ado that there are unchangeable causes to prevent a thing falling out different from the way it promises to fall out. nōn continuō, sī mē in gregem sīcāriōrum contulī, sum sīcārius, RA. 94, it does not forthwith follow that if I have joined a band of bravoes, I am a bravo.

mīror, mīrum sī.

2068. mīror or mīrum est (mīra sunt) may introduce a conditional protasis, instead of a clause with quod (1851) or the accusative with the infinitive (2188).

Generally the main clause is actually or virtually negatived: as, minus mīrandumst, illaec aetās sī quid illōrum facit, Pl. B. 409, ’tis not to be wondered at, if youth does things like that. idne tū mīrāre, sī patrissat fīlius? Pl. Ps. 442, can you, sir, wonder at it if the son plays the father? nec mīrum sī ūtēbātur cōnsiliō, Quinct. 18, and it is no wonder if he followed the advice. mīrer, sī vāna vestra auctōritās est? L. 3, 21, 4, can I think it strange if your influence is of no account (1565)? Rarely the main clause is positive: as, mīrābar hoc sī sīc abīret, T. Andr. 175, I wondered if it was going to end so (1773). mīror sī quemquam amīcum habēre potuit, L. 54, I wonder if he could have had a friend in the world. In old colloquial style mīrum nī is found: as, mīrum nī hīc me exossāre cōgitat, Pl. Am. 319, strange that he doesn’t think of boning me. ubi nunc ipsus?:: mīrum nī domīst, T. Andr. 598, where is he now?:: at home of course. So once in Livy: mīrum esse nī castra hostium oppugnentur, L. 3, 28, 5, that he shouldn’t be surprised if the enemy’s camp were being stormed (1724). gaudeō sī is found once in Cicero, and terreō, metus est sī, or the like occurs a few times in Tacitus. For sī in expressions of trial, hope, expectation, &c., see 1777.

The Subjunctive for the Indicative.

2069. The indicative in the protasis is occasionally replaced by the subjunctive, as follows:

2070. (1.) The present or perfect subjunctive is sometimes used in general present suppositions, regularly in the indefinite second person singular, rarely with other persons (1730): as,

(a.) nam dolī nōn dolī sunt nisi astū colās, sed malum maxumum, sī id palam prōvenit, Pl. Cap. 221, for tricks are never tricks, unless you handle them with craft, but damage dire, in case the thing gets out; here the indicative prōvenit shows that colās is due to the person. nec calidae citius dēcēdunt corpore febrēs, textilibus sī in pīctūrīs ostrōque rubentī iactēris, quam sī in plēbēiā veste cubandum est, Lucr. 2, 34, nor sooner will hot fevers leave the limbs, if on gay tapestries and blushing purple you should toss, than if perforce your bed you make on pallet rude. quod est difficile, nisi speciem prae tē bonī virī ferās, Off. 2, 39, and this is a hard thing, unless you have the exterior of a good man. nec habēre virtūtem satis est nisi ūtāre, RP. 1, 2, and to have virtue is not enough, unless one use it. sīquoi mūtuom quid dederīs, fit prō propriō perditum, Pl. Tri. 1051, if aught you’ve lent to anyone, ’tis not your own, but lost. nam nūllae magis rēs duae plūs negōtī habent, sī occēperīs exōrnāre, Pl. Poen. 212, for no two things give more trouble if you once begin to fit them out. nūlla est excūsātiō peccātī, sī amīcī causā peccāverīs, L. 37, it is no excuse for a sin if you have sinned from friendship.

(b.) suōs quisque opprimī nōn patitur, neque, aliter sī faciat, ūllam inter suōs habet auctōritātem, 6, 11, 4, nobody suffers his vassals to be put down, and if he ever act otherwise, he has no influence among his people. laeduntur artēriae, sī ācrī clāmōre compleantur, Cornif. 3, 21, it always hurts the windpipe, if it be filled out with a sharp scream. turpis excūsātiō est, sī quis contrā rem pūblicam sē amīcī causā fēcisse fateātur, L. 40, it is always a discreditable apology, if a man confess that he has been unpatriotic from motives of friendship. Britannī iniūncta imperiī mūnera impigrē obeunt, sī iniūriae absint, Ta. Agr. 13, the Britons are always perfectly ready to perform the duties enjoined on them by the Roman government, if they be not maltreated.

2071. (2.) The imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive is sometimes used in general past suppositions (1730).

This use begins with Catullus and Caesar, the indicative being the regular classical construction (2044, 2050).

chommoda dīcēbat, sī quandō commoda vellet dīcere Arrius, Cat. 84, 1, hadvantages said Arrius, if advantages he ever meant to say. sī quis prehenderētur, cōnsēnsū mīlitum ēripiēbātur, Caes. C. 3, 110, 4, every time a man was taken up, he was rescued by the joint action of the rank and file. sīn autem locum tenēre vellent, nec virtūtī locus relinquēbātur, neque coniecta tēla vītāre poterant, 5, 35, 4, but if on the other hand they undertook to hold their position, there was never any opening for bravery, nor could they ever dodge the shower of missiles. sīn Numidae propius accessissent, ibī̆ virtūtem ostendere, S. I. 58, 3, they showed forth their valour every time the Numidians drew near (1535).

(B.) SUBJUNCTIVE USE.

2072. The present or perfect subjunctive may be used in a conditional protasis of future time.

2073. The apodosis is usually in the present subjunctive, less frequently in the perfect subjunctive. The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are rare (2089).

2074. The indicative is sometimes used in the apodosis, especially in expressions of ability, duty, &c. (1495); nōn possum is regularly in the indicative when the protasis is also negative. For the future indicative the periphrastic form is sometimes used.

2075. In the early period, before the imperfect subjunctive had been shifted to denote present time in conditional sentences (2091), the present subjunctive was used to express action non-occurrent in present time. Examples of this use are found in Plautus: as, sī honestē cēnseam tē facere posse, suādeam; vērum nōn potest; cave faxīs, Pl. MG. 1371, if I thought that you could do the thing with credit to yourself, I should advise you to; but ’tis impossible; so don’t you do it. vocem tē ad cēnam, nisi egomet cēnem forīs, Pl. St. 190, I should ask you home to dine, if I were not dining out myself. Such sentences must not be confused with those in which an action from the nature of things impossible is represented as of possible occurrence.

(1.) Protasis in the Present Subjunctive.

2076.

(a.) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.

at pigeat posteā nostrum erum, sī vōs eximat vinculīs, Pl. Cap. 203, but it may rue our master by and by, if he should take you out of bonds. quid sī ēveniat dēsubitō prandium, ubī̆ ego tum accumbam? Pl. B. 79, suppose a lunch should suddenly come off, where is your humble servant then to lie (1563)? hanc viam sī asperam esse negem, mentiar, Sest. 100, if I say that this path is not rough, I should not tell the truth. sī deus tē interroget, quid respondeās? Ac. 2, 80, if a god ask you, what would you answer? haec sī tēcum patria loquātur, nōnne impetrāre dēbeat? C. 1, 19, if thy country plead with thee thus, ought she not to carry her point? sī existat hodiē ab īnferīs Lycūrgus, sē Spartam antīquam āgnōscere dīcat, L. 39, 37, 3, if Lycurgus rise this day from the dead, he would say that he recognized the Sparta of yore. eōs nōn cūrāre opīnor, quid agat hūmānum genus; nam sī cūrent, bene bonīs sit, male malīs, quod nunc abest, E. in Div. 2, 104, DN. 3, 79, but little care the gods, I trow, how fares the race of man; for should they care, the good were blest, the wicked curst; a thing that really cometh not to pass.

2077.

(b.) Apodosis in the Perfect Subjunctive.

sī aequom siet mē plūs sapere quam vōs, dederim vōbīs cōnsilium catum, Pl. E. 257, if it becoming be for me to have more wit than ye, sage counsel might I give (1558). aufūgerim potius quam redeam, sī eō mihi redeundum sciam, T. Hec. 424, I’d run away sooner than go back, if I should hear I had to (1558). nec satis sciō, nec sī sciam, dīcere ausim, L. praef. 1, in the first place I do not know very well, and secondly if I should know, I should not venture to say (1555). iniussū tuō extrā ōrdinem numquam pugnāverim, nōn sī certam victōriam videam, L. 7, 10, 2, without orders from you I never should fight out of ranks, no, not if I saw victory was certain (1558). tum vērō nēquīquam hāc dextrā capitōlium servāverim, si cīvem commīlitōnemque meum in vincula dūcī videam, L. 6, 14, 4, upon my word, in that case I should prove to have saved the capital in vain, if I saw a townsman and brother-in-arms of mine haled to jail. multōs circā ūnam rem ambitūs fēcerim, sī quae variant auctōrēs omnia exequī velim, L. 27, 27, 12, I should make a long story about one subject, if I should undertake to go through all the different versions of the authorities.

2078.

(c.) Apodosis in the Present Indicative.

quī sī decem habeās linguās, mūtum esse addecet, Pl. B. 128, if you should have a dozen tongues, ’tis fit you should be dumb (2074). sī prō peccātīs centum dūcat uxōrēs, parumst, Pl. Tri. 1186, if he should wed a hundred wives in payment for his sins, ’tis not enough. intrāre, sī possim, castra hostium volō, L. 2, 12, 5, I propose to enter the camp of the enemy, if I be able. tē neque dēbent adiuvāre, sī possint, neque possunt, sī velint, V. 4, 20, they ought not to help you, if they could, and cannot, if they would. sī vōcem rērum nātūra repente mittat, quid respondēmus? Lucr. 3, 931, if Nature of a sudden lift her voice, what answer shall we make? sī quaerātur, idemne sit pertinācia et persevērantia, dēfīnītiōnibus iūdicandum est, T. 87, if it be asked whether obstinacy and perseverance are the same, it must be settled by definitions (2074).

2079.

(d.) Apodosis in the Future.

quadrīgās sī īnscendās Iovis atque hinc fugiās, ita vix poteris effugere īnfortūnium, Pl. Am. 450, Jove’s four-in-hand if you should mount, and try to flee from here, even so you’ll scarce escape a dreadful doom. sīquidem summum Iovem tē dīcās dētinuisse, malam rem effugiēs numquam, Pl. As. 414, e’en shouldst thou say imperial Jove detained thee, chastisement thou’lt ne’er avoid. sī frāctus inlābātur orbis, inpavidum ferient ruīnae, H. 3, 3, 7, should heaven’s vault crumbling fall, him all undaunted will its ruin strike. neque tū hoc dīcere audēbis, nec sī cupiās, licēbit, V. 2, 167, you will not dare to say this, sir, nor if you wish, will you be allowed.

2080.

(e.) Apodosis in the Future Perfect.

nōn tantum, sī proeliō vincās, glōriae adiēceris, quantum adēmeris, sī quid adversī ēveniat, L. 30, 30, 21, you will not acquire as much glory, if you succeed in battle, as you will lose, if any reverse occur.

2081.

(f.) Apodosis in the Periphrastic Future.

nōn latūrus sum, sī iubeās maxumē, Pl. B. 1004, I don’t intend to be the bearer, should you urge me e’er so much. quid, sī hostēs ad urbem veniant, factūrī estis? L. 3, 52, 7, suppose the enemy march on the town, what do you intend to do?

2082.

(g.) Apodosis in the Imperfect Subjunctive.

cantus et Lūnam dēdūcere temptat et faceret, sī nōn aera repulsa sonent, Tib. 1, 8, 21, magic essays to draw Luna down and would succeed if clashing brass should not resound (1560). nē sī nāvigāre quidem velim, ita gubernārem, ut somniāverim; praesēns enim poena sit, Div. 2, 122, again, suppose I undertake to go sailing, I should not lay my course as I may have dreamed; for the penalty would be swift (1560). sī hodiē bella sint, quāle Etrūscum fuit, quāle Gallicum; possētisne ferre Sextium cōnsulem esse? L. 6, 40, 17, suppose there be wars to-day like the Etruscan and the Gallic wars: could you bear to see Sextius consul (1565)?

2083.

(h.) Apodosis in the Pluperfect Subjunctive.

carmina nī sint, ex umerō Pelopis nōn nituisset ebur, Tib. 1, 4, 63, suppose there be no verse, from Pelops’ shoulder ne’er had ivory gleamed (1561).

(2.) Protasis in the Perfect Subjunctive.

2084.

(a.) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.

dēbeam, crēdō, istī quicquam furciferō, sī id fēcerim, T. Eu. 861, I should be, forsooth, responsible to the rogue, if I should do it (1556). sī dē caelō vīlla tācta siet, dē eā rē verba utī fīant, Cato, RR. 14, 3, if the villa be struck by lightning, let there be utterances about the case (1547). sī ā corōnā relictus sim, nōn queam dīcere, Br. 192, if I should ever be abandoned by my audience, I should not be able to speak. id sī acciderit, sīmus armātī, TD. 1, 78, if this have happened, let us be on our guard (1548). cūr ego simulem mē, sī quid in hīs studiīs operae posuerim, perdidisse? Par. 33, why should I have the affectation to say that if I have spent any time in these pursuits, I have thrown it away (1563)? See also 2090.

2085.

(b.) Apodosis in the Perfect Subjunctive.

sī paululum modo quid tē fūgerīt, ego perierim, T. Hau. 316, should you have missed the smallest point, a dead man I should be. See also 2090.

2086.

(c.) Apodosis in the Future Indicative.

sī forte līber fierī occēperim, mittam nūntium ad tē, Pl. MG. 1362, if haply I should be by way of getting free, I’ll send you word. sī forte morbus amplior factus siet, servom intrō iisse dīcent Sōstratae, T. Hec. 330, if her illness should get worse, they’ll say a slave of Sostrata’s went in there.

2087.

(d.) Apodosis in the Periphrastic Future.

sī Vēīs incendium ortum sit, Fĭ̄dēnās inde quaesītūrī sumus? L. 5, 54, 1, if a fire break out at Vei, are we going to move from there to Fidenae?

2088.

(e.) Apodosis in the Imperfect Subjunctive.

sīquis hoc gnātō tuō tuos servos faxit, quālem habērēs grātiam? Pl. Cap. 711, suppose a slave of yours has done this for a son of yours, how grateful should you have been?

Conversion to Past Time.

2089. An indeterminate subjunctive protasis is rarely thrown into the past, the present and perfect becoming respectively imperfect and pluperfect. In this case the form is the same as that of a protasis of action non-occurrent (2091), and the conversion occurs only when it is evident from the context that past action is supposed, which may or may not have occurred: as,

cūr igitur et Camillus dolēret, sī haec post trecentōs et quīnquāgintā ferē annōs ēventūra putāret, et ego doleam, sī ad decem mīlia annōrum gentem aliquam urbe nostrā potītūram putem? TD. 1, 90, why then would Camillus have fretted, if he thought this would occur after a lapse of some three hundred and fifty years, and why should I fret, if I think that some nation may seize Rome some ten thousand years hence? erat sōla illa nāvis cōnstrāta; quae sī in praedōnum pugnā versārētur, urbis īnstar habēre inter illōs pīrāticōs myoparōnēs vidērētur, V. 5, 89, this was the only vessel with a deck; and supposing she figured in the engagement with the corsairs, she would have loomed up like a town, surrounded by those pirate cock-boats. Sardus habēbat ille Tigellius hoc; Caesar sī peteret nōn quicquam prōficeret, H. S. 1, 3, 4, Tigellius the Sardian had this way; supposing Caesar asked him, naught had he availed.

Periods of Exemplification.

2090. The present subjunctive is particularly common in exemplification. The perfect is sometimes used in the protasis, rarely in the apodosis: as,

sī pater fāna expīlet, indicetne id magistrātibus fīlius? Off. 3, 90, if a father should plunder temples, would the son report it to the magistrates? sī quis pater familiās supplicium nōn sūmpserit, utrum is clēmēns an crūdēlissimus esse videātur? C. 4, 12, assume for the sake of argument that a householder have not inflicted punishment, would he seem merciful, or a monster of cruelty? sī scierīs aspidem occultē latēre uspiam, et velle aliquem imprūdentem super eam adsīdere, improbē fēcerīs, nisi monuerīs nē adsīdat, Fin. 2, 59, suppose a man should know, e.g. that there was a snake hiding somewhere, and that somebody was going to sit down on the snake unawares; he would do wrong, if he did not tell him he must not sit down there. In such periods the future is also used, but less frequently: see 2054.

II. PROTASES OF ACTION NON-OCCURRENT.

2091. A conditional period in which the non-occurrence of the action is implied takes the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive both in the protasis and in the apodosis. The imperfect usually denotes present or indefinite time, and the pluperfect denotes past time.

For the present subjunctive in such conditions, see 2075.

2093. The imperfect sometimes denotes past time (1559). When future time is referred to, the protasis is usually in the imperfect of the periphrastic future, commonly the subjunctive, but sometimes the indicative (2108).

2093. The apodosis is very rarely in the present subjunctive (2098). The periphrastic future is sometimes used, commonly in the indicative (2097, 2100).

(1.) Protasis in the Imperfect Subjunctive.

2094.

(a.) Apodosis in the Imperfect Subjunctive.

(a.) Protasis and apodosis both denoting present action; this is the usual application: sī intus esset, ēvocārem, Pl. Ps. 640, I should call him out, if he were in. is iam prīdem est mortuus. sī vīveret, verba eius audīrētis, RC. 42, that person has long been dead; if he were alive, you would hear his evidence. adnuere tē videō; prōferrem librōs, sī negārēs, DN. 1, 113, I see you nod assent; I should bring out the books, if you maintained the opposite. sī L. Mummius aliquem istōrum vidēret Corinthium cupidissimē trāctantem, utrum illum cīvem excellentem, an ātriēnsem dīligentem putāret? Par. 38, if Mummius should see one of your connoisseurs nursing a piece of Corinthian, and going into perfect ecstasies over it, what would he think? that the man was a model citizen or a thoroughly competent indoor-man? quod sī semper optima tenēre possēmus, haud sānē cōnsiliō multum egērēmus, OP. 89, now if we could always be in possession of what is best, we should not ever stand in any special need of reasoning.

(b.) Protasis and apodosis both denoting past action: haec sī neque ego neque tū fēcimus, nōn siit egestās facere nōs; nam sī esset unde id fīeret, facerēmus; et tū illum tuom, sī essēs homō, sinerēs nunc facere, T. Ad. 103, if neither you nor I have acted thus, ’twas poverty that stinted us; for if we’d had the means, we should have done so too; and you would let that boy of yours, if you were human, do it now. Here esset refers to past time, essēs to present. num igitur eum, sī tum essēs, temerārium cīvem putārēs? Ph. 8, 14, would you therefore have thought him, if you had lived then, a hotheaded citizen? sī ūniversa prōvincia loquī posset, hāc vōce ūterētur; quoniam id nōn poterat, hārum rērum āctōrem ipsa dēlēgit, Caecil. 19, if the collective province could have spoken, she would have used these words; but since she could not, she chose a manager for the case herself.

2095.

(b.) Apodosis in the Pluperfect Subjunctive.

invēnissēmus iam diū, sei vīveret, Pl. Men. 241, were he alive, we should have found him long ago. sī mihi secundae rēs dē amōre meō essent, iam dūdum sciō vēnissent, T. Hau. 230, if everything were well about my love, I know they would have been here long ago. quae nisi essent in senibus, nōn summum cōnsilium maiōrēs nostrī appellāssent senātum, CM. 19, unless the elderly were in general characterized by these qualities, our ancestors would not have called the highest deliberative body the body of elders.

2096.

(c.) Periphrastic Apodosis.

quibus, sī Rōmae esset, facile contentus futūrus erat, Att. 12, 32, 2, with which, if he were in Rome, he would readily be satisfied (2093). quōs ego, sī tribūnī mē triumphāre prohibērent, testēs citātūrus fuī rērum ā mē gestārum, L. 38, 47, 4, the very men whom I was to call to bear witness to my deeds, if the tribunes should refuse me a triumph.

(2.) Protasis in the Pluperfect Subjunctive.

2097.

(a.) Apodosis in the Imperfect Subjunctive.

(a.) Protasis denoting past, apodosis present action: sī ante voluissēs, essēs; nunc sērō cupis, Pl. Tri. 568, if you had wished it before, you might be; as it is, you long too late. sī nōn mēcum aetātem ēgisset, hodiē stulta vīveret, Pl. MG. 1320, if she hadn’t spent her life with me, she’d be a fool to-day. sī tum illī respondēre voluissem, nunc rē̆ī pūblicae cōnsulere nōn possem, Ph. 3, 33, if I had chosen to answer the man then, I should not be able to promote the public interest now. quō quidem tempore sī meum cōnsilium valuisset, tū hodiē egērēs, nōs līberī essēmus, Ph. 2, 37, if by the way at that time my counsel had been regarded, you, sir, would be a beggar to-day and we should be free.

(b.) Protasis and apodosis both referring to past: ōlim sī advēnissem, magis tū tum istūc dīcerēs, Pl. Cap. 871, if I had come before, you’d have said so then all the more. num igitur, sī ad centēsimum annum vīxisset, senectūtis eum suae paenitēret? CM. 19, suppose therefore he had lived to be a hundred, would he have regretted his years? Indōs aliāsque sī adiūnxisset gentēs, impedimentum maius quam auxilium traheret, L. 9, 19, 5, if he had added the Indians and other nations, he would have found them a hindrance rather than a help in his train.

2098.

(b.) Apodosis in the Pluperfect Subjunctive.

sī appellāssēs, respondisset nōminī, Pl. Tri. 927, if you had called him, he’d have answered to his name. nisi fūgissem, medium praemorsisset, Pl. in Gell. 6, 9, 7, if I hadn’t run away, he’d have bitten me in two. sī vēnissēs ad exercitum, ā tribūnīs vīsus essēs; nōn es autem ab hīs vīsus; nōn es igitur ad exercitum profectus, Inv. 1, 87, if you had come to the army, you would have been seen by the tribunes; but you have not been seen by them; therefore you have not been to the army. sī beātus umquam fuisset, beātam vītam usque ad rogum pertulisset, Fin. 3, 76, if he had ever been a child of fortune, he would have continued the life of bliss to the funeral pyre. nisi mīlitēs essent dēfessī, omnēs hostium cōpiae dēlērī potuissent, 7, 88, 6, unless the soldiers had been utterly exhausted, the entire force of the enemy might have been exterminated (2101). quod sī Catilīna in urbe remānsisset, dīmicandum nōbīs cum illō fuisset, C. 3, 17, but if Catiline had staid in town we should have had to fight with the villain (2101).

2099.

(c.) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.

vocem ego tē ad mē ad cēnam, frāter tuos nisi dīxisset mihī̆ tē apud sē cēnātūrum esse hodiē, Pl. St. 510, I should like to invite you home to dinner, if my brother hadn’t told me that you were to dine with him to-day.

2100.

(d.) Periphrastic Apodosis.

(a.) sī tacuisset, ego eram dictūrus, Pl. Cist. 152, if she had held her peace, I was going to tell (2093). sī P. Sēstius occīsus esset, fuistisne ad arma itūrī? Sest. 81, if Sestius had been slain, were you disposed to rush to arms? conclāve illud, ubī̆ erat mānsūrus, sī īre perrēxisset, conruit, Div. 1, 26, the suite of rooms where he was going to spend the night, if he had pushed on, tumbled down. Teucrās fuerat mersūra carīnās, nī prius in scopulum trānsfōrmāta foret, O. 14, 72, she had gone on to sink the Trojan barks unless she had been changed into a rock. (b.) quem sī vīcisset, habitūrus esset impūnitātem sempiternam, Mil. 84, and if he overcame him, he would be likely to have exemption from punishment forever and ever (2093). aut nōn fātō interiīt exercitus, aut sī fātō, etiam sī obtemperāsset auspiciīs, idem ēventūrum fuisset, Div. 2, 21, the destruction of his army was either not due to fate, or if to fate, it would have happened all the same, even if he had conformed to the auspices.

Indicative Apodosis.

2101. (1.) The apodosis of verbs of ability, duty, &c. (1495-1497), including the gerundive with sum, is often in the indicative, the imperfect taking the place of the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive, and the perfect that of the pluperfect subjunctive. But the subjunctive is also found, especially possem rather than poteram.

2102.

(a.) Apodosis in the Imperfect Indicative.

(a.) Of present action: quod sī Rōmae Cn. Pompēius prīvātus esset, tamen ad tantum bellum is erat mittendus, IP. 50, now if Pompey were at Rome, in private station, still he would be the man to send to this important war. quem patris locō, sī ūlla in tē pietās esset, colere dēbēbās, Ph. 2, 99, whom you ought to honour as a father, if you had any such thing as affection in you.

(b.) Of past action: quid enim poterat Heius respondēre, sī esset improbus? V. 4, 16, for what answer could Hejus have given, if he were an unprincipled man? sī sordidam vestem habuissent, lūgentium Perseī cāsum praebēre speciem poterant, L. 45, 20, 5, if they had worn dark clothing, they might have presented the mien of mourners for the fall of Perseus.

2103.

(b.) Apodosis in the Perfect Indicative.

nōn potuit reperīre, sī ipsī sōlī quaerendās darēs, lepidiōrēs duās, Pl. MG. 803, if you assigned the search to Sol himself, he couldn’t have found two jollier girls. quō modo pultāre potuī sī nōn tangerem? Pl. Most. 462, how could I have knocked, if I hadn’t touched the door? licitumst, sī vellēs, Pl. Tri. 566, you might have been, if you’d wished. sī meum imperium exsequī voluissēs, interemptam oportuit, T. Hau. 634, if you had been willing to follow my commands, she should have been dispatched. cōnsul esse quī potuī, nisi eum vītae cursum tenuissem ā pueritiā? RP. 1, 10, how could I have been consul unless from boyhood I had taken that line in life? sī eum captīvitās in urbem pertrāxisset, Caesarem ipsum audīre potuit, Ta. D. 17, if captivity had carried him to the city, he could have heard Caesar himself. Antōnī gladiōs potuit contemnere, sī sīc omnia dīxisset, J. 10, 123, Antonius’ swords he might have scorned, if all things he had worded so. sī ūnum diem morātī essētis, moriendum omnibus fuit, L. 2, 38, 5, if you had staid one day, you must all have died.

2104. (2.) Other verbs also sometimes have a past indicative apodosis, usually an imperfect or pluperfect, to denote an action very near to actual performance, which is interrupted by the action of the protasis.

Naturally such a protasis generally contains an actual or a virtual negative; but positive protases are found here and there, chiefly in late writers.

2105.

(a.) Apodosis in the Perfect Indicative.

paene in foveam dēcidī, nī hīc adessēs, Pl. Per. 594, I had almost fallen into a snare, unless you were here. nec vēnī, nisi fāta locum sēdemque dedissent, V. 11, 112, nor had I come, unless the fates a place and seat had given. pōns sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, nī ūnus vir fuisset Horātius Cocles, L. 2, 10, 2, the pile-bridge all but gave a path to the enemy, had it not been for one heroic soul, Horatius Cocles.

2106.

(b.) Apodosis in the Imperfect Indicative.

quīn lābēbar longius, nisi mē retinuissem, Leg. 1, 52, why, I was going to drift on still further, if I had not checked myself. sī per L. Metellum licitum esset, mātrēs illōrum veniēbant, V. 5, 129, if Metellus had not prevented, the mothers of those people were just coming; here the protasis may be held to contain a virtual negative; so in the last example on this page. castra excindere parābant, nī Mūciānus sextam legiōnem opposuisset, Ta. H. 3, 46, they were preparing to destroy the camp, had not Mucianus checked them with the sixth legion. sī dēstināta prōvēnissent, rēgnō imminēbat, Ta. H. 4, 18, had his schemes succeeded, he was close upon the throne.

2107.

(c.) Apodosis in the Pluperfect Indicative.

quīngentōs simul, nī hebes machaera foret, ūnō ictū occīderās, Pl. MG. 52, five hundred, had your glaive not blunted been, at one fell swoop you’d slain. praeclārē vīcerāmus, nisi Lepidus recēpisset Antōnium, Fam. 12, 10, 3, we had gained a splendid victory, if Lepidus had not taken Antony under his protection. quod ipsum fortūna ēripuerat, nisi ūnīus amīcī opēs subvēnissent, RabP. 48, even this boon fortune had wrenched from him, unless he had been assisted by a single friend. sī gladium nōn strīnxissem, tamen triumphum merueram, L. 38, 49, 12, if I had not drawn my sword, I had still earned my triumph. perierat imperium, sī Fabius tantum ausus esset quantum īra suādēbat, Sen. de Ira, 1, 11, 5, the empire had been lost, if Fabius had ventured as far as passion urged.

2108.

(3.) Periphrastic Protasis.

(a.) ac sī tibī̆ nēmō respōnsūrus esset, tamen causam dēmōnstrāre nōn possēs, Caecil. 43, and even supposing that nobody were going to answer you, still you would not be able to make the case good (2092). plūribus vōs, mīlitēs, hortārer, sī cum armātīs dīmicātiō futūra esset, L. 24, 38, 9, I should exhort you at greater length, my men, if there was to be a tug with armed men (2092). (b.) sī domum tuam expugnātūrus eram, nōn temperāssem vīnō in ūnum diem? L. 40, 14, 4, if I intended to capture your house, should I not have abstained from wine for a day (2092)?

Variation of the Protasis.

2109. Instead of a conditional protasis with sī or nisi, equivalents are often used.

2110. Thus, the protasis may be coordinated (1701), or be introduced by a relative pronoun (1812), by quod (1843), cum (1859, 1860), ubī̆ (1932), ut or nē (1963), dum, dum modo, modo (2003), or quandō (2011). Or the protasis may be intimated by sine, without, cum, with, by a participle or ablative absolute, by a wish, or otherwise: as,

(a.) nēmō umquam sine magnā spē immortālitātis sē prō patriā offerret ad mortem, TD. 1, 32, nobody would ever expose himself to death for his country without a well-grounded conviction of immortality. cum hāc dōte poteris vel mendīcō nūbere, Pl. Per. 396, with such a dowry you can e’en a beggar wed. Sūlla, crēdō, hunc petentem repudiāsset, Arch. 25, Sulla, I suppose, would have turned my client away, if he petitioned him. quae legentem fefellissent, trānsferentem fugere nōn possunt, Plin. Ep. 7, 9, 2, what would have escaped a reader can’t escape a translator. vīvere ego Britannicō potiente rērum poteram? Ta. 13, 21, as for me, could I live, if Britannicus were on the throne (2102)? nisi tē salvō salvī esse nōn possumus, Marc. 32, without you safe, safe we cannot be. aspicerēs utinam, Sāturnia: mītior essēs, O. 2, 435, would thou couldst see, Saturnia; thou wouldst gentler be.

(b.) habet ōrātiōnem tālem cōnsul, quālem numquam Catilīna vīctor habuisset, Sest. 28, he makes a speech—yes, and he a consul—such as a Catiline would never have made, if flushed with success. revereāris occursum, nōn reformīdēs, Plin. Ep. 1, 10, 7, you might well be abashed in his presence, but you would not be afraid. dī immortālēs mentem illī perditō ac furiōsō dedērunt ut huic faceret insidiās; aliter perīre pestis illa nōn potuit, Mil. 88, the immortal gods inspired that mad miscreant to waylay my client; otherwise, that monster could not have been destroyed. For the use of absque in a coordinate protasis in Plautus and Terence, see 1701, 1421.

2111. The verb of the protasis is sometimes omitted: as in abridged sentences (1057), or when it may be easily supplied (1036).

aut enim nēmō, aut sī quisquam, ille sapiēns fuit, L. 9, for either nobody or, if anybody, that was a wise man. sī ēveniet, gaudēbimus: sīn secus, patiēmur, Pl. Cas. 377, if it shall come to pass, glad shall we be; if else, we shall endure. mē voluisse, sī haec cīvitās est, cīvem esse mē; sī nōn, exsulem esse, Fam. 7, 3, 5, that I wished, if this is a commonwealth, to be a citizen of it; if it is not, to be an exile. sūmeret alicunde... sī nūllō aliō pactō, faenore, T. Ph. 299, he could have got it from somebody or other... if in no other way, on usury (2113).

Variation of the Apodosis.

2112. The apodosis is sometimes represented by the accusative of exclamation (1149), or the vocative: as,

mortālem graphicum, sī servat fidem, Pl. Ps. 519, O what a pattern creature, if he keeps his word. ō miserum tē, sī intellegis, miseriōrem, sī nōn intellegis, hoc litterīs mandārī, Ph. 2, 54, wretched man if you are aware, more wretched if you are not aware, that all this is put down in black and white. inimīce lāmnae, Crīspe Sallustī, nisi temperātō splendeat ūsū, H. 2, 2, 2, thou foe to bullion, Crispus Sallustius, so it shine not with tempered use. Also the future participle in poetry and in prose from Livy on.

2113. The verb of the apodosis, or the entire apodosis, is often omitted. In the latter case an appended verb might easily be mistaken for the apodosis.

quid sī caelum ruat? T. Hau. 719, what if the sky should fall? quō mihi fortūnam, sī nōn concēditur ūtī? H. E. 1, 5, 12, why wealth for me, if wealth I may not use? nisi restituissent statuās, vehementer minātur, V. 2, 162, he threatens vengeance dire, if they did not put the statues back in their place. quae supplicātiō sī cum cēterīs cōnferātur, hoc interest, C. 3, 15, if this thanksgiving be compared with all others, there would be found the following difference. nōn edepol ubi terrārum sim sciō, sī quis roget, Pl. Am. 336, upon my word I don’t know where on earth I am, if anyone should ask. sī Valeriō quī crēdat, quadrāgintā mīlia hostium sunt caesa, L. 33, 10, 8, if anybody believe such a man as Valerius, there were forty thousand of the enemy slain. A clause with sī or nisi is often used parenthetically: as, sī placet, sī vidētur, sīs, sultis, if you please, sī quaeris, if you must know, in fact, sī dīs placet, please heaven, nisi mē fallit, if I am not mistaken, &c., &c. For wishes introduced by ō sī, without an apodosis, see 1546.

2114. The apodosis is sometimes expanded by inserted expressions. So particularly by vereor nē, equivalent to fortasse (1958), nōn dubitō quīn, to profectō (1986), or a form of sum with a relative pronoun: as,

quae cōnētur sī velim commemorāre, vereor nē quis exīstimet mē causam nōbilitātis voluisse laedere, RA. 135, if I should undertake to set forth his high and mighty schemes, possibly it might be thought that I wished to damage the cause of the conservatives. sī tum P. Sēstius animam ēdidisset, nōn dubitō quīn aliquandō statua huic statuerētur, Sest. 83, if Sestius had given up the ghost then, a statue would doubtless at some day have been set up in his honour. quod ille sī repudiāsset, dubitātis quīn ē̆ī vīs esset adlāta? Sest. 62, if he had rejected this, have you any doubt that violent hands would have been laid on him? sescenta sunt quae memorem, sī sit ōtium, Pl. Aul. 320, there are a thousand things that I could tell, if I had time.

2115. For expressions of trial, hope, or expectation, followed by a conditional protasis with sī, see 1777.

Concessive Protases.

etsī, tametsī (tamenetsī), etiamsī.

2116. etsī, tametsī, though, etiamsī, even if, or sometimes simple sī, if, is used to introduce a concessive protasis. The verb of the protasis is either indicative or subjunctive; but the indicative is the prevailing construction, especially with etsī. The apodosis often has tamen as an adversative correlative, even with tametsī.

etsī is rare in poetry; not in Sallust. Sometimes it is used like quamquam to append a fresh main sentence (2153). tametsī belongs chiefly to colloquial style, though Sallust often uses it; not in the Augustan poets or Tacitus. etiamsī is not found in Plautus or Caesar.

(a.) nōn vīdī eam, etsī vīdī, Pl. MG. 407, I saw her not, although I saw her. quō mē habeam pactō, tametsī nōn quaeris, docēbō, Lucilius in Gell. 18, 8, 2, I’ll tell you how I am, though you do not inquire. etiamsī multī mēcum contendent, tamen omnīs superābō, Fam. 5, 8, 4, though I shall have many rivals, yet I will outdo them all. tametsī causa postulat, tamen praeterībō, Quinct. 13, though the case calls for it, still I will let it pass. Caesar, etsī in hīs locīs mātūrae sunt hiemēs, tamen in Britanniam proficīscī contendit, 4, 20, 1, though the winter always sets in early in these parts, nevertheless Caesar made haste to proceed to Britain. Caesar, etsī intellegēbat, quā dē causā ea dīcerentur, Indutiomarum ad sē venīre iussit, 5, 4, 1, though Caesar was aware of his motives in saying so, he directed Indutiomarus to come to him.

(b.) etsī taceās, palam id quidem est, Pl. Aul. 418, though you should hold your tongue, still that at least is plain. etsī nihil aliud Sūllae nisi cōnsulātum abstulissētis, tamen eō contentōs vōs esse oportēbat, Sull. 90, even though you had robbed Sulla of nothing but the consulship, still you ought to be satisfied with that. equidem, etiamsī oppetenda mors esset, in patriā māllem quam in externīs locīs, Fam. 4, 7, 4, for my part, even though death were to be faced, I should prefer it in my native land rather than abroad.

Conditional Comparisons.

quasi (quam sī), tamquam sī, ut or velut sī.

2117. sī following a word meaning than or as is used with the subjunctive in conditional comparisons.

In this use, quasi (quam sī twice in Tacitus) and tamquam sī are found at all periods. ut sī is found in Terence once, in Cicero (not in the orations), once in Livy, sometimes in later writers. velut sī begins with Caesar; not in Cicero. ac sī is found once in the Bell. Hisp. and in late Latin.

2118. sī is often omitted after tamquam, and (from Livy on) sometimes after velut. After quasi it is sometimes inserted in Plautus, Lucretius, and late Latin. ceu is sometimes used, chiefly in poetry, for tamquam sī. The main clause often has as correlative ita, sīc, perinde, proinde, similiter, or nōn secus.

2119. The tense of the subjunctive is usually regulated by the sequence of tenses, in Cicero nearly always with quasi and tamquam sī.

quid mē sīc salūtās quasi dūdum nōn vīderīs? Pl. Am. 682, why dost thou greet me thus as if but now thou hadst not looked on me? quid ego hīs testibus ūtor, quasi rēs dubia sit? Caecil. 14, why do I employ these witnesses, as if it were a case involving doubt? tamquam sī claudus sim, cum fūstīst ambulandum, Pl. As. 427, I have to take my walks with a stick, as if I were a lame man. tamquam extrūderētur, ita cucurrit, Ph. 10, 10, he rushed away as if he had been kicked out. quod absentis Ariovistī crūdēlitātem, velut sī cōram adesset, horrērent, 1, 32, 4, because they trembled at Ariovistus’s barbarity, absent as he was, just as if he stood before their eyes. mē quoque iuvat, velut ipse in parte labōris ac perīculī fuerim, ad fīnem bellī Pūnicī pervēnisse, L. 31, 1, 1, I feel glad myself at having finally reached the end of the Punic war, as if I had had a direct hand in the work and the danger.

2120. The imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive is sometimes used, even when the leading verb is in a primary tense, to mark action more distinctly as non-occurrent (2091): as,

eius negōtium sīc velim suscipiās, ut sī esset rēs mea, Fam. 2, 14, I wish you would undertake his business, just as if it were my own affair. mē audiās, precor, tamquam sī mihī̆ quirītantī intervēnissēs, L. 40, 9, 7, listen to me, I pray you, as if you had come at a cry from me for help. iūs iūrandum perinde aestimandum quam sī Iovem fefellisset, Ta. 1, 73, as for the oath, it must be counted exactly as if he had broken one sworn on the name of Jupiter. This is the more usual way in Cicero with ut sī.

2121. quasi, ut, or, from Livy on, tamquam or velut, as if, is sometimes used with participle constructions, nouns, and abridged expressions: as,

quasi temere dē rē pūblicā locūtus in carcerem coniectus est, DN. 2, 6, on the ground that he had been speaking without good authority about a state matter, he was clapped in jail. restitēre Rōmānī tamquam caelestī vōce iussī, L. 1, 12, 7, the Romans halted as if bidden by a voice from heaven. laetī, ut explōrātā victōriā, ad castra pergunt, 3, 18, 8, in high spirits, as if victory were assured, they proceeded to the camp.

2122. In old Latin, quasi is found a few times for the original quam sī after a comparative: as, mē nēmō magis respiciet, quasi abhinc ducentōs annōs fuerim mortuos, Pl. Tru. 340, nobody will pay any more attention to me than if I had been dead two centuries. It is also used (once in classical Latin, CM. 71) in periods of actual comparison, like tamquam (1908), with the indicative: as, senex ille illī dīxit, quasi ego nunc tibi dīcō, Pl. St. 545, that old man said to him, as I now say to you. For its use in figurative comparisons, see 1908, 1944. For tamquam introducing a reason &c., see 1909, a late usage found rarely with quasi and ut.

Connection of Separate Sentences or Periods.

2123. Separate sentences or periods have a connective more commonly in Latin than in English. Sometimes, however, like the members of single periods, they are for special reasons put asyndetically (1637).

(A.) Without a Connective.

2124. Asyndeton is common with two or more separate sentences or periods:

2125. (a.) To represent a series of actions as occurring at the same moment: as,

hīc diffīsus suae salūtī ex tabernāculō prōdit; videt imminēre hostēs; capit arma atque in portā cōnsistit; cōnsequuntur hunc centuriōnēs; relinquit animus Sextium gravibus acceptīs vulneribus, 6, 38, 2, despairing of his life, he comes out of the tent; sees the enemy close at hand; seizes arms and takes his stand at the gate; the centurions rally round him; Sextius becomes unconscious, receiving severe wounds.

2126. (b.) When an occurrence is represented as consisting of many successive actions: the Enumerative Asyndeton: as,

perōrāvit aliquandō, adsēdit. surrēxī ego. respīrāre vīsus est, quod nōn alius potius dīceret. coepī dīcere. usque eō animadvertī, iūdicēs, eum aliās rēs agere, antequam Chrȳsogonum nōmināvi; quem simul atque attigī, statim homō sē ērēxit, mīrārī vīsus est. intellēxī quid eum pupugisset, RA. 60, after a while he wound up, took his seat; up rose your humble servant. He seemed to take courage from the fact it was nobody else. I began to speak. I noticed, gentlemen, that he was inattentive all along till I named Chrysogonus; but the moment I touched on him, the creature perked up at once, seemed to be surprised. I knew what the rub was.

2127. (c.) When the last sentence sums up the result of the preceding with emphasis: the Asyndeton of Summary: as,

hī dē suā salūte dēspērantēs, aut suam mortem miserābantur, aut parentēs suōs commendābant. plēna erant omnia timōris et lūctūs, Caes. C. 2, 41, 8, despairing of their lives, they either bewailed their own death, or strove to interest people in their parents. In short, it was one scene of terror and lamentation.

(B.) With a Connective.

2128. Separate sentences or periods may be connected: (1.) by pronominal words: (a.) demonstrative or determinative; (b.) relative; (2.) by conjunctions and adverbs.

(1.) PRONOMINAL WORDS.

(a.) Demonstrative and Determinative Words as Connectives.

2129. hīc and is serve as connectives at the beginning of a new period. In English the equivalent word is usually placed not at the beginning as a connective, but after some words.

Gallia est dīvīsa in partēs trēs, quārum ūnam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquītānī, tertiam Celtae. hī omnēs linguā, īnstitūtīs, lēgibus inter sē differunt, 1, 1, 1, Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which is occupied by Belgians, another by Aquitanians, and the third by Kelts. In language, customs, and laws these are all different from each other. apud Helvētiōs nōbilissimus fuit Orgetorīx. is M. Messālā et M. Pīsōne cōnsulibus coniūrātiōnem nōbilitātis fēcit, 1, 2, 1, among the Helvetians the man of highest rank was Orgetorix. In the consulship of Messala and Piso he got up a conspiracy among the nobles. angustōs sē fīnīs habēre arbitrābantur. hīs rēbus adductī cōnstituērunt ea quae ad proficīscendum pertinērent comparāre. ad eās rēs cōnficiendās biennium sibī̆ satis esse dūxērunt. ad eās rēs cōnficiendās Orgetorīx dēligitur. is sibī̆ lēgātiōnem suscēpit, 1, 2, 5, they thought they had a narrow territory; so they resolved in consequence to make such preparations as were necessary for a move. They considered two years ample to do this. Orgetorix is chosen to do this. He took upon himself the office of envoy.

2130. Particularly common are demonstrative words at the beginning of a new period, to show that the first action necessarily took place or was natural.

Dionȳsius tyrannus Syrācūsīs expulsus Corinthī puerōs docēbat; usque eō imperiō carēre nōn poterat, TD. 3, 27, after his expulsion from Syracuse, the tyrant Dionysius kept school at Corinth; so incapable was he of getting along without governing.

(b.) Relatives as Connectives.

2131. quī serves to connect a new period when it may be translated by a demonstrative, or when it is equivalent to et is, is autem, is enim, is igitur: as,

perpetrāret Anicētus prōmissa. quī nihil cunctātus poscit summam sceleris, Ta. 14, 7, Anicetus must carry out his agreement. Without any ado he asks to have the entire management of the crime. For other examples, see 1835.

2132. The neuter accusative quod, as to that, as to which, whereas, now, so, is used to connect a new period, especially before sī, nisi, etsī, utinam (1837): as,

quod sī tū valērēs, iam mihī̆ quaedam explōrāta essent, Att. 7, 2, 6, whereas if you were well yourself, some points would have been clear to me before this. quod sī diūtius alātur contrōversia, fore utī pars cum parte cīvitātis cōnflīgat, 7, 32, 5, now if the dispute be kept up any longer, one half of the community would quarrel with the other. quod nisi mīlitēs essent dēfessī, omnēs hostium cōpiae dēlērī potuissent, 7, 88, 6, so if the soldiers had not been utterly spent, all the forces of the enemy might have been exterminated.

(2.) CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.

2133. The conjunctions and adverbs used to coordinate sentences are: (a.) copulative and disjunctive; (b.) concessive and adversative; (c.) causal and illative.

(a.) Copulative and Disjunctive.

et, neque or nec, -que, atque or ac, aut.

et.

2134. et, and, simply adds, as in English (1645). But it is often used in such a connection that a modification of the translation is required to bring out the sense.

2135. et may continue the discourse with a concessive sentence, which is to be followed by an adversative. In such cases quidem often stands in the concessive sentence: as,

prīmōrēs cīvitātis eadem ōrant. et cēterī quidem movēbant minus; postquam Sp. Lucrētius agere coepit, cōnsul abdicāvit sē cōnsulātū, L. 2, 2, 8, the head men of the state make the same request. Now the others did not influence him much. But when Lucretius began to take steps the consul resigned his consulship.

2136. et, and strange to say, and if you’d believe it, introduces something unexpected: as,

iamque trēs laureātae in urbe statuae, et adhūc raptābat Āfricam Tacfarinās, Ta. 4, 23, there were already three triumphal statues in Rome, and, strange to say, Tacfarinas was still harrying Africa.

2137. et, and really, and in fact, and to be sure; in this sense it is usually followed immediately by the verb: as,

multa quae nōn volt videt. et multa fortasse quae volt! CM. 25, one sees much that one would not. Aye, and much perhaps that one would!

2138. et introducing a sentence explaining in detail a general idea before given may be translated namely: as,

cōnsulēs religiō tenēbat, quod prōdigiīs aliquot nūntiātīs, nōn facile litābant. et ex Campāniā nūntiāta erant Capuae sepulchra aliquot dē caelō tācta, L. 27, 23, 1, the consuls were detained by scruple, because several prodigies were reported, and they could not readily obtain good omens; namely from Campania it was reported that at Capua several tombs were struck by lightning.

2139. et, and also, and besides: as,

Pūnicae quoque victōriae sīgnum octō ductī elephantī. et nōn minimum fuēre spectāculum praecēdentēs Sōsis et Moericus, L. 26, 21, 9, as an emblem of the Punic victory also, elephants to the number of eight marched in parade. And furthermore not the least attractive part of the pageant were Sosis and Moericus, moving at the head of the line.

2140. et, and yet, introduces a contrast or opposition: as,

canōrum illud in vōce splendēscit etiam in senectūte, quod equidem adhūc nōn āmīsī; et vidētis annōs, CM. 28, the musical element in the voice actually improves in old age, and this I have not yet lost. And yet you see my years.

neque or nec.

2141. nec, and really... not, and in fact... not: as,

magnō cum perīculō suō, quī forte patrum in forō erant, in eam turbam incidērunt. nec temperātum manibus foret, nī properē cōnsulēs intervēnissent, L. 2, 23, 9, it was with great personal risk to such of the fathers as happened to be in the market place, that they got into the crowd. And in fact acts of violence would have occurred, unless the consuls had made haste to interfere.

2142. nec, and to be sure... not: as,

centum vīgintī līctōrēs cum fascibus secūrēs inligātās praeferēbant. nec attinuisse dēmī secūrem, cum sine prōvocātiōne creātī essent, interpretābantur, L. 3, 36, 4, a hundred and twenty lictors with rods displayed axes bound in them. And to be sure they explained the matter thus, that there would have been no propriety in having the axe taken out, since the officers were appointed without any appeal.

2143. nec, not... either, nor either, neither: as,

eō annō vīs morbī levāta. neque ā pēnūriā frūmentī perīculum fuit, L. 4, 25, 6, that year the violence of the plague grew less. Nor was there any danger from lack of grain either.

2144. nec, but... not: as,

missī tamen fētiālēs. nec eōrum verba sunt audīta, L. 4, 30, 14, however the fetials were sent. But they were not listened to.

-que.

2145. -que, and likewise: as,

huic duōs flāminēs adiēcit. virginēsque Vestae lēgit, L. 1, 20, 2, to this god he assigned two special priests. And he likewise chose maids for Vesta.

2146. -que, and in fact, and so, and in general: as,

tum quoque male pugnātum est. obsessaque urbs foret, nī Horātius esset revocātus, L. 2, 51, 2, then also there was an unsuccessful engagement. And in fact Rome would have been besieged, unless Horatius had been recalled.

atque or ac.

2147. atque, and besides, and more than that, and actually: as,

ex quō efficitur animantem esse mundum. atque ex hōc quoque intellegī poterit in eō inesse intellegentiam, quod certē est mundus melior quam ūlla nātūra, DN. 2, 32, from which it follows that the universe is alive. And more than that, we can see that it has sense from the following circumstance, that the universe is certainly superior to any element of the universe.

2148. atque, and so, and consequently: as,

impedior religiōne quōminus expōnam quam multa P. Sēstius sēnserit. atque nihil dīcō praeter ūnum, Sest. 8, I am prevented by scruples from setting forth how much Sestius was aware of. And so I will only say one thing.

aut.

2149. aut is used to add a new sentence in the sense of aliōquī, or else, otherwise, or as if nisi, unless, preceded: as,

omnia bene sunt ē̆ī dīcenda, aut ēloquentiae nōmen relinquendum est, DO. 2, 5, he must be able to speak well on all subjects, or else he must waive the name of an eloquent man.

(b.) Concessive and Adversative.

2150. A new concessive period is introduced by sānē, quidem, omnīnō, to be sure, or fortasse, perhaps: as,

Plīnius et Cluvius nihil dubitātum dē fidē praefectī referunt. sānē Fabius inclīnat ad laudēs Senecae, Ta. 13, 20, Pliny and Cluvius say that there was no doubt about the loyalty of the prefect. Fabius, it must be admitted, is always inclined to eulogize Seneca. id fortasse nōn perfēcimus; cōnātī quidem saepissimē sumus, O. 210, perhaps we have not attained to it; still we have very often made the attempt.

2151. A new adversative sentence is introduced by autem, again, sed, vērum, but, vērō, but, indeed, at, but, or tamen, nihilō minus, nevertheless.

These words when used to connect sentences have the same meaning as when used to connect the parts of a sentence (1676).

2152. atquī, rarely atquīn, and yet, but, is used chiefly in dialogue. It introduces a strong objection, sometimes in the form of a conditional protasis. From Cicero on, it is sometimes found after a question, to introduce an earnest denial.

nōn sum apud mē:: atquī opus est nunc quom maxumē ut sīs, T. Ph. 204, I’m all abroad:: but that’s just exactly where you must n’t be now. nōn vereor condiscipulōrum nē quis exaudiat:: atquī cavendum est, Leg. 1, 21, I’m not afraid of being overheard by any of my fellow-students:: and yet you must be on your guard. sine veniat. atquī sī illam digitō attigerit ūnō, oculī īlicō ecfodientur, T. Eu. 739, let him come on. But if he lays a finger on the maid, we’ll scratch his eyes out on the spot. quid vērō? modum statuārum habērī nūllum placet? atquī habeātur necesse est, V. 2, 144, what? is there, think you, to be no end to your statues? Yet there must be.

2153. quamquam, etsī, tametsī, though, and nisi, but, are sometimes used to coordinate a new period, correcting the preceding: as,

carēre sentientis est, nec sēnsus in mortuō, nē carēre quidem igitur in mortuō est. quamquam quid opus est in hōc philosophārī? TD. 1, 88, foregoing requires a sentient being, and there is no sensation in a dead man; therefore there is no foregoing either in a dead man. And yet what is the use of philosophizing over this? utram mālīs vidē; etsī cōnsilium quod cēpī rēctum esse sciō, T. Hau. 326, of these two states choose which you will; though I am sure my plan’s the right one. cūr ego nōn adsum? tametsī hoc minimē tibī̆ deest, Fam. 2, 7, 2, why am I not with you? though this is the very last thing you need. spērābam dēfervisse adulēscentiam: ecce autem dē integrō! nisi quidquid est, volō hominem convenīre, T. Ad. 152, I hoped his youthful passion had cooled down; yet here it is afresh! But be it what it may, I want to see the fellow.

(c.) Causal and Illative.

2154. nam, enim, for, or namque, etenim, for you see, introduces a new period which gives the reason of the foregoing: as,

quā quidem ex rē hominum multitūdō cōgnōscī potuit: nam minus hōrīs tribus mūnītiōnem perfēcērunt, 5, 42, 4, and from this by the way their numbers could be gauged; for they made a breastwork in less than three hours. quem meminisse potestis: annō enim ūndēvīcēsimō post eius mortem hī cōnsulēs factī sunt, CM. 14, you can remember him: for the present consuls were created only nineteen years after his death.

2155. The originally asseverative meaning of nam appears, even in the classical period, in colloquial language: as, tibī̆ ā mē nūlla ortast iniūria:: nam hercle etiam hoc restat, T. Ad. 189, I’ve ne’er done you a wanton wrong:: aye verily that’s still to come. In old Latin, it sometimes introduces a question: as, nam quae haec anus est? T. Ph. 732, why, who’s this old woman? Frequently it introduces an explanation or illustration, and, from Cicero on, a remark or question made in passing: as, sīc enim sēsē rēs habet: nam Odyssīa Latīna est sīc tamquam opus Daedalī, Br. 71, the case stands thus: the Odyssey in Latin is, you may say, a regular work of Daedalus (1908). vīvō Catōne multī ōrātōrēs flōruērunt: nam A. Albīnus, Br. 81, many orators flourished in Cato’s lifetime: for example, Albinus. nam quid dē aedīle loquar? Sest. 95, for why speak of the aedile? enim does not differ essentially in use from nam; for its meaning in old Latin, see 1688. namque is rare until Livy, and usually (always in old Latin) stands before a vowel. etenim is common only in classical Latin.

2156. For quippe, why, often used as a coordinating word, see 1690.

2157. proinde or proin, therefore, so, introduces a command or direction based upon the foregoing: as,

ōrātiōnem spērat invēnisse sē, quī differat tē: proin tū fac apud tē ut siēs, T. Andr. 407, he trusts he’s found some phrase wherewith he may confound you: so see you have your wits about you. frūstrā meae vītae subvenīre cōnāminī. proinde abīte, dum est facultās, 7, 50, 6, in vain ye try to save my life. So away, while ye have the power. iam undique silvae et sōlitūdō magna cōgitātiōnis incitāmenta sunt. proinde cum vēnābere, licēbit pugillārēs ferās, Plin. Ep. 1, 6, 2, then again the surrounding woods and the loneliness are powerful stimulants to meditation. So when you go hunting, you can take a note book with you.

2158. A conclusion is denoted by ergō, itaque or igitur, therefore, so, introducing a new period: as,

nihil est praestantius deō; ab eō igitur mundum necesse est regī. nūllī igitur est nātūrae subiectus deus. omnem ergō regit ipse nātūram, DN. 2, 77, nothing is more excellent than god. Therefore the universe must be governed by him. Therefore god is in no respect subject to nature. Consequently he rules all nature himself. For the position of these words in their clauses, see 1688; for ergō igitur and itaque ergō, 1689. For hinc, inde, eō, ideō, idcircō, proptereā, as coordinating words, see 1691.

Affirmative Coordination.

2159. A new sentence affirmative of a foregoing is often introduced by an emphatic sīc or ita.

These words often introduce a general truth which is deduced from the first statement.

vīsne igitur tē īnspiciāmus ā puerō? sīc opīnor; ā prīncipiō ōrdiāmur, Ph. 2, 44, would you like to have us look into your record from boyhood? Yes, I think it would be well; let us begin at the beginning. quī dīligēbant hunc, illī favēbant. sīc est volgus: ex vēritāte pauca, ex opīniōne multa aestimat, RC. 29, everybody who loved him, smiled on the other man. Yes, that is always the way of the world: it seldom judges by truth, often by hearsay.

Nouns of the Verb.

The Infinitive.

2160. The infinitive is in its origin a verbal substantive.

2161. The present infinitive active is an ancient dative, closely resembling in meaning and use the English infinitive with to. It originally marked action merely in a general way, without indication of voice or tense. In virtue of this original timeless character, the present often represents action which is really past or future; in such cases the time must be inferred from the context.

2162. The present infinitive active gradually approached the character of a verb, and the original substantive nature being forgotten, it was supplemented by a passive, and by forms for completed and for future action, active and passive.

2163. The infinitive has furthermore two other properties of the verb: (a.) it is modified by an adverb, not by an adjective; and (b.) it is followed by the construction of its verb.

Old and Poetical Use of the Infinitive.

THE INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE.

2164. The infinitive denotes purpose: (a.) when loosely added to a substantive in old Latin, (b.) with verbs of motion, eō, veniō, currō, mittō, in old or poetical Latin, and (c.) in the combination dō bibere, give to drink, in old, colloquial, or poetical Latin: as,

(a.) occāsiō benefacta cumulāre, Pl. Cap. 423, a chance to pile up kindnesses. Parallel with a gerund: summa ēlūdendī occāsiōst mihi nunc senēs et Phaedriae cūram adimere argentāriam, T. Ph. 885, I’ve now a splendid chance the greybeards of eluding and Phaedria to rescue from his money cares. (b.) recurre petere rē recentī, Pl. Tri. 1015, run back to get it ere it is too late. voltisne eāmus vīsere? T. Ph. 102, do you think we’d better go to call? parasītum mīsī nudiusquārtus Cāriam petere argentum, Pl. Cur. 206, my parasite I sent four days ago to Caria, to fetch the cash. nec dulcēs occurrent ōscula nātī praeripere, Lucr. 3, 895, nor shall thy children dear come running kiss on kiss to snatch. nōn nōs ferrō Libycōs populāre penātīs vēnimus, V. 1, 527, we are not come with steel to harry Libya’s hearths. (c.) bibere dā usque plēnīs cantharīs, Pl. Per. 821, keep giving on to drink with brimming bowls. bibere is thus used by Plautus, Terence, Cato, and Livy, and by Cicero once with ministrō. In classical prose, purpose is expressed by the subjunctive with ut or a relative pronoun, or by a gerund or gerundive with ad or causā.

2165. In poetry, the infinitive of purpose is used with synonymes of dō also, and with verbs of leaving, taking away, taking up, &c.

huic lōrīcam dōnat habēre, V. 5, 259, on him a corselet he bestows to wear. trīstitiam et metūs trādam protervīs in mare Crēticum portāre ventīs, H. 1, 26, 1, sadness and fears I’ll to the wanton winds consign, to sweep into the Cretic sea. quis sibi rēs gestās Augustī scrībere sūmit? H. E. 1, 3, 7, who takes it on himself Augustus’ deeds to pen? quem virum aut hērōa lyrā vel ācrī tībiā sūmis celebrāre? H. 1, 12, 1, what hero or what demigod dost thou take up, to ring his praises on the rebec or the piercing pipe?

THE INFINITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

2166. The infinitive is sometimes used with adjectives, chiefly by poets of the Augustan age, and late prose writers, often in imitation of a Greek idiom: as,

indoctum iuga ferre nostra, H. 2, 6, 2, not taught our yoke to bear. avidī committere pugnam, O. 5, 75, hot to engage in fight. sōlī cantāre perītī Arcades, V. E. 10, 32, Arcadians alone in minstrelsy are skilled. vitulus niveus vidērī, H. 4, 2, 59, a bullock snow-white to behold, i.e. vīsū (2274). These infinitives are of different kinds, some of them resembling a complementary infinitive, others a gerund or gerundive construction, the supine in -tū (-sū), &c., &c.

The Ordinary Use of the Infinitive.

2167. The infinitive is ordinarily used either as object or as subject of a verb.

(A.) The Infinitive as Object.

THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE.

2168. The present infinitive is often used to complete the meaning of certain kinds of verbs which imply another action of the same subject: as,

prō Pompēiō ēmorī possum, Fam. 2, 15, 3, I could die the death for Pompey (1495). quid habēs dīcere? Balb. 33, what have you to say? scīre volēbat, V. 1, 131, he wanted to know. hoc facere dēbēs, RabP. 7, you ought to do this. Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat, 4, 17, 1, Caesar had resolved to cross the Rhine. fugā salūtem petere contendērunt, 3, 15, 2, they tried to save themselves by flight. num negāre audēs? C. 1, 8, do you dare deny it? vereor dīcere, T. Andr. 323, I am afraid to tell. num dubitās id facere? C. 1, 13, do you hesitate to do that? mātūrat ab urbe proficīscī, 1, 7, 1, he makes haste to leave Rome. Dīviciācus Caesarem obsecrāre coepit, 1, 20, 1, Diviciacus began to entreat Caesar. Dolābella iniūriam facere persevērat, Quint. 31, Dolabella persists in doing wrong. illī pecūniam pollicērī nōn dēsistunt, 6, 2, 1, these people did not stop offering money. diem ēdictī obīre neglēxit, Ph. 3, 20, he failed to keep the day named in the edict. īrāscī amīcīs nōn temere soleō, Ph. 8, 16, I am not apt to get provoked with friends without just cause. illī rēgibus pārēre didicerant, Ph. 3, 9, the men of old were trained to bow the knee to kings (1615). dextram cohibēre mementō, J. 5, 71, remember that you keep hands off.

2169. The verbs or verbal expressions which are supplemented by an infinitive are chiefly such as mean can, will or wish, ought, resolve, endeavour, dare, fear, hesitate, hasten, begin, continue, cease, neglect, am wont, learn, know how, remember, forget, seem. The infinitive in this combination contains the leading idea. For the occasional use of the perfect infinitive with some of these verbs, see 2223.

Some of the commonest of these verbs are possum, queō, nequeō; volō, nōlō, mālō, cupiō, studeō; dēbeō; cōgitō, meditor, statuō, cōnstituō, dēcernō, parō; cōnor, nītor, contendō; audeō; vereor; cunctor, dubitō, festīnō, mātūrō, īnstituō, coepī, incipiō, pergō, persevērō, dēsinō, dēsistō, omittō, supersedeō, neglegō, nōn cūrō; soleō, adsuēscō, cōnsuēscō; discō, sciō, nesciō, recordor, meminī, oblīvīscor; videor.

2170. The infinitive is also used with many verbal expressions equivalent to the above verbs, such as habeō in animō, cōnsilium est, certum est, parātus sum, &c., &c., or with parātus alone, adsuēfactus, &c., &c. Furthermore, in poetry and late prose, the place of many of the above verbs is often taken by livelier or fresher synonymes, such as valeō for possum, from Lucretius on, ardeō, burn, for volō, cupiō, or absiste, fuge, parce, &c., for nōlī (1584), &c., &c.

2171. A predicate noun used in the construction of the complementary infinitive, is put in the nominative: as,

Aelius Stōicus esse voluit, Br. 206, Aelius wanted to be a Stoic. esse quam vidērī bonus mālēbat, S. C. 54, 6, he chose to be good rather than seem good.

THE ACCUSATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE.

2172. A very common form of a dependent sentence is that known as the Accusative with the Infinitive.

Thus, of the two coordinate sentences sciō: iocāris tū nunc, Pl. Most. 1081, I know: you are jesting now, the second may be put in a dependent form, the two sentences blending into one: sciō iocārī tē nunc, I know you to be jesting now.

2173. The subject of an infinitive is put in the accusative.

Thus, in eum vident, they see him, eum is the object of vident (1134). If sedēre is added, eum vident sedēre, V. 5, 107, they see him sit, or they see that he is sitting, eum is at the same time the object of vident and the subject of sedēre. But the accusative by degrees becoming detached from the main verb, and closely interlocked with the infinitive, the combination is extended to cases where the main verb is intransitive or passive.

2174. A predicate noun referring to a subject accusative is itself put in the accusative: as,

tē esse arbitror puerum probum, Pl. Most. 949, I think you are a good boy. nēminem vīvum capī patiuntur, 8, 35, 5, they do not allow anybody to be made prisoner alive (2198).

Verbs of Perceiving, Knowing, Thinking, and Saying.

2175. The accusative with the infinitive is used with active verbs or verbal expressions of perceiving, knowing, thinking, and saying: as,

patēre tua cōnsilia nōn sentīs? C. 1, 1, you don’t feel that your plots are all out? huic fīlium scīs esse? T. Hau. 181, you are aware that this man has a son? Pompēiōs cōnsēdisse terrae mōtū audīvimus, Sen. NQ. 6, 1, 1, we have heard that Pompei has been swallowed up by an earthquake, 63 A.D., 17 years before its utter destruction. saepe audīvī inter ōs atque offam multa intervenīre posse, Cato in Gell. 13, 18 (17), 1, I have often heard ‘’twixt cup and lip there’s many a slip.’ dīcit montem ab hostibus tenērī, 1, 22, 2, he says the hill is held by the enemy. dīxtin dūdum illam dīxisse, sē expectāre fīlium? T. Hec. 451, didn’t you say a while ago the woman said that she was looking for her son?

Some of the commonest of these verbs are: (a.) audiō, animadvertō, sentiō, videō. (b.) accipiō, intellegō, sciō, nesciō. (c.) arbitror, cēnseō, cōgitō, crēdō, exīstimō, meminī, opīnor, putō, recordor, suspicor. (d.) adfirmō, āiō, dēmōnstrō, dīcō, disputō, doceō, fateor, nārrō, negō, nūntiō, ostendō, prōmittō, scrībō, sīgnificō, spērō, trādō. (e.) rūmor est, nōn mē fugit, certus sum, nōn nescius sum, &c., &c. Also occasionally verbs used in the sense of think or say, as mittō, send word, and substantives or pronouns expressing a thought or judgement.

2176. The accusative with the infinitive is sometimes introduced by a neuter pronoun, or by sīc or ita: as, illud negābis, tē dē rē iūdicātā iūdicāvisse? V. 2, 81, will you deny this, that you sate in judgement on a matter that was already decided? sīc accēpimus, nūllum bellum fuisse, V. 5, 5, we have been told this, that there was not any war. Sometimes by an ablative with dē: as, dē hōc Verrī dīcitur, habēre eum perbona toreumata, V. 4, 38, about this man report is made to Verres that he had some choice bits of embossed work.

2177. (1.) Passive verbs of this class are commonly used personally in the third person of the present system, with the subject, and the predicate noun, if used, in the nominative: as,

hī centum pāgōs habēre dīcuntur, 4, 1, 4, these people are said to have a hundred cantons. nūlla iam exīstimantur esse iūdicia, V. a. pr. 43, there are thought to be no courts of law any longer. pōns prope effectus nūntiābātur, Caes. C. 1, 62, 3, the bridge was reported to be well-nigh done.

2178. Such personal passives are much more common in the writers of Cicero’s day than in old Latin. Particularly so arguō, audiō, cōgnōscō, comperiō, concēdō, dēfendō, dēmōnstrō, dīcō, doceō, excūsō, exīstimō, inveniō, iūdicō, līberō, memorō, negō, nūntiō, ostendō, postulō, putō, reperiō, trādō.

2179. (2.) With the first or second person the personal construction is rare: as, quod nōs bene ēmisse iūdicātī sumus, Att. 1, 13, 6, that we are thought to have made a good bargain. cum inveniāre improbissimā ratiōne esse praedātus, V. 4, 3, when you prove to have been robbing most abominably. But with videor, seem, the personal construction is the rule in all three persons, and in the perfect system as well as the present.

2180. (3.) In the perfect system, and also usually in the gerundive construction (2246), verbs of this class are commonly impersonal: as,

trāditum est Homērum caecum fuisse, TD. 5, 114, the tradition is that Homer was blind. ubī̆ tyrannus est, ibī̆ dīcendum est nūllam esse rem pūblicam, RP. 3, 43, wherever there is an absolute ruler, there we must maintain there is no commonwealth.

2181. (4.) With some verbs of this class, the impersonal construction is preferred even in the present system. Thus, commonly intellegitur, it is understood, as impersonal; regularly in classical Latin crēditur; with a dative in Cicero and Caesar dīcitur, nūntiātur. The impersonals cernitur, fertur, memorātur, prōditur, vidētur, are rare.

2182. The personal construction is sometimes extended to other verbs or verbal expressions, especially in poetry: as, colligor, O. A. 2, 6, 61, I am inferred, for colligitur. nōnnūllīs magistrātūs veniēbant in suspīciōnem nōs dēmorātī esse, Lentulus in Fam. 12, 15, 5, the magistrates were suspected by some of having delayed us (1491).

2183. With verbs of thinking and saying the subject accusative is sometimes omitted.

(a.) Oftenest thus mē nōs, tē vōs, or sē: as, stultē fēcisse fateor, i.e. mē, Pl. B. 1013, I own I’ve acted like a fool. cōnfitēre vēnisse, i.e. tē, RA. 61, confess you came. quae imperārentur facere dīxērunt, i.e. sē, 2, 32, 3, they said they would do as ordered (2221). Often the future without esse: as, refrāctūrōs carcerem minābantur, i.e. sē, L. 6, 17, 6, they threatened to break the jail open, (b.) Less frequently an accusative of is: as, oblītum crēdidī, i.e. eum, Fam. 9, 2, 1, I imagined he had forgotten. Such omissions are common in old Latin, Cicero, Caesar, Livy, and in poetry.

2184. When the accusative is not expressed, a predicate noun is sometimes put in the nominative, chiefly in poetry, in imitation of a Greek idiom: as,

phasēlus ille quem vidētis, hospitēs, ait fuisse nāvium celerrimus, Cat. 4, 1, the clipper you see yonder, friends, says she was once the fleetest of the fleet. uxor invictī Iovis esse nescīs, H. 3, 27, 73, thou knowest not thou art the bride of the unconquerable Jove. Similarly with verbs of emotion (2187): as, gaudent esse rogātae, O. AA. 1, 345, they are glad to have been asked. gaudent perfūsī sanguine frātrum, V. G. 2, 510, they’re glad to have been imbued with brothers’ blood.

Verbs of Accusing.

2185. The verbs of accusing, arguō and īnsimulō, take the accusative with the infinitive like verbs of saying: as,

cīvīs Rōmānōs necātōs esse arguō, V. 5, 149, my accusation is that Romans have been slain. occīdisse patrem Sex. Rōscius arguitur, RA. 37, Roscius is charged with the murder of his father. īnsimulāre coepērunt Epicratem litterās pūblicās corrūpisse, V. 2, 60, they began to accuse Epicrates of having falsified records of state.

Verbs of Hoping, Promising, and Threatening.

2186. The accusative with the future infinitive is used with verbs of hoping, promising, and threatening: as,

id sēsē effectūrōs spērābant, 7, 26, 2, they hoped to carry it out. pollicentur sēsē ē̆ī dēditūrōs, 5, 20, 2, they volunteer to surrender to him. But sometimes the present infinitive alone: see 2236.

Verbs of Emotion.

2187. The accusative with the infinitive is sometimes used with verbs of joy, grief, surprise, or wonder: as,

venīre tū mē gaudēs, Pl. B. 184, thou art glad I’m come. doluī pācem repudiārī, Marc. 14, I felt sorry peace was rejected. These verbs often have the construction with quod, or in old Latin with quia (1851).

2188. Some of the commonest of these verbs are doleō, gaudeō, laetor, mīror, &c., &c.; and from Cicero on, angor, indignor, lūgeō, sollicitō.

Verbs of Desire.

2189. (1.) The accusative with the infinitive is commonly used with volō (mālō, nōlō), and cupiō, when the subject of the infinitive is not the same as that of the verb: as,

Catilīnam perīre voluī, Ph. 8, 15, I wished Catiline to die. māluit hominēs peccāre quam deōs, V. 2, 22, he wanted men to sin rather than gods. tē tuā fruī virtūte cupimus, Br. 331, we wish you to reap the benefit of your high character.

2190. (2.) Even when the subjects denote the same person, the accusative is sometimes used with the infinitive: as,

ēmorī mē mālim, Pl. As. 810, morī mē mālim, T. Eu. 66, I’d rather die. magnuficē volō mē virōs summōs accipere, Pl. Ps. 167, I’m going to entertain some highborn gentlemen in style. Oftenest when the infinitive is esse, vidērī, putārī, or dīcī: as, cupiō mē esse clēmentem, cupiō mē nōn dissolūtum vidērī, C. 1, 4, I wish to play the man of mercy, and yet I do not wish to seem over lax. Rarely thus with dēsīderō, nōlō, optō, and studeō, and in Sallust with properō.

2191. For the perfect active with these verbs, see 2228; for the perfect passive, 2229.

2192. volō, mālō, and cupiō are often coordinated with the subjunctive of desire (1707). volō and mālō often have the subjunctive with ut, particularly in old Latin (1950).

2193. Verbs of resolving sometimes take the accusative with the infinitive: as, certum offirmāre est viam mē, T. Hec. 454, I am resolved to hold the way. So, from Cicero on, sometimes cēnseō, dēcernō, and sentiō, in the exceptional sense of volō or iubeō, think it best: as, velle et cēnsēre eōs ab armīs discēdere, S. I. 21, 4, that they wished and thought it best for those people to give up fighting.

2194. The accusative with the infinitive is sometimes used with verbs of demanding: as, hau postulō equidem mēd in lectō accumbere, Pl. St. 488, I can’t expect, not I, to sprawl upon a couch. hīc postulat sē absolvī? V. 3, 138, does this man ask to be acquitted? Similarly with ōrō and praecipiō in late writers.

2195. The accusative with the infinitive is sometimes found with suādeō and persuādeō in Terence, Lucretius, and Vergil, and with precor in Ovid and late prose.

Verbs of Accomplishing.

2196. Verbs of accomplishing rarely have the accusative with the infinitive: as, tālīs ōrātōrēs vidērī facit, quālīs ipsī sē vidērī volunt, Br. 142, of delivery, it makes orators appear just as they wish to appear themselves. Oftenest in poetry. In prose usually the subjunctive with ut (1951).

Verbs of Teaching and Training.

2197. The verbs of teaching and training, doceō and adsuēfaciō, may take an accusative of a substantive and an infinitive expressing the thing taught: as,

quīn etiam tondēre fīliās suās docuit, TD. 5, 58, why more than that, he actually taught his own daughters to shave, of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse. equōs eōdem remanēre vestīgiō adsuēfēcērunt, 4, 2, 3, they have their horses trained to stand stock-still (1608). Compare 1169.

Verbs of Bidding and Forbidding and of Allowing.

2198. The accusative with the infinitive is used with iubeō and vetō, sinō and patior: as,

mīlitēs ex oppidō exīre iussit, 2, 33, 1, he ordered the soldiers to go out of the town. pontem iubet rescindī, 1, 7, 2, he orders the bridge torn up. lēx peregrīnum vetat in mūrum ascendere, DO. 2, 100, it is against the law for a foreigner to get up on the wall. castra vāllō mūnīrī vetuit, Caes. C. 1, 41, 4, he gave orders that the camp should not be fortified with a palisade. vīnum ad sē inportārī nōn sinunt, 4, 2, 6, wine they will not allow to be brought into their country. Cicero is the first to use vetō thus. Other constructions also occur with these words: see 1708, 1950, 1953, &c.

2199. The person ordered or forbidden is often omitted, when stress is laid on the action merely, or when the person is obvious from the context: as, castra mūnīre iubet, i.e. mīlitēs, 2, 5, 6, he gives orders to construct a camp. iussērunt prōnūntiāre, i.e. tribūnōs et centuriōnēs, 5, 33, 3, they gave orders to proclaim. īdemque iussērunt simulācrum Iovis facere maius, i.e. cōnsulēs, C. 3, 20, and they furthermore gave directions to make a statue of Jupiter, a bigger one.

2200. iubeō is sometimes coordinated with the subjunctive, especially in old Latin (1708). Sometimes it has the subjunctive with ut, especially in resolves of the people.

2201. In the passive, iubeō, vetō, and sinō are used personally, the accusative of the person ordered or forbidden becoming nominative: as, iubentur scrībere exercitum, L. 3, 30, 3, they are ordered to raise an army. Nōlānī mūrōs adīre vetitī, L. 23, 16, 9, the men of Nola were not allowed to go to the walls. hīc accūsāre eum nōn est situs, Sest. 95, this man was not allowed to accuse him.

2202. imperō often has the accusative with a passive or deponent infinitive, or with fierī: as, praesentem pecūniam solvī imperāvī, Att. 2, 4, 1, I have given orders for ready money to be paid. Rarely with an active infinitive parallel with a passive: as, eō partem nāvium convenīre commeātumque comportārī imperat, Caes. C. 3, 42, 2, he orders part of the vessels to rendezvous there, and grain to be brought. In the passive, a personal imperor occurs, like iubeor (2201): as, in lautumiās dēdūcī imperantur, V. 5, 68, orders are given for them to be taken to the quarries. See also 1950. permittō has sometimes the accusative with the infinitive from Tacitus on, usually the subjunctive with ut (1950).

2203. The verbs of hindering, prohibeō and impediō, sometimes have the accusative with the infinitive: as, barbarī nostrōs nāvibus ēgredī prohibēbant, 4, 24, 1, the savages undertook to prevent our people from disembarking. The infinitive used with prohibeō is usually passive or deponent. quid est igitur quod mē impediat ea quae probābilia mihī̆ videantur sequī? Off. 2, 8, what is there then to hinder me from following what seems to me to be probable? See also 1960 and 1977.

The Infinitive as a Substantive Accusative.

2204. The accusative with the infinitive, or the infinitive alone, regarded as a neuter substantive, may be used as the object of a verb, or in apposition with the object: as,

(a.) leporem gustāre fās nōn putant, 5, 12, 6, tasting hare they count a sin. errāre malum dūcimus, Off. 1, 18, going astray we hold a bad thing. (b.) ad id quod īnstituistī, ōrātōrum genera distinguere aetātibus, istam dīligentiam esse accommodātam putō, Br. 74, I think your accurate scholarship is just the thing for your projected task—classifying public speakers chronologically.

2205. The infinitive as a substantive is rarely preceded by the preposition inter in late prose: as, multum interest inter dare et accipere, Sen. Ben. 5, 10, 2, there is a vast difference between ‘give’ and ‘take.’ Cicero has it thus once in a translation (Fin. 2, 43). In poetry praeter is thus used rarely.

2206. In poetry, the infinitive is used as a substantive object with such verbs as dō, reddō, adimō, perdō: as, hīc verērī perdidit, Pl. B. 158, this youth has lost his sense of shame.

(B.) The Infinitive as Subject.

2207. The accusative with the infinitive, or the infinitive alone, present or perfect, may be used as the subject of a verb, in apposition with the subject, or as a predicate nominative: as,

(a.) mendācem memorem esse oportēre, Quintil. 4, 2, 91, that a liar should have a good memory. (b.) sequitur illud, caedem senātum iūdicāsse contrā rem pūblicam esse factam, Mil. 12, next comes this point, that the senate adjudged the homicide an offence against the state. (c.) exitus fuit ōrātiōnis, sibī̆ nūllam cum hīs amīcitiam esse posse, 4, 8, 1, the end of the speech was that he could not have any friendship with these people.

2208. The infinitive is used as the subject (a.) with impersonal verbs, (b.) with est, putātur, habētur, &c., and an abstract substantive, a genitive, or a neuter adjective in the predicate.

2209. (a.) Some of the commonest impersonal verbs are appāret, decet, expedit, licet, lubet, oportet, praestat, pudet, rēfert. Also in classical Latin, attinet, condūcit, cōnstat, dēdecet, exsistit, fallit, interest, iuvat, liquet, obest, paenitet, patet, pertinet, placet, displicet, prōdest, which are used as live verbs by Lucretius and Sallust also. Similarly in Plautus and Terence fortasse.

2210. The infinitive is occasionally used as a subject with verbs other than the above (2209): as, nōn cadit invidēre in sapientem, TD. 3, 21, envy does not square with our ideas of a sage. carēre hoc sīgnificat, egēre eō quod habēre velīs, TD. 1, 88, careō means not having what you would like to have.

2211. (b.) Some of the commonest abstracts used thus with est are fāma, fās and nefās, fidēs, iūs, laus, opus, mōs, tempus. From Cicero on, opīniō and prōverbium. In Plautus, audācia, cōnfīdentia, miseria, negōtium, scelus, &c. For genitives, see 1237. Neuter adjectives are such as aequum, inīquum, cōnsentāneum, crēdibile, incrēdibile, manifestum, necesse, pār, rēctum, &c., &c.

2212. The accusative is not expressed when it is indefinite, you, a man, a person, anybody, frequently also when it is implied in some other case in the sentence: as,

nōn tam praeclārum est scīre Latīnē quam turpe nescīre, Br. 140, it is not so creditable to be a Latin scholar as it is disreputable not to be. mihī̆ inter virtūtēs grammaticī habēbitur aliqua nescīre, Quintil. 1, 8, 21, in my eyes it will be one merit in a classical scholar not to be omniscient. temporī cēdere semper sapientis est habitum, Fam. 4, 9, 2, bowing to the inevitable has always passed as a mark of wisdom. peccāre licet nēminī, Par. 20, no man is at liberty to sin. An indefinite hominem, aliquem, or tē, is rare: as, illa laus est, līberōs hominem ēducāre, Pl. MG. 703, it is a crown of glory for a man a family to rear.

2213. (1.) A predicate noun referring to the unexpressed indefinite subject of the infinitive is put in the accusative: as,

nōn esse cupidum pecūnia est, nōn esse emācem vectīgal est, contentum vērō suīs rēbus esse maximae sunt dīvitiae, Par. 51, for a man not to have desires, is money down, not to be eager to buy is an income; but to be satisfied with what you have is the greatest possible wealth. A plural predicate is rare: as, esset ēgregium domesticīs esse contentōs, O. 22, it would be a grand thing for people to be satisfied with home examples.

2214. (2.) When the subject of the infinitive is implied in a dative, a predicate noun may also be in the dative: as,

mihī̆ neglegentī esse nōn licet, Att. 1, 17, 6, it will not do for me to be careless. With a dative and licet, however, the predicate is sometimes in the accusative: as, quod sī cīvī Rōmānō licet esse Gādītānum, Balb. 29, now if a Roman is allowed to be a Gaditanian. Regularly so, when the subject is indefinite and not expressed (2212): as, haec praescrīpta servantem licet magnificē vīvere, Off. 1, 92, a man who holds to these rules may live a noble life.

2215. The infinitive, used as a substantive in the nominative or accusative, sometimes has a neuter attribute.

Chiefly thus ipsum, hoc ipsum, tōtum hoc: as, ipsum Latīnē loquī est in magnā laude pōnendum, Br. 140, just the mere ability of talking good Latin is to be accounted highly creditable. Rarely a possessive, meum, tuum: as, ita tuom cōnfertō amāre nē tibi sit probrō, Pl. Cur. 28, so shape thy wooing that it be to thee no shame.

The Infinitive of Exclamation.

2216. The infinitive alone, or the accusative with the infinitive, is sometimes used in exclamations of surprise, incredulity, disapproval, or lamentation: as,

nōn pudēre, T. Ph. 233, not be ashamed. sedēre tōtōs diēs in vīllā, Att. 12, 44, 2, sitting round whole days and days at the country place. at tē Rōmae nōn fore, Att. 5, 20, 7, only to think you won’t be in Rome. hoc posterīs memoriae trāditum īrī, L. 3, 67, 1, to think this will be passed down to generations yet unborn. Often with a -ne, transferred from the unexpressed verb on which the infinitive depends (1503): as, tēne hoc, Accī, dīcere, tālī prūdentiā praeditum, Clu. 84, what? you to say this, Accius, with your sound sense. The exclamatory infinitive is chiefly confined to Plautus, Terence, and Cicero.

The Infinitive of Intimation.

2217. This infinitive has already been spoken of; see 1535-1539.

The Tenses of the Infinitive.

2218. The present infinitive represents action as going on, the perfect as completed, and the future as not yet begun, at the time of the action of the verb to which the infinitive is attached.

The forms of the infinitive are commonly and conveniently called tenses, though this designation is not strictly applicable.

The Present Tense.

2219. In itself, the present infinitive denotes action merely as going on, without any reference to time. With some verbs, however, which look to the future, the present relates to action in the immediate future. With verbs of perceiving, knowing, thinking, and saying, it denotes action as going on at the time of the verb: as,

(a.) facinus est vincīre cīvem Rōmānum, V. 5, 170, it is a crime to put a Roman in irons. (b.) audīre cupiō, Caec. 33, I am eager to hear. Antium mē recipere cōgitō a. d. V Nōn. Māi., Att. 2, 9, 4, I am meditating going back to Antium the third of May. (c.) errāre eōs dīcunt, 5, 41, 5, they say those people are mistaken. tempus dīxī esse, T. Hec. 687, I said it was time. dīcēs tibī̆ Siculōs esse amīcōs? V. 2, 155, will you say the Sicilians are friends of yours?

2220. The present infinitive is sometimes used with meminī, recordor, memoriā teneō, and with some analogous expressions, such as accēpimus, fertur, &c., to represent merely the occurrence of action really completed, without indicating its completion: as,

meminī ad mē tē scrībere, D. 38, I remember your writing to me. meministis fierī senātūs cōnsultum, Mur. 51, you remember a decree of the senate being passed. sed ego īdem recordor longē omnibus anteferre Dēmosthenem, O. 23, and yet I remember putting Demosthenes far above everybody else. hanc accēpimus agrōs et nemora peragrāre, HR. 24, we have heard of this goddess’s scouring fields and groves. Q. Maximum accēpimus facile cēlāre, tacēre, Off. 1, 108, we have heard of Fabius’s ready cleverness in keeping dark and holding his tongue. But the perfect is used when the action is to be distinctly marked as completed: as, meministis mē ita distribuisse causam, RA. 122, you remember that I arranged the case thus. Sometimes present and perfect are united: as, Helenē capere arma fertur, nec frātrēs ērubuisse deōs, Prop. 3, 14, 19 (4, 13, 19), Helen is said to fly to arms, and not to have blushed in presence of her brother gods. Here capere relates to the same completed action as the more exact ērubuisse.

2221. With verbs of saying, used in the narrower sense of promising, the present infinitive sometimes stands for the future (2236): as,

crās māne argentum mihī̆ mīles dare sē dīxit, T. Ph. 531, the soldier spoke of paying me the money early in the morning. mē a͡ibat accersere, Pl. Ps. 1118, he said he’d fetch me (2186). quae imperārentur facere dīxērunt, 2, 32, 3, they agreed to do what was commanded.

2222. The present infinitive dependent on a past tense of dēbeō, oportet, possum, often requires the English perfect infinitive in translation: as, quid enim facere poterāmus? Pis. 13, for what else could we have done? See, however, 1495. For the infinitive perfect, see 2230.

The Perfect Tense.

2223. (1.) The perfect active infinitive sometimes serves as a complement of dēbeō, volō, possum, &c. (2168): as,

tametsī statim vīcisse dēbeō, tamen dē meō iūre dēcēdam, RA. 73, though I am entitled to come off victorious at once, yet I will waive my right; compare vīcī, I am victorious, 1608. nīl vetitum fēcisse volet, J. 14, 185, nothing forbidden will he wish to have done; compare fēcī, I am guilty. unde illa potuit didicisse? Div. 2, 51, from what source could he have all that information acquired? bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfēcisse, L. 37, 19, 5, the war which we can have ended up before winter.

2224. (2.) In prohibitions, the perfect active infinitive often serves as a complement of nōlō or volō (2168).

Thus, in old Latin, nōlītō dēvellisse, Pl. Poen. 872, do not have had it plucked. Particularly so when dependent on nē velit or nē vellet, in legal style: as, nē quis convēnisse sacrōrum causā velit, L. 39, 14, 8, that nobody may presume to have banded with others for the observance of the mysteries. BACAS · VIR · NEQVIS · ADIESE · VELET, CIL. I, 196, 7, inscription of 186 B.C., that no male should presume to have had resort to the Bacchants (765; 48). nē quid ēmisse velit īnsciente dominō, Cato, RR. 5, 4, he must not venture to have bought anything without his master’s knowledge, of a head farm-steward.

2225. In poetry of the Augustan age, the complementary perfect infinitive active is sometimes dependent on a verb of will or effort, such as cūrō, labōrō, tendō: as, tendentēs opācō Pēlion inposuisse Olympō, H. 3, 4, 51, on shadowy Olympus striving Pelion to have piled.

2226. Any past tense of the indicative, when made dependent on a verb of perceiving, knowing, thinking, or saying, is represented by the perfect infinitive.

Thus, in Theophrastus scrībit Cīmōnem hospitālem fuisse: ita enim vīlicīs imperāvisse, ut omnia praebērentur, Off. 2, 64, Theophrastus says in his book that Cimon was the soul of hospitality: he had directed his stewards to furnish everything required; the fuisse represents erat or fuit, and the imperāvisse may represent imperābat, imperāvit, or perhaps imperāverat, of direct discourse. praecō dīxisse prōnūntiat, V. 2, 75, the crier proclaims ‘speaking finished’ (1605).

2227. The perfect infinitive passive with fuisse denotes a past resulting state: as,

dīcō Mithridātī cōpiās omnibus rēbus ōrnātās atque īnstrūctās fuisse, urbemque obsessam esse, IP. 20, I must tell you that Mithridates’s troops were completely armed and equipped, and that the town was under siege. Here ōrnātās fuisse represents ōrnātae erant (1615), and obsessam esse represents obsidēbātur (1595).

2228. (1.) The perfect active infinitive is sometimes used with nōlō or volō, especially in poetry, when the subject of the infinitive is not the same as that of the verb (2189): as,

hanc tē ad cēterās virtūtēs adiēcisse velim, L. 30, 14, 6, I only wish you had this good quality added to the rest.

2229. (2.) volō often has an emphatic perfect passive infinitive, usually without esse (2230); less frequently cupiō and rarely nōlō: as,

factum volō, Pl. B. 495, As. 685, I want it done, i.e. I will. illōs monitōs etiam atque etiam volō, C. 2, 27, I want those people cautioned over and over. Particularly common in Cicero, not in Caesar or Sallust. Also with impersonal infinitives (1479): as oblīvīscere illum adversāriō tuō voluisse cōnsultum, Att. 16, 16^c, 10, you must forget that the man wanted your enemy provided for.

2230. The perfect infinitive passive or deponent, commonly without esse, is often used in Plautus, Terence, and Cicero, by assimilation with past tenses of verbs of propriety, such as aequum est, convenit, decet, and oportet: as, nōn oportuit relīctās, T. Hau. 247, they shouldn’t have been left. tē Iovī comprecātam oportuit, Pl. Am. 739, you should have said your prayers to Jove. The perfect active is less common: as, cāvisse oportuit, Pl. Am. 944, you should have been upon your guard. For volō, cupiō, nōlō, see 2229.

2231. The perfect infinitive of completed action is very common with such expressions as satis est, satis habeō, iuvat, melius est, paenitet, &c., also with verbs of emotion, such as gaudeō, &c.: as, mē quoque iuvat ad fīnem bellī Pūnicī pervēnisse, L. 31, 1, 1, I am delighted myself to have reached the end of the Punic war. Oftentimes, however, in verse, the use of the perfect is partly due to the metre.

The Future Tense.

2232. The future infinitive is only used as a representative of the indicative, and not as a substantive.

2233. For the future infinitive active or passive, a circumlocution with fore or futūrum esse with ut and the subjunctive present or imperfect is often used. This construction is necessary when the verb has no future participle or supine: as,

spērō fore ut contingat id nōbīs, TD. 1, 82, I hope we may be so fortunate. clāmābant fore ut ipsī sē dī ulcīscerentur, V. 4, 87, they cried out that the gods would avenge themselves.

2234. fore with the perfect participle of a passive or deponent, represents the future perfect of direct discourse: as, dēbellātum mox fore rēbantur, L. 23, 13, 6, they thought the war would soon be over.

2235. (1.) The future infinitive is commonly used with iūrō, minor, polliceor, prōmittō, and spērō, especially when the leading verb and the infinitive have the same subject: as,

iūrāvit sē nisi victōrem in castra nōn reversūrum, Caes. C. 3, 87, 5, he swore he would not come back to camp except as a victor. quod sē factūrōs minābantur, Caes. C. 2, 13, 4, which they threatened they would do. obsidēs datūrōs pollicitī sunt, 4, 27, 1, they volunteered to give hostages.

2236. (2.) A looser present infinitive is sometimes used with the above verbs, especially in old Latin, generally without a subject accusative. Thus with iūrō by Cato and Plautus, and with minor, proclaim with threats, by Lucretius. Similarly dare pollicentur, 6, 9, 7, they offer to give. reliquōs dēterrērī spērāns, Caes. C. 3, 8, 3, hoping that the rest were scared. spērō nostram amīcitiam nōn egēre testibus, Fam. 2, 2, I trust our friendship needs no witnesses. As possum has no future infinitive, the present of this verb is necessarily used: as, tōtīus Galliae sēsē potīrī posse spērant, 1, 3, 8, they hope to be able to get the control of the whole of Gaul.

The Gerundive and Gerund.

2237. The gerundive is a verbal adjective (899). The gerund is a neuter verbal substantive, used only in the oblique cases of the singular. Both gerundives and gerunds express, in a noun form, the uncompleted action of the verb.

2238. Gerundives and gerunds, like the English verbal in -ing, were originally neither active nor passive (288), but might stand for either an active or a passive. In time a prevailing passive meaning grew up in the gerundive, and a prevailing active meaning in the gerund.

A gerund may be followed by the same case as its verb; but for the gerund of verbs of transitive use, see 2242, 2255, 2259, 2265.

2239. Both gerundives and gerunds are modified like verbs, by adverbs, not by adjectives.

(1.) The Gerundive Construction.

2240. The gerundive expresses, in an adjective form, the uncompleted action of a verb of transitive use exerted on a substantive object, the substantive standing in the case required by the context, and the gerundive agreeing with it.

In this construction, which is called the gerundive construction, the substantive and gerundive blend together in sense like the parts of a compound.

male gerendō negōtiō in aere aliēnō vacillant, C. 2, 21, owing to bad business-managing they are staggering under debts. studium agrī colendī, CM. 59, the occupation of land-tilling. vir regendae rē̆ī pūblicae scientissimus, DO. 1, 214, a man of great experience in state-managing.

(2.) The Gerund.

2241. The gerund expresses, in a substantive form, the uncompleted action of a verb which has no direct object.

ars vīvendī, Fin. 1, 42, the art of living. nōn est locus ad tergiversandum, Att. 7, 1, 4, ’tis no time for shill-I-shall-I-ing. sum dēfessus quaeritandō, Pl. Am. 1014, I’m all worn out with hunting. sē experiendō didicisse, Ta. 1, 11, he had learned by experience.

2242. Gerunds of verbs of transitive use are exceptionally found with a substantive object (2255, 2259, 2265), and regularly with neuter pronouns and neuter plural adjectives to avoid ambiguity (1106). See also 2247.

agendī aliquid discendīque causā, Fin. 5, 54, for the sake of doing or learning something. faciendī aliquid vel nōn faciendī vēra ratiō, Plin. Ep. 6, 27, 4, the true ground for doing or not doing a thing. artem sē trādere vēra ac falsa dīiūdicandī, DO. 2, 157, that he passed along the art of distinguishing between the true and the false. regendī cūncta onus, Ta. 1, 11, the burden of governing the world.

Cases of Gerunds and Gerundives.

Nominative.

2243. The nominative of the gerundive construction, as the subject of sum, denotes action which is to be done.

The combination acquires the meaning of obligation or propriety, and this meaning also passes over to the accusative with esse. The person who has the action to do is put in the dative of the possessor (1215). Instead of the dative, the ablative with ab is sometimes used, particularly where the dative would be ambiguous.

tibī̆ haec cūra suscipienda est, V. 4, 69, the undertaking of this care exists for you, i.e., you must undertake this charge. Caesarī omnia ūnō tempore erant agenda: vēxillum prōpōnendum, sīgnum tubā dandum, ab opere revocandī mīlitēs, aciēs īnstruenda, mīlitēs cohortandī, sīgnum dandum, 2, 20, 1, for Caesar there was everything to be done at the same moment: the standard to be raised, bugle call given, soldiers summoned in from their work, line of battle to be formed, soldiers harangued, signal given for engagement. quaerenda pecūnia prīmum est; virtūs post nummōs, H. E. 1, 1, 53, there is money-making to be the first aim: character second to dollars. adeundus mihī̆ illic est homō, Pl. R. 1298, I must draw near this fellow. Caesar statuit sibī̆ Rhēnum esse trānseundum, 4, 16, 1, Caesar made up his mind that he must cross the Rhine. ego istum iuvenem domī tenendum cēnseō, L. 21, 3, 6, for my part, I think that young man ought to be kept at home. ē̆ī ego ā mē referendam grātiam nōn putem? Planc. 78, should I not think that I ought to show my gratitude to him? quid ā mē amplius dīcendum putātis? V. 3, 60, what more do you think that I need say?

2244. fruendus, fungendus, potiundus, ūtendus, vēscendus, are also used in this construction, chiefly in the oblique cases; in the nominative the impersonal construction (2246) is usual. These verbs sometimes have a transitive use in old Latin (1380).

nōn paranda nōbīs sōlum ea, sed fruenda etiam est, Fin. 1, 3, that is a thing which we must not only obtain, but enjoy as well, of wisdom. nec tamen est potiunda tibī, O. 9, 754, she is not to be won by thee. Examples of the oblique cases in this use are cited below.

2245. habeō with the gerundive, as an equivalent of est mihī̆, est tibī̆, &c. (2243), is sometimes found, chiefly in late writers and particularly in Tacitus: as,

multī habent in praediīs, quibus frūmentum aut vīnum aliudve quid dēsit, inportandum, Varro, RR. 1, 16, 2, many on whose estates corn or wine or something else is lacking, have to bring it in. multum interest utrumne dē fūrtō dīcendum habeās an dē cīvibus trucīdātīs, Ta. D. 37, it makes a great difference whether you have to speak about a theft or about the murder of Romans. sī nunc prīmum statuendum habērēmus, Ta. 14, 44, if we had to decide the point to-day for the first time.

2246. The neuter of verbs of intransitive use takes the impersonal construction with est. Verbs ordinarily transitive also take the impersonal construction when used without an object.

nunc est bibendum, H. 1, 37, 1, now drinking exists, i.e. now we must drink. inambulandumst, Pl. As. 682, I must be moving on. ego amplius dēlīberandum cēnseō, T. Ph. 457, I opine there must be more pondering. linguae moderandumst mihī̆, Pl. Cu. 486, I must check my tongue. omne animal cōnfitendum est esse mortāle, DN. 3, 32, it must be admitted that every living thing is destined to die. nēmō umquam sapiēns prōditōrī crēdendum putāvit, V. 1, 38, no wise man ever held that a traitor was to be trusted.

2247. The impersonal construction with an object in the accusative, is old-fashioned and rare.

canēs paucōs habendum, Varro, RR. 1, 21, one should keep but few dogs. aeternās quoniam poenās in morte timendumst, Lucr. 1, 111, since punishment eterne they have in death to fear. This construction occurs oftenest in Lucretius and Varro; once in Plautus, a few times in Cicero for special reasons, and here and there in later writers. Not in Caesar or Horace.

2248. The gerundive sometimes acquires, in itself, the meaning of obligation or propriety, which it properly has only when combined with sum, and becomes a mere adjective, used in any case.

fōrmā expetendā līberālem virginem, Pl. Per. 521, a freeborn maid of shape delectable. L. Brūtō, prīncipe huius maximē cōnservandī generis et nōminis, Ph. 3, 11, Brutus, the first of this most highly cherished house and name. huic timendō hostī obvius fuī, L. 21, 41, 4, I met this dreadful foe. Athēnās, multa vīsenda habentīs, L. 45, 27, 11, Athens, which contains many sights worth a visit. For volvendus &c., see 288.

2249. The attributive gerundive (2248), particularly with a negative, in- privative, or vix, may denote possibility, like the verbal in -bilis: as,

labōrēs nōn fugiendōs, Fin. 2, 118, inevitable labours. Polybius, haudquāquam spernendus auctor, L. 30, 45, 5, Polybius, an authority by no means despicable. īnfandum, rēgīna, iubēs renovāre dolōrem, V. 2, 3, thou bidst me, queen, rehearse that woe unspeakable. vix erat crēdendum, 5, 28, 1, it was hardly credible. praedicābile aliquid et glōriandum ac prae sē ferendum, TD. 5, 49, something laudable and vauntable and displayable as well.

Accusative.

2250. (1.) The accusative of the gerundive construction is used with locō and condūcō, with suscipiō, habeō, and cūrō, and with verbs of giving or assigning.

With the verbs of giving or assigning (such as dō, trādō, committō, attribuō, dīvidō, relinquō, permittō, dēnotō), the emphasis often gravitates towards the substantive, and the gerundive, as an explanatory appendage, acquires the meaning of purpose. So in Plautus with the verbs of asking (rogō and petō); in Cicero with posco.

(a.) caedundum condūxī ego illum:: tum optumumst locēs efferendum, Pl. Aul. 567, I engaged him for killing:: then you’d better contract for his funeral (1709). sīgnum conlocandum cōnsulēs locāvērunt, Cat. 3, 20, the consuls let out the erecting of the statue. redemptor quī columnam illam condūxerat faciendam, Div. 2, 47, the contractor who had undertaken the making of that pillar. vellem suscēpissēs iuvenem regendum, Att. 10, 6, 2, I wish you had undertaken training the young man. aedem habuit tuendam, V. 1, 130, he had the looking after the temple. agrum dē nostrō patre colendum habēbat, T. Ph. 364, he had the tilling of a farm from my father.

(b.) COIRAVIT · BASILICAM · CALECANDAM, CIL. I, 1166, he superintended the town hall plastering. pontem faciendum cūrat, 1, 13, 1, he attends to a bridge’s being made, i.e. has it made. cōnsulibus senātus rem pūblicam dēfendendam dedit, Ph. 8, 15, the senate entrusted the defence of the state to the consuls. agrōs plēbī colendōs dedit, RP. 3, 16, he gave lands to the common people to till. Antigonus Eumenem propīnquīs sepeliendum trādidit, N. 18, 13, 4, Antigonus delivered Eumenes to his kinsfolk to be buried. attribuit nōs trucīdandōs, C. 4, 13, us he handed over to be slaughtered. sauciōs mīlitēs cūrandōs dīvidit patribus, L. 2, 47, 12, he apportioned the wounded soldiers among the senators to cure. haec porcīs comedenda relinquēs, H. E. 1, 7, 19, you’ll leave them to the pigs to eat. cīvīs Rōmānōs trucīdandōs dēnotāvit, IP. 7, he specified Romans for slaughter.

(c.) quae ūtenda vāsa semper vīcīnī rogant, Pl. Aul. 96, traps that the neighbours are always asking the use of. artoptam ex proxumō ūtendam petō, Pl. Aul. 400, I’m going for the use of a breadpan from next door.

2251. When such a verb is passive, the accusative becomes nominative.

simulācrum Dī̆ānae tollendum locātur, V. 4, 76, the moving of the statue of Diana is let out. dīlaceranda ferīs dabor ālitibusque praeda, Cat. 64, 152, I shall be given a prey for beasts and birds to tear. trāditīque fētiālibus Caudium dūcendī, L. 9, 10, 2, and they were delivered to the fetials to be taken to Caudium.

2252. (2.) The accusative of the gerundive construction or gerund is used with a preposition, usually ad. If the verb is of transitive use, the gerundive is proper, not the gerund (2240).

This construction is used with verbs (including verbs of hindering), with substantives generally to denote purpose, and with adjectives which have the meaning of capable, fit, easy, useful, &c., &c.

(a.) hic in noxiāst, ille ad dīcendam causam adest, T. Ph. 266, when A’s in trouble, B turns up to make excuses for him. ad pācem petendam ad Hannibalem vēnit, L. 21, 13, 1, he is come to Hannibal to sue for peace. ad eās rēs cōnficiendās Orgetorīx dēligitur, 1, 3, 3, Orgetorix is chosen to do this. dant sē ad lūdendum, Fin. 5, 42, they devote themselves to playing. palūs Rōmānōs ad īnsequendum tardābat, 7, 26, 2, a morass hindered the Romans from pursuit. ut peditēs ad trānseundum impedīrentur, Caes. C. 1, 62, 2, so that the infantry were hampered in crossing. (b.) causa ad obiūrgandum, T. Andr. 150, a reason for finding fault. spatium sūmāmus ad cōgitandum, Fin. 4, 1, let us take time for thought. alter occāsiōnem sibī̆ ad occupandam Asiam oblātam esse arbitrātur, IP. 4, the other thinks a chance is given him for seizing all Asia. (c.) homo nōn aptissimus ad iocandum, DN. 2, 46, a man not very well fitted to be a joker. nimis doctus illest ad male faciendum, Pl. E. 378, too well the fellow’s trained at playing tricks. ūtēbātur eō cibō quī esset facillimus ad concoquendum, Fin. 2, 64, he made use of the sort of food which was easiest to digest.

2253. Other prepositions are sometimes used: as, inter, in old Latin, Vergil, Livy, and later writers; ob, once in Ennius, rarely in Cicero and Sallust; in very rarely, but even in Cicero; ante (Vergil, Livy), circā (post-Augustan), propter (Varro, Val. Max.), all rare.

mōrēs sē inter lūdendum dētegunt, Quintil. 1, 3, 12, character discovers itself during play. ob rem iūdicandam pecūniam accipere, V. 2, 78, to take money for passing judgement on a case.

Dative.

2254. The dative of the gerundive construction is used with adjectives, verbs, and phrases of ability, attention, and adaptation, with titles of office, and with comitia, election.

This construction is not very common in classical Latin, where few verbs and substantives take it instead of the usual ad and the accusative (2252). In old Latin, it is also joined to adjectives and participles; in Cicero it is thus used only with accommodātus. From Livy on, the construction becomes a very favourite one. Caesar has it only as below and 3, 4, 1.

tālīs iactandīs tuae sunt cōnsuētae manūs, Pl. Vid. your hands are used to throwing dice. optumum operī faciundō, Pl. R. 757, most suitable for carrying on his trade. praeesse agrō colendō, RA. 50, to superintend farm managing. cum diēs vēnisset rogātiōnī ferendae, Att. 1, 14, 5, when the day came for proposing the bill. hībernīs oppugnandīs hunc esse dictum diem, 5, 27, 5, that this was the day set for attacking the winter quarters. cōnsul plācandīs dīs habendōque dīlēctū dat operam, L. 22, 2, 1, the consul devotes himself to propitiating the gods and raising troops. Dēmosthenēs cūrātor mūrīs reficiendīs fuit, OG. 19, Demosthenes was commissioner for repairing the walls. IIIvirī rē̆ī pūblicae cōnstituendae, L. Epit. 120, a commission of three for reorganizing the state. comitia collēgae subrogandō habuit, L. 2, 8, 3, he held an election for appointing a colleague.

2255. In the dative, a transitive gerund with an object in the accusative is found four times in Plautus; in Ovid, Livy, and Vitruvius once each.

2256. Late writers sometimes use the dative of the gerundive construction instead of a final clause (1961): as,

subdūcit ex aciē legiōnem faciendīs castrīs, Ta. 2, 21, he withdraws a legion from the field to build a camp. nīdum mollibus plūmīs cōnsternunt tepē̆faciendīs ōvīs, simul nē dūrus sit īnfantibus pullīs, Plin. NH. 10, 92, they line the nest with soft feathers to warm the eggs, and also to prevent it from being uncomfortable to their young brood.

2257. The dative of the gerund is used chiefly by old and late writers, and is confined in the best prose to a few special phrases.

ōsculandō meliust pausam fierī, Pl. R. 1205, ’tis better that a stop be put to kissing. tū nec solvendō erās, Ph. 2, 4, you were neither solvent. SC · ARF, i.e. scrībendō arfuērunt, CIL. I, 196, 2, there were present when the document was put in writing. quod scrībendō adfuistī, Fam. 15, 6, 2, because you were present at the writing.

Genitive.

2258. (1.) The genitive of the gerundive construction or gerund is used with substantives or adjectives.

(a.) tacendī tempus est, Pl. Poen. 741, it’s time to be still. spēs potiundī oppidī, 2, 7, 2, the hope of overpowering the town (2244). summa difficultās nāvigandī, 3, 12, 5, the greatest difficulty in sailing. proeliī committendī sīgnum dedit, 2, 21, 3, he gave the signal for beginning the battle. exemplō eōrum clādēs fuit ut Mārsī mitterent ōrātōrēs pācis petendae, L. 9, 45, 18, their downfall was a warning to the Marsians to send envoys to sue for peace. sīve nāvēs dēiciendī operis essent missae, 4, 17, 10, or if vessels for breaking down the works had been sent. Particularly with causā, grātiā, or rarely ergō (1257), to denote purpose: as, frūmentandī causā, 4, 12, 1, for foraging. vītandae suspīciōnis causā, C. 1, 19, to avoid suspicion. mūneris fungendī grātiā, RP. 1, 27, for the sake of doing one’s duty. illīusce sacrī coercendī ergō, Cato, RR. 139, because of thinning out yon hallowed grove.

(b.) quam cupida eram hūc redeundī, T. Hec. 91, how eager I was to return here. homine perītō dēfīniendī, Off. 3, 60, a man accomplished in drawing distinctions. perpessus est omnia potius quam cōnsciōs dēlendae tyrannidis indicāret, TD. 2, 52, he stood out against the worst sooner than betray his confederates in the overthrow of the tyranny. īnsuētus nāvigandī, 5, 6, 3, unused to sailing. studiōsus audiendī, N. 15, 3, 2, an eager listener. nescia tolerandī, Ta. 3, 1, ignorant what patience was. nandī pavidus, Ta. H. 5, 14, afraid to swim. With adjectives, the gerundive construction is not found in Plautus and Terence, and the gerund not in Plautus. Terence has the gerund with cupidus, Cato with studiōsus. The construction is of slow growth before Tacitus, who greatly developed it.

2259. In the genitive, a transitive gerund with an object in the accusative is rare except in Plautus; ordinarily the gerundive is used (2240).

tē dēfrūdandī causā, Pl. Men. 687, for the purpose of cheating you. cupidus tē audiendī, DO. 2, 16, eager to hear you. summa ēlūdendī occāsiōst mihi nunc senēs, T. Ph. 885, I’ve now a splendid chance the graybeards of eluding. nē suī līberandī (2260) atque ulcīscendī Rōmānōs occāsiōnem dīmittant, 5, 38, 2, that they should not let slip the chance of freeing themselves and taking vengeance on the Romans. sīgnum colligendī vāsa dedit, L. 24, 16, 14, he gave the signal to pack their things.

2260. nostrī, vostrī (or vestrī), and suī, being singular in form (649) have often a singular gerundive.

nōn tam suī cōnservandī quam tuōrum cōnsiliōrum reprimendōrum causā profūgērunt, C. 1, 7, they fled, not so much to protect themselves as to crush your plans. vēnisse tempus ulcīscendī suī, Sest. 28, that the time was come for them to revenge themselves. vestrī adhortandī causā, L. 21, 41, 1, for the purpose of encouraging you.

2261. Sometimes another genitive appears beside the genitive of the gerund, each perhaps dependent on the main word. This use is found in old Latin, Lucretius, Varro, and here and there in Cicero, as well as in late Latin.

nōminandī istōrum tibī̆ erit cōpia, Pl. Cap. 852, you will have a chance to name them. poenārum solvendī tempus, Lucr. 5, 1225, the time of paying penalties. exemplōrum ēligendī potestās, Inv. 2, 5, a chance of picking out examples. lūcis tuendī cōpiam, Pl. Cap. 1008, a chance to look upon the light.

2262. (2.) The genitive of the gerundive construction is used predicatively with sum.

rēgium imperium, quod initiō cōnservandae libertātis fuerat, S. C. 6, 7, the authority of the king, which had originally served to uphold freedom. cētera in XII minuendī sūmptūs sunt lāmentātiōnisque fūnebris, Leg. 2, 59, the rest of the contents of the Twelve Tables are conducive to the abating of extravagance and keening at funerals. concordiam ōrdinum, quam dissolvendae tribūnīciae potestātis rentur esse, L. 5, 3, 5, the union of the classes, which they believe serves to break down the power of the tribunes. This use is not common. It is found rarely in Sallust and Cicero; chiefly in Livy.

2263. The genitive of the gerundive construction, without a substantive or adjective (2258) or the verb sum (2262), is occasionally used to denote purpose: as,

quae ille cēpit lēgum ac lībertātis subvortundae, S. Fr. Phil. 10, which he began in order to overthrow freedom and the laws, of civil war. ūnum vincīrī iubet, magis ūsurpandī iūris quam quia ūnīus culpa foret, Ta. H. 4, 25, he ordered one into irons, more to vindicate his authority than because an individual was to blame. This use occurs very rarely in Sallust, chiefly in Tacitus and late Latin. Once in Terence with the gerund.

2264. Tacitus has the genitive of the gerundive construction two or three times with a judicial verb (1280) to denote the charge: as, occupandae rē̆ī pūblicae arguī nōn poterant, Ta. 6, 10, they could not be charged with an attempt on the throne.

Ablative.

2265. In the ablative a transitive gerund with a substantive object is not uncommon.

frātrem laudandō, Leg. 1, 1, in quoting your brother. largē partiendō praedam, L. 21, 5, 5, by a lavish distribution of the spoil. This use is particularly common in Livy. Not in Caesar.

2266. (1.) The ablative of the gerundive construction or gerund denotes means, less often cause, rarely manner and circumstances, or time, or respect.

Means: Caesar dandō sublevandō īgnōscundō, Catō nihil largiundō glōriam adeptus est, S. C. 54, 3, Caesar gained reputation by giving, helping, and pardoning, Cato by lavishing no gifts. opprimī sustentandō ac prōlātandō nūllō pactō potest, C. 4, 6, it cannot be crushed by patience and procrastination. Livy has this ablative with the adjective contentus (1377): nec iam possidendīs pūblicīs agrīs contentōs esse, 6, 14, 11, that they were no longer satisfied with the occupation of the public lands. Cause: aggerundā curvom aquā, Pl. Cas. 124, bowed with water carrying. flendō turgidulī rubent ocellī, Cat. 3, 18, with weeping red and swollen are her eyne. Manner and circumstances: rare in old Latin and Cicero: not in Caesar: bellum ambulandō cōnfēcērunt, Caelius in Fam. 8, 15, 1, they strolled through the war. senex vincendō factus, L. 30, 28, 5, maturing in victories. Time: cum plausum meō nōmine recitandō dedissent, Att. 4, 1, 6, when they had applauded on the reading of my name. partibus dīvidendīs ipsī regiō ēvēnit, L. 25, 30, 6, at the distribution, the district fell to him. Respect: Latīnē loquendō cuivīs erat pār, Br. 128, in his use of Latin he was a match for anybody.

2267. (2.) The ablative of the gerundive construction or gerund is also accompanied by a preposition, ab, dē, in, or ex; rarely by prō.

nūllum tempus illī umquam vacābat aut ā scrībendō aut ā cōgitandō, Br. 272, he never had any time free from writing or from thinking. quod verbum ductum est ā nimis intuendō fortūnam alterīus, TD. 3, 20, a word which is derived from ‘looking too closely at’ another’s prosperity, of the word invidia. cōnsilium illud dē occlūdendīs aedibus, T. Eu. 784, that idea about barring up the house. nihil dē causā discendā praecipiunt, DO. 2, 100, they give no instruction about studying up a case. vostra ōrātiō in rē incipiundā, T. Ph. 224, your remarks when we started in with this affair. Āfricānī in rē gerundā celeritātem, V. 5, 25, Africanus’s swiftness in execution. vix ex grātulandō ēminēbam, Pl. Cap. 504, I barely got my head above their congratulations. quae virtūs ex prōvidendō est appellāta prūdentia, Leg. 1, 60, a virtue which from ‘foreseeing’ is called foresight. prō līberandā amīcā, Pl. Per. 426, for setting free a leman. prō ope ferendā, L. 23, 28, 11, instead of going to the rescue. In this use ab is not found in Plautus or Terence, nor prō in Terence. cum is found in Quintilian, super once in Horace, then in Tacitus, sine once in Varro.

2268. With a comparative expression, the ablative of the gerundive is found once: nūllum officium referendā grātiā magis necessārium est, Off. 1, 47, no obligation is more binding than the returning of a favour. The gerundive construction in the ablative of separation (1302) is found rarely in Livy and Pliny the younger; Livy has also the gerund: as, Verminam absistere sequendō coēgit, L. 29, 33, 8, he forced Vermina to abandon his pursuit.

The Supine.

2269. The supine is a verbal substantive. The form in -um is an accusative. The form in -ū is used sometimes as a dative, sometimes as an ablative.

The Supine in -um.

2270. The supine in -um denotes purpose with verbs of motion (1166): as,

abiīt piscātum, Pl. R. 898, he’s gone a fishing. neu noctū īrem obambulātum, Pl. Tri. 315, not to go a prowling by night. legiōne ūnā frūmentātum missā, 4, 32, 1, one legion being sent a foraging. sessum it praetor, DN. 3, 74, the praetor is going to take his seat. spectātum veniunt, veniunt spectentur ut ipsae, O. AA. 1, 99, they come to see and eke for to be seen. This use is very common in Plautus and Terence, less common in Cicero and Caesar. It is found not infrequently in Sallust and particularly in Livy; sporadically in the Augustan poets. In late prose it is almost confined to archaistic writing. In classical Latin, purpose is more commonly expressed by the subjunctive with ut or a relative pronoun, or by a gerundive or gerund with ad or causā. See also 2164.

2271. The most common supines in -um are cubitum, dormītum, ēreptum, frūmentātum, grātulātum, nūntiātum, oppugnātum, ōrātum, pāstum, perditum, petītum, salūtātum, sessum, supplicātum. They are found chiefly with eō and veniō. nūptum is also common with dō, collocō, &c., and supines are occasionally found with other verbs implying motion.

2272. The supine in -um may be followed by the same construction as its verb: as,

(a.) Accusative: deōs salūtātum atque uxōrem modo intrō dēvortor domum, Pl. St. 534, I’ll just turn in home to greet my gods and my wife. lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittunt rogātum auxilium, 1, 11, 2, they send envoys to Caesar to beg aid. oppugnātum patriam nostram veniunt, L. 21, 41, 13, they come to assail our country. Classical writers generally avoid this use of the accusative. (b.) Dative: servītum tibi mē abdūcitō, Pl. Ps. 520, take me away to slave for you. nōn ego Grāīs servītum mātribus ībō, V. 2, 786, not I shall go to be the serf of Grecian dames. (c.) Subordinate clause: lēgātī veniēbant: Aeduī questum quod Harūdēs fīnēs eōrum populārentur, 1, 37, 1, envoys came: the Aeduans to complain ‘because the Harudians were laying their country waste’ (1853). lēgātōs ad Caesarem mīsērunt ōrātum nē sē in hostium numerō dūceret, 6, 32, 1, they sent envoys to Caesar to beg that he would not regard them in the light of enemies.

2273. The supine in -um followed by īrī forms the future passive infinitive: as,

eum exceptum īrī putō, Att. 7, 22, 1, I think that there is a going to capture him, i.e. that he is going to be captured. Here īrī is used impersonally and eum is the object of exceptum. This infinitive is found half a dozen times in old Latin, often in Cicero, rarely in other writers; not in the Augustan poets. For the common periphrasis, see 2233.

The Supine in -ū.

2274. The supine in -ū is used with fās, nefās, and adjectives, chiefly of such meaning as easy, good, pleasant, strange, or their opposites.

Only a few supines in -ū are found; the commonest are audītū, cōgnitū, dictū, factū, inventū, memorātū, nātū, vīsū.

sī hoc fās est dictū, TD. 5, 38, if heaven allows us to say so. difficile dictū est dē singulīs, Fam. 1, 7, 2, it is hard to say in the case of individuals. quaerunt quod optimum factū sit, V. 1, 68, they ask what the best thing is to do. quid est tam iocundum cōgnitū atque audītū? DO. 1, 31, what pleasure is greater to mind and ear? palpebrae mollissimae tāctū, DN. 2, 142, the eyelids are very soft to the touch. With such adjectives the dative is commonly used (1200); or, particularly with facilis or difficilis, the gerundive construction with ad (2252); for the infinitive, see 2166. The supine in -ū is found chiefly in Cicero and Livy. Very rare in old Latin, Sallust, Caesar (who has only factū and nātū), and the poets. From the elder Pliny and Tacitus on, it gets commoner.

2275. The supine in -ū sometimes introduces a subordinate sentence, but it is never used with an object in the accusative.

quoivīs facile scītū est quam fuerim miser, T. Hec. 296, anybody can easily understand how unhappy I was. incrēdibile memorātū est quam facile coaluerint, S. C. 6, 2, it is an incredible tale how readily they grew into one. vidētis nefās esse dictū miseram fuisse tālem senectūtem, CM. 13, you see that it were a sin to say that an old age like his was unhappy.

2276. The supine in -ū is found rarely with opus est (1379), dīgnus and indīgnus (1392): as,

ita dictū opus est, T. Hau. 941, thus thou must needs say. nihil dignum dictū āctum hīs cōnsulibus, L. 4, 30, 4, nothing worth mentioning was done this year. For dignus with quī and the subjunctive, see 1819; for opus est with the infinitive, 2211.

2277. In Plautus and Cato, the supine in -ū is very rarely used like an ablative of separation (1302): as, nunc opsonātū redeō, Pl. Men. 288, I’m only just back from catering. prīmus cubitū surgat, postrēmus cubitum eat, Cato, RR. 5, 5, let him be first to get up from bed and last to go to bed. Statius imitates this use in Ach. 1, 119.

The Participle.

2278. The participle is a verbal adjective. Like the adjective, it is inflected to agree with its substantive. Like the verb, it may be modified by an adverb, it is active or passive, and it expresses action as continuing, completed, or future. It may also be followed by the same case as its verb.

Time of the Participle.

2279. (1.) The time to which the participle refers is indicated by the verb of the sentence.

āēr effluēns hūc et illūc ventōs efficit, DN. 2, 101, the air by streaming to and fro produces winds. convēnī hodiē adveniēns quendam, T. Eu. 234, I met a man as I was coming to-day. manūs tendentēs vītam ōrābant, L. 44, 42, 4, with hands outstretched they begged their lives. Croesus Halyn penetrāns magnam pervertet opum vim, oracle in Div. 2, 115, Croesus, when Halys he shall cross, will overthrow a mighty realm. benignitātem tu͡am mihī̆ expertō praedicās, Pl. Merc. 289, thou vauntest to me who’ve proved thy courtesy. cōnsecūtus id quod animō prōposuerat, receptuī canī iussit, 7, 47, 1, having accomplished what he had designed, he gave orders to sound the retreat. Dionȳsius Syrācūsīs expulsus Corinthī puerōs docēbat, TD. 3, 27, after his expulsion from Syracuse, Dionysius kept school at Corinth. lēgātī dīxērunt sē rē dēlīberātā ad Caesarem reversūrōs, 4, 9, 1, the envoys said that they would come back to Caesar after they had thought the matter over.

2280. (2.) The perfect participle of deponents is sometimes used with past tenses or their equivalents to denote incomplete contemporaneous action. So occasionally a perfect passive.

(a.) Metellum esse ratī portās clausēre, S. I. 69, 1, supposing that it was Metellus, they closed their gates. gāvīsus illōs retinērī iussit, 4, 13, 6, with pleasure he gave orders for their detention. persuādent Rauracīs utī eōdem ūsī cōnsiliō proficīscantur, 1, 5, 4, they coaxed the Rauraci to adopt the same plan and go. sōlātus iussit sapientem pāscere barbam, H. S. 2, 3, 35, consoling me he bade me grow a philosophic beard. This use is found in old Latin and in Cicero very rarely. Sallust and Caesar use a few verbs thus. It is not uncommon in the Augustan poets and Livy. In late writers, especially Tacitus, it is frequent. (b.) servum sub furcā caesum mediō ēgerat circō, L. 2, 36, 1, he had driven a slave round, flogged under the fork, right in the circus. With this compare servus per circum, cum virgīs caederētur, furcam ferēns ductus est, Div. 1, 55, a slave with the fork on his neck was driven through the circus, flogged with rods the while (1872). But the perfect passive has its ordinary force (2279) in verberibus caesum tē in pistrīnum dēdam, T. Andr. 199, I’ll give you a flogging and then put you in the mill.

2281. For the perfect participle with forms of sum and fuī, see 1608, 1609; for the conative present participle, 2301; reflexive, 1482.

The Attributive Participle.

2282. The present or perfect participle is often used as an adjective to express a permanent condition: as,

ācrem ōrātōrem, incēnsum et agentem et canōrum forī strepitus dēsīderat, Br. 317, the noisy forum requires an impetuous speaker, inspired and dramatic and sonorous. L. Abuccius, homo adprīmē doctus, Varro, RR. 3, 2, 17, Abuccius, an eminently learned man. aliī facētī, flōrentēs etiam et ōrnātī, O. 20, others are brilliant, even bright and elegant. id tibī̆ renūntiō futūrum ut sīs sciēns, T. Andr. 508, I give you notice this will happen, that you may be prepared.

2283. The future participle is found as an adjective in the Augustan poets and in late writers. Cicero, however, has futūrus in this use with rēs and a few other words, and has ventūrus once.

dā mānsūram urbem, V. 3, 85, grant a city that shall abide. firmus pariēs et dūrātūrus, Ta. D. 22, a strong and durable wall. sīgna ostenduntur ā dīs rērum futūrārum, DN. 2, 12, signs of future events are disclosed by the gods. For the future participle with forms of sum, see 1633.

2284. Many participles have become complete adjectives, and as such are capable of composition or comparison, or take the case required by an adjective.

(a.) nōmen invictī imperātōris, V. 4, 82, the invincible general’s name. pūrus et īnsōns sī vīvō, H. S. 1, 6, 69, pure and guiltless if I live (749). (b.) solūtus venēficae scientiōris carmine, H. Epod. 5, 71, freed by some craftier witch’s charm. homo ērudītissimus, Verrēs, V. 4, 126, Verres, most accomplished of men. (c.) tibi sum oboediēns, Pl. MG. 806, I’m your obedient (1200). tē cōnfīdō ea factūrum quae mihī̆ intellegēs maximē esse accommodāta, Fam. 3, 3, 2, I feel confident that you will do what you shall feel most appropriate to my interests (1201). For the genitive with such participles, see 1266.

2285. A perfect participle in agreement with a substantive often contains the leading idea, and may be translated like an abstract substantive with a genitive dependent. The nominative is rarely thus used. The present participle in this use is rare, the future late.

This construction expresses the completed action of the verb in precisely the same way that the gerundive construction (2240) expresses uncompleted action.

(a.) Joined with substantives: iniūriae retentōrum equitum Rōmānōrum, 3, 10, 2, the outrages of Roman knights detained, i.e. in the detention of Roman knights. servātī cōnsulis decus, L. 21, 46, 10, the credit of saving the consul. male administrātae prōvinciae urgēbātur, Ta. 6, 29, he was charged with maladministration of his province. ō quid solūtīs est beātius cūrīs? Cat. 31, 7, oh what is sweeter than the putting off of care?

(b.) Joined with prepositions: ab conditā urbe ad līberātam, L. 1, 60, 3, from the foundation of the city to the liberation thereof. post nātōs hominēs improbissimus, Br. 224, the greatest reprobate since the creation of man. ante cīvitātem datam, Arch. 9, before the gift of the citizenship.

(c.) In the nominative: very rare before Livy: dēpressa hostium classis, Arch. 21, the sinking of the enemy’s fleet. angēbant ingentis spīritūs virum Sicilia Sardiniaque āmissae, L. 21, 1, 5, what tortured the high-souled hero was the loss of Sicily and Sardinia. cuius turbāvit nitidōs exstīnctus passer ocellōs, J. 6, 7, whose sparkling eyne the sparrow’s death bedimmed.

2286. This use of the participle, though old, is not common before Livy, who, like Tacitus, has it frequently, both with substantives and with prepositions. Very rare in Caesar, rare in Cicero, who, however, uses it both with substantives and with a few prepositions. In old Latin (not in Terence), it is found with the substantives opus and ūsus, in Cato with post, in Varro with propter: as, mī homine conventōst opus, Pl. Cur. 302, I needs must see the man. propter mare congelātum, Varro, RR. 1, 2, 4, by reason of the freezing of the sea water. For the participle alone with ūsus est and opus est, see 1382.

The Substantive Participle.

2287. Participles sometimes become substantives, especially the perfect participle: as,

vīvit gnāta, T. Ph. 749, your daughter’s alive. dē dēmēnsō suō, T. Ph. 43, out of his allowance. īnstitūtum tenēbimus, TD. 4,7, we will hold to our fundamental idea. Adverbs, not adjectives, are commonly used to qualify perfect participles used as substantives; for examples, see 1440. The masculine singular is rarely used as a substantive; the neuter, both singular and plural, is common, particularly with prepositions.

2288. The masculine plural of the perfect participle, when used as a substantive, generally denotes a definite class of persons: as,

ut damnātī in integrum restituantur, vīnctī solvantur, V. 5, 12, that the condemned go scot-free, the imprisoned are set at liberty. Catilīna cum expedītīs in prīmā aciē vorsārī, S. C. 60, 4, Catiline bustling round in the van with the light infantry. ēvocātīs equōs sūmit, 7, 65, 5, he took away the veterans’ horses. Rarely not denoting a definite class: as, missī intercipiuntur, 5, 40, 1, the men who had been sent (i.e. on a particular occasion) are cut off.

2289. The perfect participle alone sometimes serves as the subject of a sentence instead of an abstract substantive (2285): as,

nōtum furēns quid fēmina possit, V. 5, 6, the knowledge of what a woman in her wrath can do. prōnūntiātum repente nē quis violārētur, multitūdinem exuit armīs, L. 4, 59, 7, the sudden proclamation that nobody was to be harmed, deprived the people of their weapons. This use is found chiefly in Livy, once or twice in Cicero; not in Caesar or Sallust. See 1382.

2290. The present participle is rarely a substantive in the nominative and ablative singular, but often in the other cases.

in cōnstituentibus rem pūblicam, Br. 45, among the founders of a state. multae īnsectantēs dēpellunt, DN. 2, 127, many drive off their pursuers. nec praeterita nec praesentia abs tē, sed futūra exspectō, Fam. 2, 8, 1, I do not expect from you the past or the present, but the future.

2291. The genitive plural of the present participle is often best translated by an English abstract: as,

cachinnōs inrīdentium commovēbat, Br. 216, he provoked guffaws of derision. mixtōs terrentium paventiumque clāmōrēs, L. 22, 5, 4, mingled cries of exultation and terror. prīmō gaudentium impetū, Ta. H. 1, 4, in the first outburst of joy.

2292. The future participle is very rarely used as a substantive.

audītūrum dictūrī cūra dēlectat, Quintil. 11, 3, 157, deliberation on the part of one who is on the point of speaking attracts his prospective hearer. havē̆, imperātor, moritūrī tē salūtant, Suet. Claud. 21, emperor, all hail! the doomed give thee greeting. This use is found in late writers, as in Tacitus and Curtius once each, and half a dozen times in Pliny the younger. Cicero and Sallust have futūrus thus (2283): as, abs tē futūra exspectō, Fam. 2, 8, 1, from you I expect the future. supplicia in post futūrōs composuit, S. Fr. Lep. 6, he invented penalties for men unborn.

The Appositive Participle.

2293. The appositive participle is a loose substitute for a subordinate sentence introduced by a relative or by a conjunctive particle.

2294. (1.) The appositive participle may represent a relative sentence: as,

nōvī ego Epicūrēōs omnia sigilla venerantēs, DN. 1, 85, why, I know Epicureans who bow the knee to all sorts of graven images. Conōn mūrōs dīrutōs ā Lȳsandrō reficiendōs cūrat, N. 9, 4, 5, Conon superintended the rebuilding of the walls which had been destroyed by Lysander. The future participle is poetic and late (2283): as, servēs itūrum Caesarem in Britannōs, H. 1, 35, 29, guard Caesar who against the Britons is to march.

2295. (2.) The appositive participle, representing other sentences, may express various relations: as, (a.) time, (b.) cause or means, (c.) purpose, (d.) concession, (e.) hypothesis, (f.) description or the manner of an action, like an adverb.

For the ablative absolute in such relations, see 1362-1374, particularly 1367.

(a.) Time: vehemēns sum exoriēns, quom occidō vehementior, Pl. R. 71, furious am I at my rising, when I set more furious still. occīsus est ā cēnā rediēns, RA. 97, he was murdered on his way home from a dinner-party. ūnam noctem sōlam praedōnēs commorātī, accedēre incipiunt Syrācūsās, V. 5, 95, the freebooters, after tarrying but one night, began to draw near Syracuse. The future is late (2283): as, prīmum omnium virōrum fortium itūrī in proelia canunt, Ta. G. 3, as the chief of all brave heroes, they sing of him when they are on the point of going to battle, of Hercules.

(b.) Cause or means: mōtum exspectāns dīlectum habēre īnstituit, 6, 1, 1, since he anticipated a rising, he determined on recruiting troops. moveor tālī amīcō orbātus, L. 10, I am certainly affected at being bereaved of such a friend. dextrā datā fidem futūrae amīcitiae sanxisse, L. 1, 1, 8, by giving his right hand he gave a pledge of future friendship. quae contuēns animus accēdit ad cōgnitiōnem deōrum, DN. 2, 153, through the contemplation of these, the mind arrives at a knowledge of the gods. The future participle is late: as, neque illīs iūdicium aut vēritās, quippe eōdem diē dīversa parī certāmine postulātūrīs, Ta. H. 1, 32, they had neither sound judgement nor sincerity, since on the same day they were to make conflicting demands with equal vehemence.

(c.) Purpose: the future participle, commonly with a verb of motion: ad Clūsium vēnērunt, legiōnem Rōmānam castraque oppugnātūrī, L. 10, 26, 7, they came to the neighbourhood of Clusium, to assail the Roman legion and camp. ascendit ipse, lātūrus auxilium, Plin. Ep. 6, 16, 9, he went aboard in person to go to the rescue. laetō complērant lītora coetū vīsūrī Aeneadas, V. 5, 107, in happy company they’d filled the strand to see Aeneas’ men. rediēre omnēs Bonōniam, rursus cōnsiliātūrī, Ta. H. 2, 53, they all went back to Bologna for a second consultation. This use appears first in C. Gracchus as cited by Gellius, then once in Cicero and Sallust each, and a few times in the poets. From Livy on, it grows commoner. In the poets, Livy, and Tacitus, it is sometimes joined with a conditional idea or protasis: as, ēgreditur castrīs Rōmānus, vāllum invāsūrus nī cōpia pugnae fieret, L. 3, 60, 8, the Roman marches out of camp, proposing to assault the stockade unless battle were offered.

(d.) Concession: quī mortālis nātus condiciōnem postulēs immortālium, TD. 3, 36, thou who, though born to die, layest claim to the state of the deathless. bēstiīs, quibus ipsa terra fundit pāstūs abundantīs nihil labōrantibus, Fin. 2, 111, the beasts, on which, though they toil not, earth lavishes sustenance in profusion. Often with tamen or the like accompanying the verb: as, ibī̆ vehementissimē perturbātus Lentulus tamen et sīgnum et manum suam cōgnōvit, C. 3, 12, thereupon Lentulus, though thrown into the most extreme confusion, did yet recognize his own hand and seal. For quamquam and quamvīs, see 1900, 1907. Ovid and Propertius sometimes have licet (1710): as, isque, licet caelī regiōne remōtōs, mente deōs adiīt, O. 15, 62, he in the spirit to the gods drew nigh, though they are far away in heaven’s domain. The future participle is rare and late.

(e.) Hypothesis: quid igitur mihī̆ ferārum laniātus oberit nihil sentientī? TD. 1, 104, what hurt will the clawing of wild beasts do me if I have no feeling? appārēbat nōn admissōs prōtinus Carthāginem itūrōs, L. 21, 9, 4, it grew obvious that, if not given audience, they would go to Carthage forthwith. For other examples, see 2110. For the participle with quasi or ut, and in late writers with tamquam or velut, see 2121. The future participle is rare and late.

(f.) Description or manner: haec properantēs scrīpsimus, Att. 4, 4^a, I have written this hastily, i.e. in haste yours truly. dictātor et magister equitum triumphantēs in urbem rediēre, L. 2, 20, 13, the dictator and his master of the horse returned to the city in triumph. incendēbat haec flētū et pectus verberāns, Ta. 1, 23, he lent passion to his words with tears and beating of his breast. vīnctōs aspiciunt catēnīs līberōs suōs, V. 5, 108, they behold their own children held in bondage.

2296. The participle with a negative may be translated by without: as,

id illa ūnivorsum abripiet haud existumāns quantō labōre partum, T. Ph. 45, my lady’ll grab it all without a thought of all the toil it cost to get. nōn rogātōs ultrō offerre auxilium, L. 34, 23, 3, that without being asked, they offer assistance of their own accord.

The Predicative Participle.

2297. habeō is sometimes used with certain perfect participles to express an action continuing in its consequences, faciō, dō, and in old Latin reddō and cūrō, with a perfect participle, are emphatic substitutes for the verb to which the participle belongs.

(a.) quae nōs nostramque adulēscentiam habent dēspicātam et quae nōs semper omnibus cruciant modīs, T. Eu. 383, who hold us and our youth in scorn and torment us in every way. in eā prōvinciā pecūniās magnās collocātās habent, IP. 18, they have invested large funds in that province. Clōdiī animum perspectum habeō, cōgnitum, iūdicātum, ad Br. 1, 1, 1, Clodius’s mind I have looked into thoroughly, probed, formed a judgement on. clausum lacū ac montibus et circumfūsum suīs cōpiīs habuit hostem, L. 22, 4, 5, his enemy he had shut in by lake and mountains and surrounded by his troops. See also 1606.

(b.) missa haec face, T. Ad. 906, let this pass. vērum haec missa faciō, RA. 76, but I let this pass. Mānlium missum fēcit, Off. 3, 112, he let Manlius go. factum et cūrātum dabō, Pl. Cas. 439, I’ll have it done and seen to. strātās legiōnēs Latīnōrum dabō, L. 8, 6, 6, I will lay the Latin legions low. ego iam tē commōtum reddam, T. Andr. 864, I’ll soon have you worked up. inventum tibī cūrābō tu͡om Pamphilum, T. Andr. 684, I’ll have your Pamphilus looked up for you. In classical writers, faciō only is found in this use and only with the participle of mittō; dō occurs in late writers; reddō and cūrō only in old Latin. All these verbs are usually in the future tense or its equivalent. For volō, cupiō, and nōlō with the infinitive passive without esse, see 2229.

2298. The present participle is used predicatively with verbs signifying represent, and with verbs denoting the exercise of the senses or mind: as,

facit Sōcratem disputantem, DN. 1, 31, he represents Socrates discussing. quasi ipsōs indūxī loquentēs, L. 3, I have brought on the men themselves as speaking. nōn illum miserum, īgnārum cāsūs suī, redeuntem ā cēnā vidētis? RA. 98, do you not see the poor man, little dreaming of his fate, returning from the dinner? nōn audīvit dracōnem loquentem, Div. 2, 141, he did not hear the serpent speaking. This use is found in Plautus, Terence, Cicero, Sallust, Horace, Nepos, Vitruvius, and Livy. Once in Piso (consul 133 B.C.), as cited by Gellius, 7, 9, 6. Verbs denoting the exercise of the senses or mind take the accusative with the infinitive to denote the fact or action; see 2175. For audiō with cum, see 1870. For the infinitive without esse with verbs of emotion, see 2184.

2299. A passive with a verb meaning represent is expressed, for lack of a present passive participle, by the infinitive (2175). The infinitive active is rare.

(a.) cōnstruī ā deō atque aedificārī mundum facit, DN. 1, 19, he represents the world being put together and built by the gods. (b.) poētae impendēre saxum Tantalō faciunt, TD. 4, 35, the poets represent a rock hanging over Tantalus. Rarely the participle (2298) and the infinitive are united: as, Polyphēmum Homērus cum ariete conloquentem facit eiusque laudāre fortūnās, TD. 5, 115, Homer represents Polyphemus chatting with the ram and his envy of the ram’s estate. But the perfect infinitive active must be used when the action is to be distinctly marked as completed, for lack of a perfect active participle: as, fēcit Dolābella Verrem accēpisse, V. 1, 100, Dolabella represented Verres as having received.