A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges

The Simple Sentence.

(A.) Use of the Noun.

Number and Gender.

1099. The singular of a word denoting a person is sometimes used in a collective sense.

This singular is generally a military designation: as, mīles, eques, pedes, hostis, Rōmānus, Poenus. But other substantives and adjectives are occasionally thus used.

1100. A substantive or adjective denoting a person is often used in the singular as representative of a class, particularly when two persons are contrasted: as,

sī tabulam dē naufrāgiō stultus adripuerit, extorquēbitne eam sapiēns? Off. 3, 89, if a fool has seized a plank from a wreck, will the sage twitch it away?

1101. The neuter singular of certain adjectives is used as an abstract substantive.

These adjectives have commonly stems in -o-, and are often used in the partitive genitive (1250). The nominative is rare, also the accusative and ablative, except in prepositional constructions. Such are: bonum, malum; rēctum, prāvum; decōrum, indecōrum; honestum; vērum, falsum; iūstum, iniūstum; aequum; ambiguum; rīdiculum. ūtile, ināne, commūne, īnsīgne, simile, &c.

1102. Certain adjectives, which originally agreed with an appellative denoting a thing, have dropped the appellative and become substantives.

Such are: Āfricus, sc. ventus; Āfrica, sc. terra; calda, sc. aqua; cānī sc. capillī; circēnsēs, sc. lūdī; decuma, sc. pars; fera, sc. bēstia; hīberna, sc. castra; merum, sc. vīnum; nātālis, sc. diēs; patria, sc. terra; praetexta, sc. toga; summa, sc. rēs; trirēmis, sc. nāvis, and many others.

1103. Certain adjectives denoting relationship, friendship, hostility, connection, or age, may be used in both numbers as substantives.

Such are: (a.) adfīnis, cōgnātus, cōnsanguineus, gentīlis, necessārius, propīnquus; (b.) adversārius, amīcus, inimīcus, familiāris, hostis, intimus, invidus, socius, sodālis; (c.) contubernālis, manipulāris, vīcīnus; (d.) adulēscēns, aequālis, iuvenis, senex.

1104. The masculine plural of many adjectives is used substantively to denote a class.

Such are: bonī, the good, the well-disposed, conservatives, patriots, our party; improbī, the wicked, the dangerous classes, revolutionists, anarchists, the opposite party; doctī, indoctī; piī, impiī, and the like.

1105. Proper names of men are used in the plural to denote different persons of the same name, or as appellatives to express character, oftenest good character: as,

duo Metellī, Celer et Nepōs, Br. 247, the two Metelluses, Celer and Nepos. quid Crassōs, quid Pompēiōs ēvertit? J. 10, 108, what overthrew a Crassus, Pompey what? i.e. men like Crassus and Pompey.

1106. The neuter plural of adjectives of all degrees of comparison is very often used as a substantive.

Such adjectives are usually in the nominative or accusative, and may have a pronoun, a numeral, or an adjective, agreeing with them. In English the singular is often preferred. Such are: bona, mala; vēra, falsa; haec, this; omnia, everything; haec omnia, all this, &c., &c.

1107. Names of countries are sometimes used in the plural when the country consists of several parts which are called by the same name as the whole country: as, Galliae, the Gauls; Germāniae, the Germanies.

1108. Material substantives are often used in the plural to denote different sorts of the substance designated, its constituent parts, or objects made of it: as,

aera, lumps of bronze, bronzes, coppers. aquae, water in different places, medicinal springs. cērae, pieces of wax, tablets, wax masks, waxworks. marmora, kinds of marble, blocks of marble, works of marble. nivēs, snowflakes, snowdrifts, snowstorms, repeated snows. spūmae, masses of foam. sulpura, lumps of sulphur. vīna, wines, different kinds of wine.

1109. Abstract substantives are often used in the plural to denote different kinds or instances of the abstract idea, or an abstract idea pertaining to several persons or things: as,

sunt domesticae fortitūdinēs nōn īnferiōrēs mīlitāribus, Off. 1, 78, there are cases of heroism in civil life fully equal to those in war. tē cōnscientiae stimulant maleficiōrum tuōrum, Par. 18, you are tormented by pricks of conscience for your sins. propter siccitātēs palūdum, 4, 38, 2, because the swamps were dry everywhere.

1110. The plural is sometimes used in generalizations, and in poetry to magnify a single thing, to give mystery to the statement, or often merely for metrical convenience: as, advēnisse familiārēs dīcitō, Pl. Am. 353, say that the people of the house are come, the plural familiārēs denoting one person. Priamī dum rēgna manēbant, V. 2, 22, while Priam’s realms still stood. externōs optāte ducēs, V. 8, 503, choose captains from a foreign strand, i.e. Aeneas.

Case.

1111. There are two groups of cases, the principal and the secondary.

1112. The principal cases are the nominative and the accusative. The principal cases, which have more complete inflections than the secondary, express the two chief relations of the noun in the sentence, those of the subject and of the object. The secondary cases are used to express subordinate or supplementary relations.

The Nominative.

1113. The nominative is principally used as the subject or predicate noun of a verb or of an infinitive. Besides this use, the nominative occurs in titles, exclamations, and addresses (1114-1123).

The Nominative of Title.

1114. The nominative is used in inscriptions, notices, titles, or headings: as,

L · CORNELIVS · CN · F · CN · N · SCIPIO, CIL. I, 34, on a tomb, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, son (fīlius) of Gnaeus, grandson (nepōs) of Gnaeus. LABYRINTHVS HIC HABITAT MINOTAVRVS, CIL. IV, 2331, on a plan of the Labyrinth scratched by a Pompei schoolboy, The Maze. Here lives Minotaur. PRIVATVM PRECARIO ADEITVR, CIL. I, 1215, Private Grounds. No Admittance without leave. Themistoclēs, Neoclī fīlius, Athēniēnsis, N. 2, 1, Themistocles, son of Neocles, of Athens.

1115. The title proper of a book is often put in the genitive, dependent on līber or librī: as, Cornēlī Tacitī Historiārum Liber Prīmus, Tacitus’s Histories, Book First. Or prepositional expressions are used: as, M. Tullī Cicerōnis dē Fātō Liber, Cicero, Fate, in One Book. Cornēlī Tacitī ab Excessū dīvī Augustī Liber Prīmus, Tacitus’s Roman History from the Demise of the sainted Augustus, Book First.

1116. Sometimes the nominative of a title or exclamation is retained in a sentence for some other case: as, Gabīniō cōgnōmen ‘Cauchius’ ūsurpāre concessit, Suet. Cl. 24, he allowed Gabinius to take the surname ‘Cauchius;’ (compare Catō quasi cōgnōmen habēbat Sapientis, L. 6, Cato had the virtual surname of the Wise). ‘Marsya’ nōmen habet, O. 6, 400, it has the name of ‘Marsyas;’ (compare nōmen Dānuvium habet, S. Fr. 3, 55, it has the name Danube), resonent mihi ‘Cynthia’ silvae, Prop. 1, 18, 31, let woods reecho ‘Cynthia’ for me; (compare tū, Tītyre, fōrmōsam resonāre docēs Amaryllida silvas, V. E. 1, 4, thou, Tityrus, dost teach the woods to echo Amaryllis Fair).

The Nominative of Exclamation.

1117. The nominative is sometimes used in exclamations: as,

fortūnae fīlius, omnēs, H. S. 2, 6, 49, ‘the child of Fortune,’ all exclaim. This nominative is often accompanied by an interjection, such as ecce, ēn, heu, ō, prō, vāh: as, ēn Priamus, V. 1, 461, lo, Priam here. ō fēstus diēs, T. Eu. 560, oh day of cheer. For eccilla, see 667.

The Vocative Nominative and Vocative Proper.

1118. The vocative nominative is used when a person or thing is addressed: as,

quō usque tandem abūtēre, Catilīna, patientiā nostrā? C. 1, 1, in heaven’s name, how long, Catiline, wilt trifle with our patience? valēte, dēsīderia mea, valēte, Fam. 14, 2, 4, good bye, my absent loves, good bye. Instead of a proper name, an emphatic tū is often used: as, advorte animum sīs tū, Pl. Cap. 110, just pay attention, sirrah, please.

1119. Masculine stems in -o- commonly use the special form for the second person singular called the vocative: as,

urbem, urbem, mī Rūfe, cole, Fam. 2, 12, 2, stick to town, dear Rufus, yes, to town. But the vocative nominative is sometimes used even of -o- stems: as, audī tū, populus Albānus, L. 1, 24, 7, hear thou, the people of Alba.

1120. Poets use the vocative nominative or vocative proper very freely, sometimes for liveliness, but often simply in place of other cases not allowed by the metre: as,

ōra manūsque tuā lavimus, Fērōnia, lymphā, H. S. 1, 5, 24, our faces and our hands, Feronia, in thy stream we wash. occiderat Tatius, populīsque aequāta duōbus, Rōmule, iūra dabās, O. 14, 805, now dead was Tatius, and to peoples twain thou gavest, Romulus, impartial laws. longum tibi, Daedale, crīmen, O. 8, 240, a lasting stigma, Daedalus, to thee. In these three examples, Fērōniae, Rōmulus, and Daedalō would be impossible. In poetry, the vocative is particularly common in questions.

1121. Nominative forms and vocative forms are often combined: as, dulcis amīce, H. E. 1, 7, 12, sweet friend. mī vir, Pl. Am. 716, my husband. Iāne pater, J. 6, 394, thou father Janus.

1122. In verse the vocative is occasionally used even in the predicate: as, quō moritūre ruis? V. 10, 811, whither, on death intent, fliest thou? quibus, Hector, ab ōrīs exspectāte venīs? V. 2, 282, out of what limboes, Hector, dost thou gladly welcomed come?

1123. The vocative nominative or vocative proper is sometimes accompanied by ō, but only in impassioned addresses: as, ō fortūnāte adulēscēns, Arch. 24, oh thou thrice blest youth; also by prō in addresses to gods, by eho and heus in calls on men. Rarely by au, ehem, hem, ē̆heu, eia or heia, iō.

The Accusative.

1124. The accusative is used primarily with verbs, or with expressions equivalent to verbs. The relations expressed by the accusative are all of one general kind; but they vary somewhat, according to the nature of the verb.

1125. I. With most verbs, the accusative either (a.) denotes that which is affected or apprehended, or is produced by the action of the verb (1132); or, less frequently (b.) it repeats the meaning of the verb in the form of a substantive (1140).

Such accusatives, called accusatives of the Object, are never attended by a preposition, and become nominative in the passive construction.

1126. II. With some verbs, the accusative denotes (a.) extent or duration (1151); with others it denotes (b.) aim of motion (1157).

Both these accusatives sometimes have their places taken by a prepositional expression, or by an adverb; in the passive construction, they are not convertible into a nominative, but remain accusative.

1127. Two or even three accusatives are sometimes used with one and the same verb: see 1167-1174.

1128. The accusative is sometimes disengaged from the verb, with which it originally stood, and used with a noun or a preposition.

1129. (1.) With substantives, the accusative is rare; it is used (a.) in a few attributive expressions, chiefly old set forms, and rarely to denote (b.) aim of motion.

Thus (a.) the predicative id aetātis, in id aetātis iam sumus, we are now of that age, becomes attributive in hominēs id aetātis, people of that age. And (b.) as domum, home, is used with the verb redeō, go back, so also rarely with the substantive reditiō, a return.

1130. With adjectives, the accusative is commonly that of extent: so with altus, high, lātus, wide, and longus, long, sometimes with crassus, thick.

Thus, in eōs surculōs facitō sint longī pedēs bīnōs, see that the scions be two feet long, the accusative pedēs, which belongs with the predicate sint longī, may be used with the attributive adjective longus alone, thus: surculī longī pedēs bīnōs, scions two feet long.

1131. (2.) The accusative is used with many prepositions: see 1410.

I. THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE OBJECT.

1132. The object of a verb is put in the accusative: as,

(a.) oppida sua omnia incendunt, 1, 5, 3, they set all their towns afire. cōnspexit adrāsum quendam, H. E. 1, 7, 49, he spied a man all shaven and shorn. (b.) duās fossās perdūxit, 7, 72, 3, he made two trenches. This accusative, is, as may be seen above, either (a.) receptive, i.e. existing independently of the action of the verb, and only affected or apprehended by it; or (b.) of product, i.e. produced by the action of the verb.

1133. Verbs thus used with an object are said to be used transitively. Such verbs may also be used intransitively, that is without an object, when stress is put on the action merely: thus,

(a.) Transitively: tū mē amās, ego tē amō, Pl. Most. 305, thou lovest me, and I love thee. nova dīruunt, alia aedificant, S. C. 20, 12, they pull down new structures, and build up others. (b.) Intransitively: amō, Pl. B. 511, I’m in love. dīruit, aedificat, H. E. 1, 1, 100, it pulleth down, it buildeth up.

1134. Some verbs, in addition to the accusative, often take an infinitive also: thus, eum vident sedēre, V. 5, 107, they see him sit, they see that he is sitting. Here the accusative eum, originally the object, they see him, becomes at the same time the subject of the new statement appended, sedēre, sit, thus giving rise to the construction known as the accusative with the infinitive.

1135. Instead of the proper accusative of the object, another accusative is sometimes substituted, denoting the ultimate result: as,

rūpēre viam, L. 2, 50, 10, they broke a path, i.e. they broke through the obstacles, and so made a path. foedusque ferī, E. 33, and strike a covenant, i.e. strike a victim, and so make a covenant.

1136. In Plautus, quid tibī̆ with a substantive of action in -tiō and est, has an accusative like a verb used transitively: as, quid tibī̆ hanc cūrātiōst rem? Pl. Am. 519, what business hast thou with this?

1137. Many verbs ordinarily used intransitively, particularly verbs of motion, have a transitive use when compounded with a preposition.

Such prepositions are, ad, circum, ex, in, ob, per, prae, praeter, trāns, and some others: as, plūrēs paucōs circumsistēbant, 4, 26, 2, a good many took their stand round a few. Caesar omnem agrum Pīcēnum percurrit, Caes. C. 1, 15, 1, Caesar runs over the whole Picene territory. praeterīre nēmō pristrīnum potest, Pl. Cap. 808, no man can pass the mill. flūmen trānsiērunt, 4, 4, 7, they crossed the river.

1138. A few verbs with a transitive use, have, when compounded with circum and trāns, besides the accusative of the object, a second accusative of the thing to which the preposition refers: as, istum circumdūce hāsce aedīs, Pl. Most. 843, take that man round this house. Caesar funditōrēs pontem trādūcit, 2, 10, 1, Caesar takes the slingers over the bridge. trānsfer līmen aureolōs pedēs, Cat. 61, 166, over the threshold put thy little golden foot. In the passive, the accusative connected with the preposition is sometimes retained: as, Apollōniam praetervehuntur, Caes. C. 3, 26, 1, they sail by Apollonia.

1139. Verbs of weeping and wailing, and some other verbs of feeling, which commonly have an intransitive use, sometimes have a transitive use with an accusative: as,

(a.) lūget senātus, maeret equester ōrdō, Mil. 20, the senate is in mourning, the equestrian order betrays its sadness. (b.) mātrōnae eum lūxērunt, L. 2, 7, 4, the married women wore mourning for him. maereō cāsum eius modī, Fam. 14, 2, 2, I cannot help showing my grief over a misfortune of such a kind. quid mortem congemis ac flēs, Lucr. 3, 934, why dost thou death bewail and weep? Such verbs are fleō, weep, gemō, wail, lāmentor, queror, bewail, doleō, am distressed, lūgeō, mourn, maereō, betray sadness. Similarly, horreō, shudder, reformīdō, am in dread, fastīdiō, feel disdain, rīdeō, laugh, &c., &c. The object is oftener a thing than a person, and passive constructions are rare, and mostly confined to poetry.

The Emphasizing Or Defining Accusative.

1140. The meaning of a verb, even of one ordinarily intransitive, may be emphasized or more exactly defined by an accusative of kindred derivation added.

(a.) Seldom without an adjective: as, dum vītam vīvās, Pl. Per. 494, as long as life thou liv’st, i.e. as long as you ever live and breathe. quōrum maiōrum nēmō servitūtem servīvit, T. 29, of whose ancestors not one has served servitude, i.e. been a regular slave. vidē nē facinus faciās, Fin. 2, 95, mind you don’t do a deed, i.e. a misdeed. (b.) Commonly with an adjective: as, scelestam servitūtem serviunt, Pl. Cu. 40, a wicked servitude they serve. facinus memorābile fēcistis, L. 24, 22, 16, you have done a deed well worth mentioning. mīrum atque īnscītum somniāvī somnium, Pl. R. 597, a strange and silly dream dreamed I.

1141. The verb sometimes has an accusative of kindred meaning, but of different derivation: as,

ut vīvās aetātem miser, Pl. Am. 1023, that thou mayst live thy days in woe. nōn pugnāvit ingēns Īdomeneus Sthenelusve sōlus dīcenda Mūsīs proelia, H. 4, 9, 19, not towering Idomeneus nor Sthenelus alone has battles fought for Muses to rehearse.

1142. The neuter singular accusative of a descriptive adjective is used, particularly by the poets, to denote manner: as,

magnum clāmat, Pl. MG. 823, he’s bellowing big. suāve locus vōcī resonat conclūsus, H. S. 1, 4, 76, sweet to the voice the pent-up place rings back. suāve rubēns hyacinthus, V. E. 3, 63, sweet-blushing hyacinth. cūr tam cernis acūtum? H. S. 1, 3, 26, why dost thou see so sharp? The plural is not so common: as, asper, acerba tuēns, Lucr. 5, 33, V. 9, 794, rough, staring savageness.

1143. Some verbs of smell and of taste have an accusative defining what the smell or the taste is: as, pāstillōs Rūfillus olet, Gargōnius hīrcum, H. S. 1, 2, 27, of lozenges Rufillus smells, Gargonius of the goat. doctrīnam redolet puerīlem, DO. 2, 109, it smacks of A B C studies. nōn omnēs possunt olere unguenta exōtica, Pl. Most. 42, not every man can of imported ointments reek. meliōra unguenta sunt quae terram quam quae crocum sapiunt, Cic. in Plin. NH. 17, 5, 3, 38, essences that smell of earth are better than those that smell of saffron.

1144. Any verb or verbal expression may be defined in a general way by the neuter accusative of a pronoun or of an enumerative word: as,

id gaudeō, T. Andr. 362, I’m glad of that. id maestast, Pl. R. 397, she’s mournful over this. id prōdeō, T. Eu. 1005, I’m coming out for this. cētera adsentior Crassō, DO. 1, 35, on all the other points I agree with Crassus. So also quod, for which, on account of which, aliquid, quicquam, nihil, &c., &c., and particularly quid, why, in what respect, wherein, what, or what... for: as, quid vēnistī, Pl. Am. 377, why art thou come? quid tibī̆ obstō, RA. 145, wherein do I stand in your way?

1145. The accusative of an appellative is rarely used adverbially: as, magnam partem ex iambīs nostra cōnstat ōrātiō, O. 189, our own speech is made up a great deal of iambs. maximam partem lacte vīvunt, 4, 1, 8, they live on milk the most part, i.e. chiefly. Prepositional expressions are commoner: as, magnā ex parte, 1, 16, 6, principally. For vicem, instead of, for, or like, see the dictionary.

1146. The accusative is sometimes disengaged from a verb, and qualifies a substantive as an attribute, chiefly in a few set expressions (1129): as, ōrātiōnēs aut aliquid id genus, Att. 13, 12, 3, speeches or something that kind. aucupium omne genus, Cat. 114, 3, fowling of every kind. nūgās hoc genus, H. S. 2, 6, 43, small talk—this kind. hoc genus in rēbus, Lucr. 6, 917, in matters of this kind. cum id aetātis fīliō, Clu. 141, with a son of that age. Similarly diēs quīndecim supplicātiō, 2, 35, 4, a fortnight thanksgiving.

The Accusative of the Part Concerned.

1147. Poets use the accusative to express the part concerned, especially a part of the human body: as,

tremit artūs, Lucr. 3, 489, V. G. 3, 84, he shivers in his limbs. tremis ossa pavōre, H. S. 2, 7, 57, thou tremblest in thy bones with fear. viridī membra sub arbutō strātus, H. 1, 1, 21, stretching—his limbs—beneath an arbute green. ōs umerōsque deō similis, V. 1, 589, in face and shoulders like a god.

The Accusative of the Thing put on.

1148. The accusative is used with reflexive verbs in poetry to denote the thing put on: as,

comantem Androgeī galeam induitur, V. 2, 391, Androgeus’ high-haired helm he dons. exuviās indūtus Achillī, V. 2, 275, clad in Achilles’ spoils. Rarely to denote the thing taken off: as, priōrēs exuitur vultūs, St. Th. 10, 640, she doffs her former looks.

The Accusative of Exclamation.

1149. The accusative is used in exclamations, sometimes merely to call attention to something, but generally with a predicate to express a judgment with emphasis.

(a.) In calling attention, ecce or em is used in old Latin: as, ecce mē, Pl. MG. 663, behold, your humble servant. em Dāvom tibī̆, T. Andr. 842, there, Davos sir. For ellum, eccillum, &c., see 667 and 673. Also, from Cicero on, ēn: as, ēn quattuor ārās, V. E. 5, 65, see, altars four. (b.) In emphatic judgments sometimes the accusative alone: as, fortūnātum Nīcobūlum, Pl. B. 455, lucky man that Nicobulus. testīs ēgregiōs, Cael. 63, mighty fine witnesses; sometimes with an interjection: as, ō imperātōrem probum, Pl. B. 759, oh what a good commander; rarely so with ēcastor, edepol, eugē, bravo, heu, īlicet, all’s up, ē̆heu. Interrogatively: hancine impudentiam? V. 5, 62, possible, shamelessness like this?

1150. The accusative is used in excited orders, appeals, and questions, without any verb expressed, or even distinctly felt: as, Tiberium in Tiberim, Suet. Tib. 75, Tiberius to the Tiber. dī vostram fidem, T. Andr. 716, ye gods your help. prō fidem, Thēbānī cīvēs, Pl. Am. 376, oh help, or murder, ye citizens of Thebes. So with unde, quō, and quandō, often followed by mihī̆ or tibī̆: as, quō mihi fortūnam, sī nōn concēditur ūtī? H. E. 1, 5, 12, why wealth for me, if wealth I may not use?

II. THE ACCUSATIVE OF SPACE AND TIME, AND OF AIM OF MOTION.

The Accusative of Space and Time.

1151. Extent of space or duration of time is denoted by the accusative: as,

(a.) mīlia passuum XX prōcēdit, 5, 47, 1, he pushes on twenty miles. trīduī viam prōgressī, 4, 4, 4, having advanced three days journey. aggerem lātum pedēs CCCXXX, altum pedēs LXXX exstrūxērunt, 7, 24, 1, they built up a mound three hundred and thirty feet wide, and eighty feet high (1130). (b.) mātrōnae annum lūxērunt, L. 2, 7, 4, the married women wore mourning a year. ūndēvīgintī annōs nātus erat, Br. 229, he was nineteen years old. secūtae sunt continuōs complūrēs diēs tempestātēs, 4, 34, 4, there followed a good many days a succession of storms. triennium vagātī, 4, 4, 2, having led a nomad life three years. ūnum diem supplicātiō habita est, L. 10, 47, 7, a thanksgiving was held one day. diēs quīndecim supplicātiō, 2, 35, 4, a fortnight thanksgiving (1129). Sometimes per is added: as, lūdī per decem diēs factī sunt, C. 3, 20, games were celebrated ten days long.

1152. The idea of traversing is sometimes not expressed: as, mīlia passuum tria ab eōrum castrīs castra pōnit, 1, 22, 5, he pitches camp three miles away from their camp. quadringentōs inde passūs cōnstituit sīgna, L. 34, 20, 4, four hundred paces from there he set up the standards. See 1399.

1153. With absum and distō, the ablative of amount of difference is sometimes used (1393): as, certior factus est Ariovistī cōpiās ā nostrīs mīlibus passuum quattuor et XX abesse, 1, 41, 5, he was informed that Ariovistus’s troops were four and twenty miles away from ours. If the place is not mentioned from which distance is reckoned, ab or ā is sometimes used before the expression of distance: as, positīs castrīs ā mīlibus passuum XV, 6, 7, 3, pitching camp fifteen miles away.

1154. The accusative is used with abhinc, ago: as, quaestor fuistī abhinc annōs quattuordecim, V. 1, 34, you were a quaestor fourteen years ago. Rarely the ablative (1393): as, quō tempore? abhinc annīs XV, RC. 37, when? fifteen years ago; and once or twice with abhinc, meaning before (1393): as, comitiīs abhinc diēbus trīgintā factīs, V. 2, 130, the election having been held thirty days before.

1155. The accusative singular is used with ordinals, to show the number of days, months, or years since a particular event, including the day, month, or year of the event itself: as, quod annum iam tertium et vīcēsimum rēgnat, IP. 7, the circumstance that he has now been on the throne two and twenty years.

1156. The accusative in some pronominal expressions and adverbs passes over from ‘time through which’ to a loose ‘time at which’: as, id temporis, RA. 97, at that time. hoc noctis, Pl. Am. 163^b, at this time of night. tum, then, num, nunc, now, nunc ipsum, Pl. B. 940, Att. 10, 4, 10, this very minute, commodum, just in time. For the locative ablative exceptionally used to denote duration, see 1355.

The Accusative of the Aim of Motion.

1157. (1.) Proper names of towns and of little islands or peninsulas are put in the accusative to denote the aim with expressions of motion: as,

Labiēnus Lutetiam proficīscitur, 7, 57, 1, Labienus starts for Lutetia. Leucadem vēnimus, Fam. 16, 9, 1, we came to Leucas. nocturnus introitus Zmyrnam, Ph. 11, 5, the entrance into Smyrna by night (1129). Plautus uses Accherūns a few times like a town name: as, vīvom mē accersunt Accheruntem mortuī, Most. 509, the dead are taking me to Acheron alive.

1158. With singular names of towns and little islands, Plautus has the accusative alone twenty times, and twenty times with in; Terence has, including Lēmnum, Ph. 567, and Cyprum, Ad. 224, 230, the accusative alone six times, and twice with in, in Lēmnum, Ph. 66, and in Cyprum, Ad. 278. Plural town names never have in.

1159. An appellative urbem or oppidum accompanying the accusative of a town name is usually preceded by in or ad: as, ad urbem Fī̆dēnās tendunt, L. 4, 33, 10, they make for the city of Fidenae. Iugurtha Thalam pervēnit, in oppidum magnum, S. I. 75, 1, Jugurtha arrived at Thala, a large town.

1160. When merely ‘motion towards’ or ‘nearness’ is meant, ad is used: as, trēs viae sunt ad Mutinam, Ph. 12, 22, there are three roads to Mutina. mīles ad Capuam profectus sum, CM. 10, I went to the war as a private, to the region round about Capua.

1161. Proper names of countries are also sometimes put in the accusative in poetry, to denote aim of motion: as, abiīt Ālidem, Pl. Cap. 573, he went away to Elis. So in prose also, Aegyptus in Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, Livy, and Tacitus: as, Germānicus Aegyptum proficīscitur, Ta. 2, 59, Germanicus sets out for Egypt. Rarely and in poetry names of peoples: as, sitientīs ībimus Āfrōs, V. E. 1, 64, to thirst-parched Afrians we shall go. In general the accusative of country names is preceded by in or ad, as are also appellatives regularly in prose; but in poetry, even appellatives without a preposition are common.

1162. (2.) The accusatives domum, rūs, and forās, are used like proper names of towns: as,

(a.) eō domum, Pl. Mer. 659, I’m going home. equitēs domum contendērunt, 2, 24, 4, the cavalry hurried home. domum reditiōnis spē sublātā, 1, 5, 3, the hope of a return home being out of the question (1129). (b.) rūs ībō, T. Eu. 216, I shall go out of town. (c.) effūgī forās, T. Eu. 945, I ran out of doors.

1163. The singular domum is always retained by Caesar, even when two or more separate persons or parties are spoken of. Plautus, Sallust, and Nepos, have the plural domōs once each, and Cicero and Livy use it occasionally.

1164. The accusative domum or domōs sometimes has an attribute, usually a possessive pronoun: as, domum suam quemque revertī, 2, 10, 4, for every man to go back to his home. alius alium domōs suās invītant, S. I. 66, 3, they invite each other to their homes. aurum domum rēgiam comportant, S. I. 76, 6, they bring all the gold to the house royal. cum domum rēgis dēvertissēs, D. 17, when you went to stay at the king’s palace. The preposition in is sometimes used when the attribute is a genitive or a possessive pronoun, and commonly when it is any adjective but a possessive pronoun.

1165. (3.) In old Latin, exsequiās and īnfitiās are also used with eō, and sometimes malam crucem and malam rem, though these last more commonly have in: as,

exsequiās Chremētī īre, T. Ph. 1026, to go to Chremes’s funeral. ut eās malam crucem, Pl. Men. 328, that thou mayst get thee to the accursed cross. Later writers, as Nepos, Livy, and Quintilian, use īnfitiās eō again, and, from Sallust on, vēnum eō and vēnum dō sometimes occur for vēneō and vēndō.

1166. With the accusative in -tum (or -sum), called the supine, the idea of ‘aim’ passes over into that of ‘purpose:’ as mīlitātum abiīt, T. Hau. 117, he’s gone away a soldiering (2270).

TWO ACCUSATIVES COMBINED.

Object and Predicate.

1167. Many verbs may take two accusatives, an object and a predicate.

Such are verbs signifying make, keep, choose, name or call, have, think, recognize or find, show oneself, &c., &c.: as, longiōrem mēnsem faciunt, V. 2, 129, they make the month longer. eum certiōrem faciunt, 5, 37, 7, they let him know. Ancum Mārcium rēgem populus creāvit, L. 1, 32, 1, the people made Ancus Marcius king. mē cēpēre arbitrum, T. Hau. 500, they’ve chosen me as referee. Duellium ‘Bellium’ nōmināvērunt, O. 153, Duellius they named ‘Bellius.’ vīcīnam Capreīs insulam ‘Aprāgopolim’ appellābat, Suet. Aug. 98, the island next to Capreae he called ‘the Castle of Indolence.’ conlēgās adiūtōrēs habēbat, Sest. 87, he had his colleagues as assistants. tē sapientem exīstimant, L. 6, they consider you a sage. quem virum P. Crassum vīdimus, CM. 61, what a man we saw in Crassus. sevērum mē praebeō, C. 4, 12, I show myself stern. In the passive both the object and the predicate become nominatives: as, Caesar certior factus est, 3, 19, 5, Caesar was informed.

1168. In the sense of consider as equivalent to, dūcō and habeō, less frequently putō, have the ablative with prō. Other constructions with these and the above verbs may be found in the dictionary.

Person and Thing.

1169. (1.) Some verbs of teaching and hiding, demanding and questioning, may take two accusatives, one of a person and one of a thing.

The commonest of these verbs are doceō and its compounds, and cēlō; flāgitō, ōrō, poscō, and rogō, interrogō. The thing is usually the neuter of a pronoun or enumerative word (1144): as, (a.) peior magister tē istaec docuit, nōn ego, Pl. B. 163, a worse instructor taught thee that, not I. quid tē litterās doceam? Pis. 73, why should I teach you your A B C’s? (b.) nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem T. Ampiī, Fam. 2, 16, 3, I have not kept you in the dark about the talk with Ampius. (c.) interim cōtīdiē Caesar Aeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre, 1, 16, 1, meantime Caesar every day a dunning the Aeduans for the grain. Mīlēsiōs nāvem poposcit, V. 1, 86, he called on the Miletus people for a vessel. quid me istud rogās? Fin. 5, 83, why do you ask me that? Racilius mē sententiam rogāvit, QFr. 2, 1, 3, Racilius asked me my opinion.

1170. With doceō, meaning inform, cēlō, rogō, and interrogō, the ablative of the thing with dē is also used. And with flāgitō and poscō, sometimes the ablative of the person with ab, with cēlō the ablative of the person with dē.

1171. In the passive the person becomes the subject, and the accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective is retained: as,

nōsne hoc cēlātōs tam diū, T. Hec. 645, for us not to be told of this so long; rarely with reversed construction: quōr haec cēlāta mē sunt? Pl. Ps. 490, why was this hid from me? Accusatives of appellatives are rare: as, omnīs mīlitiae artīs ēdoctus fuerat, L. 25, 37, 3, he had been thoroughly taught all the arts of war. interrogātus sententiam, L. 36, 7, 1, being asked his opinion. Other constructions of doctus, and of the passive of cēlō, flāgitō, poscō, rogō and interrogō, may be found in the dictionary.

1172. (2.) Verbs of wishing, reminding, inducing, and accusing, and some others, also sometimes take an accusative of the person and one of the thing.

Such are volō, moneō and its compounds, hortor and cōgō; accūsō, arguō, īnsimulō, obiūrgō. The thing is usually the neuter of a pronoun or enumerative word (1144): as, quid mē voltis? Pl. Mer. 868, what do you want of me? illud tē esse admonitum velim, Cael. 8, on this point I want you to be reminded (1171). In old Latin, accusatives of appellatives also are thus used, and sometimes also with dōnō and condōnō.

1173. (3.) The defining accusative is sometimes combined with an accusative of the person: as, tam tē bāsia multa bāsiāre, Cat. 7, 9, thee to kiss so many kisses (1140). But usually with an accusative of the person, the ablative takes the place of the defining accusative: as, ōdissem tē odiō Vatīniānō, Cat. 14, 3, I should hate thee with a Vatinian hate.

Object and Extent, Duration, or Aim.

1174. The accusative of extent or duration, or of aim of motion is often combined with that of the object: as,

(a.) mīlia passuum decem novem mūrum perdūcit, 1, 8, 1, he makes a wall nineteen miles (1151). mātrōnae annum eum lūxērunt, L. 2, 7, 4. the married women wore mourning for him a year (1151). (b.) Ancus multitūdinem omnem Rōmam trādūxit, L. 1, 33, 1, Ancus moved the whole population over to Rome (1157). eōs domum remittit, 4, 21, 6, he sends them home again (1162). For other combinations, see 1138, 1198, and 2270.

The Dative.

1175. The dative denotes that for or to which a thing is or is done, and either accompanies single words, such as verbs, adjectives, sometimes adverbs, rarely substantives, or serves to modify the entire sentence. It has two principal uses.

1176. I. The dative is used as a complement. Complements may be roughly distinguished as essential or optional. But these two complements are not always separated by a sharp line, and the same dative may sometimes be referred indifferently to either head.

1177. (1.) The Essential Complement is a dative of the person or thing added to an idea which is felt as incomplete without the dative (1180).

Thus, pāret, he is obedient, is a statement which is felt as incomplete without a dative added to denote what it is he is obedient to, in the sentence pāret senātuī, he is obedient to the senate. But when stress is put on the action merely, without reference to its bearing, such a verb may be used without a dative: as, pāret, he is obedient, he yields obedience.

1178. (2.) The Optional Complement, that is, the dative of interest, advantage, or disadvantage, adds something to an idea that is already complete in itself (1205).

Thus, carmina cantō, I chant verses, is a statement entirely complete in itself; it may be modified or not, at option, by a dative, thus: carmina virginibus puerīsque cantō, verses for maids and boys I chant.

1179. II. The dative of certain substantives is used predicatively (1219).

I. The Complementary Dative.

(1.) THE ESSENTIAL COMPLEMENT.

The Dative with Verbs.

1180. Many verbs require a dative to complete their meaning.

With Verbs of Intransitive Use.

1181. (1.) Many verbs of intransitive use, particularly such as denote a state, disposition, feeling, or quality, take the dative: as,

quodne vōbīs placeat, displiceat mihī? Pl. MG. 614, shall that which pleases you, displeasing be to me? sī Asiciō causa plūs prōfuit quam invidia nocuit, Cael. 23, if his case has been more helpful to Asicius than the hostility has been damaging. imperat aut servit collēcta pecūnia cuique, H. E. 1, 10, 47, for every man his garnered hoard or master is or slave. nōnne huic lēgī resistētis? Agr. 2, 85, will you not stand out against this law? gymnasiīs indulgent Graeculī, Traj. in Plin. Ep. 40 [49], 2, our Greek cousins are partial to gymnasiums. īgnōscās velim huic festīnātiōnī meae, in a letter, Fam. 5, 12, 1, please excuse haste. huic legiōnī Caesar cōnfīdēbat maximē, 1, 40, 15, Caesar trusted this legion most of all. an C. Trebōniō ego persuāsī? cui nē suādēre quidem ausus essem, Ph. 2, 27, or was it I that brought conviction to Trebonius? a man to whom I should not have presumed even to offer advice. In the passive, such verbs are used impersonally, the dative remaining (1034); personal constructions are rare and poetical.

1182. This dative is used with such verbs or verbal expressions as mean am pleasing or displeasing, helpful or injurious, command, yield, or am obedient, am friendly, partial, or opposed; spare, pardon, threaten, trust, advise, persuade, happen, meet. But the English translation is not a safe guide: many of the verbs used with a dative are represented transitively in English; and some verbs of the meanings above are used transitively in Latin: as, dēlectō, iuvō, laedō, &c., &c.

1183. The dative is rarely used with a form of sum and a predicate noun corresponding in meaning with the verbs above (1181): as, quid mihi scelestō tibī̆ erat auscultātiō? Pl. R. 502, i.e. quid tibī̆ auscultābam? why did I, ill-starred wretch, lend ear to thee? quī studiōsus re͡i nūllī aliaest, Pl. MG. 802, i.e. quī studet, who lends his soul to nothing else. Or immediately with a noun: as, servitūs opulentō hominī, Pl. Am. 166, slavery to a millionaire. optemperātiō lēgibus, Leg. 1, 42, obedience to the laws. aemula labra rosīs, Mart. 4, 42, 10, lips rivalling the rose.

1184. Some verbs have a variable use without any difference of meaning: thus, cūrō, decet, and vītō, have sometimes the dative in old Latin, but usually the accusative. In Cicero, adūlor has the accusative; from Nepos on, the dative as well. medeor, medicor, and praestōlor take either the accusative or the dative.

1185. Some verbs have an accusative with one meaning, a dative of the complement, essential or optional, with another: see aemulor, caveō, comitor, cōnsulō, conveniō, cupiō, dēspērō, maneō, metuō, moderor, prōspiciō, temperō, timeō, and the different uses of invideō, in the dictionary.

1186. In poetry, verbs of union, of contention, and of difference, often take a dative: as, (a.) haeret laterī lētālis harundō, V. 4, 73, sticks to her side the deadly shaft. So with coëō, concurrō, haereō, and similarly with iungō, misceō. (b.) quid enim contendat hirundō cycnīs? Lucr. 3, 6, for how can swallow cope with swans? So with bellō, certō, contendō, pugnō. (c.) īnfīdō scurrae distābit amīcus, H. E. 1, 18, 4, a friend will differ from a faithless hanger-on. So with differō, discrepō, dissentiō, distō.

1187. A verb often takes the dative, when combined with adversum, obviam, or praestō, also with bene, male, or satis, and the like: as,

fit ob viam Clōdiō, Mil. 29, he runs across Clodius. cui bene dīxit umquam bonō? Sest. 110, for what patriot had he ever a good word? nōs, virī fortēs, satis facere rē̆ī pūblicae vidēmur, C. 1, 2, we doughty champions flatter ourselves we are doing our whole duty by the state. Similarly with verbs of transitive use.

1188. (2.) Many verbs of intransitive use compounded with a preposition take a dative connected in sense with the preposition: as,

manus extrēma nōn accessit operibus eius, Br. 126, the last touch was not put upon his works. omnibus adfuit hīs pugnīs Dolābella, Ph. 2, 75, Dolabella was on hand in all these battles. pontō nox incubat ātra, V. 1, 89, over the deep, night broodeth black. cōgnitiōnibus dē Chrīstiānīs interfuī numquam, Plin. Ep. ad Trai. 96 [97], 1, I have never been to any of the trials of the Christians.

1189. The prepositions are chiefly ad, ante, com-, in, inter, ob, prae, sub, or super. In many compounds of these prepositions, however, the dative is due to the general meaning of the verb, as in cōnfīdit mihī̆, he puts all trust in me (1181), as contrasted with cōnsentit mihī̆, he feels with me, nearly equivalent to sentit mēcum (1188).

1190. Instead of the dative, such verbs often have a prepositional construction, particularly when place, literal or figurative, is distinctly to be expressed: as,

accēdere in fūnus, Leg. 2, 66, to go to a funeral. in morbum incidit, Clu. 175, he fell ill.

1191. Some verbs of intransitive use take, when compounded, either the dative or the accusative. See adiaceō, antecēdō, anteeō, praecurrō, praestō, incēdō, inlūdō, īnsultō, invādō, in the dictionary. And some compounds acquire a transitive use altogether, as obeō, oppugnō: see 1137.

With Verbs of Transitive Use.

1192. (1.) Many verbs of transitive use take the dative: as,

ē̆ī fīliam suam in mātrimōnium dat, 1, 3, 5, he gives this person his own daughter in marriage. decima legiō ē̆ī grātiās ēgit, 1, 41, 1, the tenth legion gave him thanks. huic fert subsidium Puliō, 5, 44, 13, to him Pulio brings aid. multīs idem minātur Antōnius, Ph. 11, 2, to many Antony threatens the same. reliquī sēsē fugae mandārunt, 1, 12, 3, the rest betook themselves to flight. commendō vōbīs meum parvum fīlium, C. 4, 23, unto your keeping do I commit the little son of mine. multī sē aliēnissimīs crēdidērunt, 6, 31, 4, many people put themselves in the hands of utter strangers. equitēs imperat cīvitātibus, 6, 4, 6, he issues orders to the communities for horse.

1193. This dative is used with such verbs as dō, trādō, tribuō, dīvidō, ferō, praebeō, praestō, polliceor, prōmittō, dēbeō, negō, mōnstrō, dīcō, nārrō, mandō, praecipiō, &c., &c. In the passive construction, the accusative becomes nominative, the dative remaining.

1194. (2.) Many verbs of transitive use compounded with a preposition take a dative connected in sense with the preposition: as,

nihil novī vōbīs adferam, RP. 1, 21, I shall not lay any novelty before you. lēgēs omnium salūtem singulōrum salūtī antepōnunt, Fin. 3, 64, the law always puts the general safety before the safety of the individual. timōrem bonīs iniēcistis, Agr. 1, 23, you have struck terror into the hearts of patriots. nōluērunt ferīs corpus obicere, RA. 71, they would not cast his person before ravenous beasts. nēminem huic praeferō, N. 8, 1, 1, there is nobody I put before him. hībernīs Labiēnum praeposuit, 1, 54, 2, he put Labienus over the winter-quarters. anitum ōva gallīnīs saepe suppōnimus, DN. 2, 124, we often put ducks’ eggs under hens.

1195. The prepositions are circum, dē, ex, post, or those named in 1189. In many compounds of transitive use, however, the dative is due to the general meaning of the verb, as with those spoken of in 1189.

1196. With these verbs, a prepositional construction is often used, as with the verbs of intransitive use (1190): as,

iam diū nihil novī ad nōs adferēbātur, Fam. 2, 14, no news has got to us this long time. For compounds of circum and trāns with two accusatives, see 1138.

1197. Verbs of transitive use compounded with com- have oftener the ablative with cum: as, cōnferte hanc pācem cum illō bellō, V. 4, 115, just compare this peace with that war. See also in the dictionary, coniungō and compōnō; also the indirect compounds comparō, compare, from compār, and commūnicō.

1198. With a few compounds of ad or in, a second accusative is exceptionally used: as, arbitrum illum adēgit, Off. 3, 66, he had the other man up before a daysman. So with inmittō, Pl. Cap. 548, īnsinuō, Lucr. 1, 116, &c., &c. Regularly with animum advertō: as, animum advertī columellam, TD. 5, 65, I noticed a modest shaft. quā rē animum adversā, Caes. C. 1, 80, 4, this fact being paid heed to: compare 1138.

1199. A few compound verbs admit either the dative of the person or thing and accusative of the thing, or the accusative of the person or thing and ablative of the thing; such are adspergō and īnspergō, circumdō, circumfundō, exuō and induō, impertiō, interclūdō; also the uncompounded dōnō: as, praedam mīlitibus dōnat, 7, 11, 9, he presents the booty to the soldiers. scrībam tuum ānulō dōnāstī, V. 3, 185, you presented your clerk with a ring. For the different constructions of interdīcō, see the dictionary.

The Dative with Adjectives.

1200. The dative with many adjectives and some adverbs denotes that to which the quality is directed.

Such have the meaning of useful, necessary, fit, easy, agreeable, known, near, belonging, friendly, faithful, like, and most of their opposites; the adjective is often predicative: as, vēr ūtile silvīs (1036), V. G. 2, 323, the spring is good for woods. est senātōrī necessārium nōsse rem pūblicam, Leg. 3, 41, for a senator it is indispensable to be conversant with government. ōrātiōnis genus pompae quam pugnae aptius, O. 42, a style better suited to the parade than to the field. convenienter nātūrae vīvere, Off. 3, 13, to live in touch with nature.

1201. Some adjectives of this class have the dative of a person, the accusative with ad of a thing: so accommodātus, aptus, idōneus, necessārius, and ūtilis; and some denoting feeling have also the accusative with a preposition: aequus, inīquus, fidēlis with in, benevolus with ergā, and impius with adversus. propior and proximus sometimes accompany an accusative, like prope, propius, and proximē.

1202. The adjectives commūnis, proprius or aliēnus, sacer, tōtus, often accompany the construction of the genitive of the owner: see 1238. For aliēnus with the ablative, see 1306. Sometimes aliēnus has the ablative with ab.

1203. Some adjectives denoting relationship, connection, friendship or hostility, become substantives, and as such, admit the genitive also (1103): such are (a.) adfīnis, cōgnātus; (b.) aequālis, familiāris, fīnitimus, pār and dispār, propīnquus, vīcīnus; (c.) adversārius, amīcus, inimīcus, necessārius.

1204. In Plautus and Terence, similis, the like, the counterpart, and its compounds, regularly take the genitive. The dative, as well as the genitive, is also used from Ennius on, particularly of a limited or approximate likeness: see the dictionary.

(2.) THE OPTIONAL COMPLEMENT.

1205. The dative of a person or thing interested, benefited, harmed, may be added at option to almost any verb: as,

cōnservāte parentī fīlium, parentem fīliō, Cael. 80, save the son for the father, the father for the son. mea domus tibī̆ patet, mihī̆ clausa est, RA. 145, the very house I own is open for you, is shut upon me. cui flāvam religās comam, simplex munditiīs? H. 1, 5, 4, for whom bind’st thou in wreaths thy golden hair, plain in thy neatness? nōn audēret facere haec viduae mulierī, quae in mē fēcit, T. Hau. 953, he durst not to an unprotected female do what he hath done towards me.

1206. The place of a verb with the dative of interest is sometimes filled by an interjection, ecce, ei, em, or vae: as, ei mihi quālis erat, E. 1, 7, V. 2, 274, ah me, how ghastly he did look. vae vīctīs, Pl. Ps. 1317, said by Brennus, 390 B.C., L. 5, 48, 9, woe worth the worsted. vae capitī atque aetātī tuae, Pl. R. 375, a murrain on thy head and life.

1207. The dative is often added to the entire sentence, where either a genitive or a possessive pronoun limiting a substantive might be used.

In such cases the dative expresses interest, advantage, or disadvantage, while the genitive would simply indicate the owner or the object: as, trānsfīgitur scūtum Puliōni, 5, 44, 7, unfortunately for Pulio, his shield gets pierced through and through. mīlitantī in Hispāniā pater ē̆ī moritur, L. 29, 29, 6, while serving in Spain he had the misfortune to lose his father. huic ego mē bellō ducem profiteor, C. 2, 11, I here proclaim myself captain for this war. sēsē Caesarī ad pedēs prōiēcērunt, 1, 31, 2, they cast themselves at Caesar’s feet. nostrīs mīlitibus spem minuit, 5, 33, 5, it dashed the hopes of our soldiers. extergē tibi manūs, Pl. Most. 267, wipe off thy hands. vellunt tibi barbam lascīvī puerī, H. S. 1, 3, 133, the wanton gamins pull thy beard, poor soul.

1208. This dative is sometimes detached from the verb, and used immediately with a substantive, instead of the genitive: as, Philocōmasiō custōs, Pl. MG. 271, the keeper for Philocomasium. rēctor iuvenī, Ta. 1, 24, a mentor for the young man. So particularly with a gerundive in official expressions: as, cūrātor mūrīs reficiendīs, OG. 19, commissioner for rebuilding the walls.

1209. Verbs of warding off sometimes take a dative, especially in poetry, also those of robbing and ridding: as, (a.) hunc quoque arcēbis gravidō pecorī, V. G. 3, 154, him also wilt thou for the pregnant herd keep far. sōlstitium pecorī dēfendite. V. E. 7, 47, the summer’s heat keep distant for the flock. (b.) torquem dētrāxit hostī, Fin. 1, 35, he pulled a torque away from his enemy. ēripiēs mihī̆ hunc errōrem, Att. 10, 4, 6, you will rid me of this mistake.

1210. With verbs of motion the dative of the person interested denotes in poetry the end of motion also: as, multōs Danaūm dēmittimus Orcō, V. 2, 398, we send down many a Danaan for the nether king. So also the dative of personified words of place: as, it clāmor caelō, V. 5, 451, up goes a shout for heaven, i.e. heaven hears a shout. sēdibus hunc refer ante suīs, V. 6, 152, first bear him duly to his place of rest, i.e. let his expectant grave receive him.

The Emotional Dative.

1211. The dative of the personal pronoun is often used with expressions of emotion, interest, surprise, or derision: as,

quid mihi Celsus agit? H. E. 1, 3, 15, how fares me Celsus? Tongilium mihī̆ ēdūxit, C. 2, 4, he took out Tongilius, bless my soul. at tibī̆ repente, cum minimē exspectārem, vēnit ad mē Canīnius māne, Fam. 9, 2, 1, but bless you, sir, when I least dreamt of it, who should drop in on me all at once but Caninius, bright and early.

The Dative of the Possessor.

1212. The dative is used with forms of sum to denote the possessor: as,

est hominī cum deō similitūdō, Leg. 1, 25, man has a resemblance to god. an nescīs longās rēgibus esse manūs? O. E. 16, 166, dost possibly not know kings have long arms? suos quoique mōs, T. Ph. 454, to every man his own pet way. So also with the compounds absum, dēsum, supersum: as, hoc ūnum Caesarī dēfuit, 4, 26, 5, this was all Caesar lacked.

1213. (1.) With mihī̆ est nōmen, the name is put either in the dative or in the nominative: as,

mihī̆ nomen est Iūliō, or mihī̆ nōmen est Iūlius, Gell. 15, 29, 1, my name is Julius. In old Latin and in Sallust, the dative: as, nōmen Mercuriōst mihī, Pl. Am. prol. 19, my name is Mercury; later the nominative: as, canibus pigrīs nōmen erit Pardus, Tigris, Leo, J. 8, 34, the craven cur shall sport the name of ‘Lion, Tiger, Pard.’ Cicero uses the nominative or rarely the dative, Livy oftener the dative than the nominative. Tacitus puts adjectives in the dative, substantives in the nominative, rarely in the genitive. Caesar does not use the construction.

1214. (2.) With the actives nōmen dō, indō, pōnō, tribuō, &c., the name may be in the dative or in the accusative; with the passive of these expressions, the name may be in the dative or in the nominative: as,

quī tibi nōmen īnsānō posuēre, H. S. 2, 3, 47, who’ve put on thee the nickname Crank. quī fīliīs Philippum atque Alexandrum nōmina inposuerat, L. 35, 47, 5, who had given his sons the names Philip and Alexander. A genitive dependent on nōmen is used once by Tacitus and in very late Latin.

1215. With a gerundive, the dative of the possessor denotes the person who has the action to do: see 2243. For the ablative with ab, or for habeō, see 2243, 2245.

1216. This dative is sometimes used with the perfect participle, and the tenses formed with it: as, mihī̆ est ēlabōrātum, Caecil. 40, I have it all worked out. carmina nūlla mihī sunt scrīpta, O. Tr. 5, 12, 35, no poetry have I ready made. Rarely with passives of the present system: as, nūlla placēre diū nec vīvere carmina possunt, quae scrībuntur aquae pōtōribus, H. E. 1, 19, 2, no verse can take or be longlived that by teetotallers is writ.

The Dative of Relation.

1217. The dative may denote the person viewing or judging: as,

eris mihi magnus Apollō, V. E. 3, 104, thou shalt to me the great Apollo be. Quīntia fōrmōsa est multīs, mihi candida, longa, rēcta est, Cat. 86, 1, in many eyes is Quintia fair, to me she’s bonny, tall, and straight. From Caesar on, participles are often used to denote the person viewing or judging: as, est urbe ēgressīs tumulus, V. 2, 713, there is, as you get out of town, a mound. in ūniversum aestimantī, Ta. G. 6, looking at it generally.

1218. In imitation of a Greek idiom, volēns, cupiēns, or invītus, is used by Sallust and Tacitus in agreement with a dative dependent on a form of sum, the combination being equivalent to a subject with a form of volō, cupiō, or invītus sum, respectively: as, cēterīs remanēre volentibus fuit, Ta. H. 3, 43, i.e. cēterī remanēre voluērunt, the rest were minded to bide where they were. Once in Livy.

II. The Predicative Dative.

The Dative of Tendency or Result.

1219. (1.) Certain datives are used with a form of sum to denote what a thing tends to, proves, or is. This dative is generally accompanied by a dative of the person interested: as,

auxiliō īs fuit, Pl. Am. prol. 92, he was a help to them. odiō sum Rōmānīs, L. 35, 19, 6, I am an abomination in the eyes of Rome. potestne bonum cuiquam malō esse? Par. 7, can good prove bad for any human being? L. Cassius identidem quaerere solēbat, cui bonō fuisset, RA. 84, Cassius used to ask for ever and ever, who the person benefited was, or who the gainer was. nēminī meus adventus labōrī aut sūmptuī fuit, V. 1, 16, my visit did not prove a bother or an expense to a soul. rēs et fortūnae tuae mihī̆ maximae cūrae sunt, Fam. 6, 5, 1, your money-matters are an all-absorbing interest to me.

1220. There are many of these datives, mostly abstracts and all singular, some of the commonest are cūrae, ūsuī, praesidiō, cordī, odiō, auxiliō, impedīmentō, salūtī, voluptātī. The adjectives magnus, maior, maximus, or tantus and quantus, are sometimes used in agreement with them; and the dative frūgī sometimes has bonae.

1221. Instead of the dative of tendency, a predicative nominative or accusative is rarely used: thus, possessiōnem līberam Dardaniae sōlāciō fore, L. 40, 57, 9, that the unrestricted occupancy of Dardania would prove comforting, but, domestica quiēs sōlācium fuit, L. 6, 30, 9, the peace that prevailed at home was a solid comfort. Prepositional expressions with prō and in also occur.

1222. (2.) The dative is also used with a few verbs of considering or accounting to denote what a thing is accounted.

So with such verbs as dō, dūcō, habeō, tribuō, and vertō: as, vitiō mihī̆ dant, quod mortem hominis necessāriī graviter ferō, Matius in Fam. 11, 28, 2, the world scores it against me that I take the murder of a near and dear friend to heart. postquam paupertās probrō habērī coepit, S. C. 12, 1, after lack of wealth began to count as a stigma.

The Dative of Purpose or Intention.

1223. A few datives are used to denote what a thing is intended to be. This dative is generally accompanied by a dative of the person interested.

So (a.) dōnō and mūnerī: as, ēmit eam dōnō mihī̆, T. Eu. 135, he bought her as a gift for me. centum bovēs mīlitibus dōnō dedit, L. 7, 37, 3, he gave the soldiers a hundred oxen as a present. Also (b.) auxiliō, praesidiō, and subsidiō, used of military operations, chiefly with verbs of motion: as, iī, quī praesidiō contrā castra erant relictī, subsidiō suīs iērunt, 7, 62, 8, the men that had been left as a protection against the camp, went as a reinforcement to their own side.

1224. For the datives dōnō and mūnerī, a predicative nominative or accusative is sometimes used: as, corōnam Iovī dōnum in capitōlium mittunt, L. 2, 22, 6, they send a crown to the capitol as a present for Jupiter. Prepositional expressions are also used for auxiliō, &c.: as, ad praesidium, L. 3, 5, 3, in praesidium, L. 31, 16, 7, for protection, auxiliī causā, L. 2, 24, 4, to help.

1225. The dative receptuī is also used in military language to denote purpose: as, Caesar receptuī canī iussit, 7, 47, 1, Caesar ordered the retreat sounded. Quīnctius receptuī canere iussit, L. 34, 39, 13. This dative is sometimes attached immediately to a substantive: as, receptuī sīgnum, Ph. 13, 15, the trumpet for retreat.

The Genitive.

1226. The genitive is principally used with nouns, less frequently with verbs. Sometimes even when it seems to be dependent on a verb, it really depends on a substantive understood, or on a noun virtually contained or implied in the verb. Some verbs require an accusative also, in addition to the genitive.

I. The Genitive with Substantives.

1227. A substantive is often limited by another substantive in the genitive.

The things denoted by the two words are usually distinct: as, metus hostium, the fear of the enemy, i.e. either (a.) which they feel (1231), or (b.) which is felt towards them (1260); magnī ponderis saxa, stones of great weight (1239). Sometimes, however, they are more or less the same: as, mīlitum pars, part of the soldiers (1242); magna multitūdō perditōrum hominum, a perfect swarm of desperadoes (1255).

1228. Two or even three genitives expressing different relations, sometimes limit one substantive: as, superiōrum diērum Sabīnī cunctātiō, 3, 18, 6, Sabinus’s dilatoriness in days preceding. eōrum diērum cōnsuētūdine itineris nostrī exercitūs perspectā, 2, 17, 2, studying up the order of march followed by our army in those days.

1229. The limited substantive is often omitted, when it is obvious from the context: as, ventum erat ad Vestae, sc. aedem, H. S. 1, 9, 35, to Vesta’s were we come, i.e. to her temple. aberam bīduī, sc. iter, Att. 5, 17, 1, I was two days distant. Usually so, when it is expressed with another genitive, which generally precedes: as, quis est, quī possit cōnferre vītam Trebōnī cum Dolābellae? Ph. 11, 9, who is there that can compare the life of Trebonius with Dolabella’s?

1230. Instead of the genitive depending on a substantive, an equivalent adjective or a prepositional expression is often used. Such substitutions will be mentioned below in their appropriate places.

1231. The relations expressed by the limiting genitive vary very much according to the context. These relations may be put in classes, as below (1232-1260). But it must be remembered that as the genitive connects substantives in a loose way, the same construction may sometimes be referred to more than one head.

The Genitive of the Subject, Cause, Origin, or Owner.

1232. (1.) The genitive is used to denote that which does the action, or which causes, originates, or possesses the object designated by the substantive it limits: as,

metus hostium, Gell. 9, 12, 13, the fear of the enemy, i.e. which they feel. adventus Caesaris, 6, 41, 4, the arrival of Caesar. bellum Venetōrum, 3, 16, 1, the war with the Venetans. illud Solōnis, CM. 50, Solon’s memorable words. Canachī sīgna, Br. 70, statues by Canachus. Cupīdinis sīgnum, V. 4, 135, the statue representing Cupid. huius sīgnīs, V. 3, 9, with statues belonging to this man. pācem Ariovistī, 1, 37, 2, a peaceful policy on Ariovistus’s part. Cannārum pugna, L. 23, 43, 4, the battle of Cannae (1427). abacī vāsa omnia, V. 4, 35, all the vessels on the sideboard. prīdiē eius diēī, 1, 47, 2, the day before that day (1413). labrōrum tenus, Lucr. 1, 940, the length of the lips (1420).

1233. Instead of the genitive, an adjective is often used to express such relations; less frequently a prepositional construction: as,

(a.) odium paternum, N. 23, 1, 3, the hatred felt by his father. servīlī tumultū, 1, 40, 5, in the slave insurrection. bellō Cassiānō, 1, 13, 2, in the war with Cassius. illud Cassiānum, cui bonō fuerit, Ph. 2, 35, Cassius’s test question, ‘who the gainer was.’ erīlis patria, Pl. B. 170, my master’s birthplace. intrā domesticōs parietēs, C. 2, 1, within the walls of our houses. So usually with names of countries and of towns: as, anus Corinthia, T. Hau. 600, an old woman of Corinth. pugna Cannēnsis, L. 22, 50, 1, the battle of Cannae. Often in a generalizing sense: as, paternus māternusque sanguī̆s, RA. 66, the blood of a father and of a mother. (b.) ad Cannās pugnam, L. 22, 58, 1, the battle of Cannae.

1234. The possessive pronoun is regularly used instead of the possessive genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun (1230): as,

mea domus, RA. 145, my own house. in tuā quādam epistolā, Att. 9, 10, 3, in a letter of yours. But sometimes, for emphasis, the genitive of the personal or reflexive is used: as, magnō suī cum perīculō, 4, 28, 2, with great personal risk; commonly so with omnium or utriusque: as, voluntātī vestrūm omnium pāruī, DO. 3, 208, I yielded to your joint wish; see however 1235.

1235. A word in apposition with the possessive pronoun is put in the genitive: as, meā ūnīus operā, Pis. 6, by my sole instrumentality. ad vestram omnium caedem, C. 4, 4, for the murder of you all (1230). So particularly ipse, omnis, sōlus, and ūnus.

1236. The genitive is often used predicatively with verbs meaning am, belong, become, make, seem, am accounted, &c., &c.: as,

litterāriī ista sunt lūdī, Quint. 1, 4, 27, such questions belong to the infant school. hīc versus Plautī nōn est, hīc est, Fam. 9, 16, 4, this line is not Plautus’s, this one is. omnia, quae mulieris fuērunt, virī fīunt, Top. 23, everything which was the woman’s becomes the man’s. neque sē iūdicāre Galliam potius esse Ariovistī quam populī Rōmānī, 1, 45, 1, and that he did not think Gaul was any more Ariovistus’s than it was the Romans’. hostiumst potīta, Pl. E. 562, into the foemen’s hands she fell.

1237. The possessive genitive of a person or of an abstract is particularly common when the subject of the verb is an infinitive or sentence: as,

(a.) scyphīs pugnāre Thrācum est, H. 1, 27, 1, to fight with bowls is Vandal work. erat āmentis, cum aciem vidērēs, pācem cōgitāre, Lig. 28, it was a madman’s act, dreaming of peace when you saw the troops in battalia. temporī cēdere semper sapientis est habitum, Fam. 4, 9, 2, shaping your course to circumstance has always passed as the sign of a wise man. mentīrī nōn est meum, T. Hau. 549, telling lies is not my style (1234). (b.) nōn est pudōris meī, mē prōpugnātōrem P. Scīpiōnis profitērī, V. 4, 80, it is not in keeping with my delicacy to set up as the champion of Scipio. hārum rērum esse dēfēnsōrem magnī animī est, Sest. 99, to be the defender of these interests takes heroism. hoc sentīre prūdentiae est, facere fortitūdinis, Sest. 86, to think thus shows wisdom, to act thus, courage. negāvit mōris esse Graecōrum, ut in convīviō virōrum accumberent mulierēs, V. 1, 66, he said it was not manners among the Greeks to have women at table at a men’s dinner-party.

1238. With the possessive genitive, the limited substantive is sometimes defined by commūnis, proprius or aliēnus, sacer, or tōtus added: as, hoc proprium virtūtis exīstimant, 6, 23, 2, this they consider a special characteristic of bravery. omnia quae nostra erant propria, RA. 150, everything which was our peculiar property (1234). illa īnsula eōrum deōrum sacra putātur, V. 1, 48, that island is considered the hallowed property of those gods. iam mē Pompēī tōtum esse scīs, Fam. 2, 13, 2, you are aware that I am become Pompey’s, out and out.

The Genitive of Quality.

1239. (2.) The genitive with an adjective in agreement is used to denote quality, either attributively or predicatively: as,

(a.) Attributively: magnī ponderis saxa, 2, 29, 3, stones of great weight. summae speī adulēscentēs, 7, 63, 9, young men of high promise. diērum vīgintī supplicātiō, 4, 38, 5, a twenty day thanksgiving. bēlua multōrum es capitum, H. E. 1, 1, 76, a many-headed beast art thou. eius modī cōnsilium, 5, 29, 5, such a plan. dēmittō auriculās ut inīquae mentis asellus, H. S. 1, 9, 20, I drop my ears like Neddy in the sulks (269). vāllō pedum IX, 5, 42, 1, with a nine foot palisade. (b.) Predicatively: magnae habitus auctōritātis, 7, 77, 3, passing for a man of great influence. flūminis erat altitūdō circiter pedum trium, 2, 18, 3, the depth of the river was about three feet. The genitive of quality resembles the ablative of quality (1375); the two are sometimes combined: as, hominem maximī corporis terribilīque faciē, N. 15, 4, 1, a man of gigantic frame and with an awe-inspiring presence. But the genitive is common in designations of size and number.

1240. A substantive expressing quality with aequus, pār, similis, or dissimilis in agreement, is put not in the genitive, but in the ablative, by Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, and Livy.

The Partitive Genitive.

1241. (3.) The partitive genitive denotes a whole of which the limited substantive denotes a part. There are two kinds of partitive genitive, the numerical and the quantitative: as,

(a.) mīlitum pars, 6, 40, 8, part of the soldiers, numerical partitive (1242). (b.) multum aestātis, 5, 22, 4, much of the summer, quantitative partitive (1247).

1242. (a.) The numerical partitive is a plural or a collective, limiting a word expressing part of the number: as,

mīlitum pars, 6, 40, 8, part of the soldiers. pars equitātūs, 4, 16, 2, part of the cavalry. alter cōnsulum, L. 6, 35, 5, one of the two consuls. uter est īnsānior hōrum? H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these two is crazier? eōrum neuter, Pis. 62, neither of the two. multae istārum arborum, CM. 59, many of the trees you see there. quis omnium mortālium? V. 5, 179, who among all the sons of men? nēmō nostrūm, RA. 55, not one of us. nihil hōrum, RA. 138, none of these things. Stertinius, sapientum octāvus, H. S. 2, 3, 296, Stertinius, of sages eighth. ō maior iuvenum, H. AP. 366, O elder of the youths. hōrum omnium fortissimī sunt Belgae, 1, 1, 3, of all these the stoutest fighters are the Belgians. Also with superlative adverbs: as, deōrum maximē Mercurium colunt, Ta. G. 9, of the gods, they revere Mercury most. minumē gentium, Pl. Poen. 690, T. Eu. 625, no, never in the world.

1243. uterque, each, both, often takes the genitive plural of a pronoun: as, quōrum uterque, uterque eōrum, hōrum, nostrūm, &c.; sometimes of a substantive and pronoun combined: as, utriusque hārum rērum, TD. 1, 65, of each of these things. quārum cīvitātum utraque, V. 5, 56, each of these communities. With a substantive alone, it is oftener attributive: as, uterque dux, Marc. 24, each commander; and sometimes with neuter pronouns: as, quod utrumque, Brut. in Fam. 11, 1, 1, N. 25, 2, 4. The plural utrīque is used both ways: as, ab utrīsque vestrūm, Fam. 11, 21, 5, and ab utrīsque nōbīs, Brut. in Fam. 11, 20, 3.

1244. The plurals tot, totidem, and quot, are not used partitively, and omnēs and cūnctī only so by poets and late prose writers. plērīque is used either way, in agreement, or with the genitive.

1245. The numerical partitive is exceptionally used in poetry with the positive of a descriptive adjective: as, sāncte deōrum, V. 4, 576, thou holy of the gods. And in late prose, particularly with words denoting a class of persons: as, cum dēlēctīs peditum, L. 26, 5, 3, with the pick of the infantry. levīs cohortium, Ta. 3, 39, the light-armed of the cohorts.

1246. Instead of the numerical partitive, a prepositional expression with ante, inter, or in, or with ex or dē, is sometimes used: as, ante aliōs acceptissimus, L. 1, 15, 8, most welcome before others. So particularly quīdam and ūnus, duo, trēs, with ex or dē: as, quīdam ex hīs, 2, 17, 2, one of these. ūnus dē multīs, Fin. 2, 66, one of the common herd. But ūnus sometimes has the genitive: as, ūnus multōrum, H. S. 1, 9, 71. And usually so in a series, when ūnus is followed by alter, alius, tertius, &c.

1247. (b.) The quantitative partitive is usually a singular, limiting a neuter singular word denoting amount. The limited word is either a nominative, or an accusative without a preposition. This genitive often borders very closely on the genitive of definition (1255): as,

multum aestātis, 5, 22, 4, much of the summer. amplius obsidum, 6, 9, 7, something more extensive in the way of hostages. minus dubitātiōnis, 1, 14, 1, less of hesitation. quam minimum spatiī, 3, 19, 1, as little time as possible. id aetātis, DO. 1, 207, at that time of life. id temporis, Fin. 5, 1, at that time of day. quid causae est? Ac. 1, 10, what earthly reason is there? hoc litterulārum, Att. 12, 1, 1, this apology for a letter, or this hasty line. hoc sibī̆ sōlācī prōpōnēbant, 7, 15, 2, they laid this flattering unction to their souls.

1248. Such neuters are: multum, plērumque, plūrimum, amplius, plūs, paulum, minus, minimum, tantum, quantum, tantundem, nimium; in poetry and late prose, also many other adjectives singular and plural. Furthermore, id, hoc, illud, quod, quid, &c., and nihil; also abunde, adfatim, largiter, nimis, partim, parum, and satis.

1249. A few adjectives of place and time indicating a particular part of an object, are commonly used in immediate agreement with their substantives: as,

summus mōns, 1, 22, 1, the highest part of the mountain, or the mountain-top. extrēmā hieme, mediā aestāte, IP. 35, at the end of the winter, in midsummer. Such are: prīmus, intimus, medius, extrēmus, postrēmus, ūltimus, summus, īnfimus, īmus, reliquus. But the neuter is sometimes used partitively: as, aestātis extrēmum erat, S. I. 90, 1, it was the end of summer. summa pectoris, Fam. 1, 9, 15, the upper parts of the breast.

1250. The limiting genitive is often the neuter singular of an adjective used substantively: as,

aliquid bonī, T. Andr. 398, something good. aliquid malī, T. Eu. 999, something bad. numquid tandem novī? Br. 10, nothing new, pray? This use is ordinarily confined to stems in -o-; rarely otherwise: as, plūs inānis, Lucr. 1, 365, more of the void: and usually only when joined with an -o- stem: as, nihil solidī, nihil ēminentis, DN. 1, 75, no solidity, no projection.

1251. The partitive construction sometimes extends to the predicate: as, id erit sīgnī mē invītum facere, RA. 83, this will be something of an indication that I act with reluctance; sīgnī is here in the predicate, and yet made dependent on id. quid ergō est tuī cōnsulī? Brut. in Fam. 11, 1, 3, what then is your advice? quid suī cōnsilī sit ostendit, 1, 21, 2, he explains what his plan is. quid est enim huic reliquī? Sull. 89, for what is there left for my client? hī mīlitēs nihil reliquī victīs fēcēre, S. C. 11, 7, these soldiers left nothing over to the conquered. nihil ad celeritātem sibī̆ reliquī fēcērunt, 2, 26, 5, as for speed, they left no effort unspared.

1252. The accusative with a preposition also sometimes has the genitive, as, in id redāctus sum locī, T. Ph. 979, I am reduced to such a strait. ad id locī, S. C. 45, 3, to that spot. ad id locōrum, S. I. 63, 6, up to that time. in multum diēī, L. 9, 44, 11, till late in the day. In Cicero, also the ablatives eō, eōdem, and quō, with locī: as, eō locī, Sest. 68, in that position. And in later writers, other ablatives, with or without a preposition, also have a genitive.

1253. Some appellatives of place are put in the genitive with adverbs of place: as, ubinam gentium? Pl. Mer. 434, C. 1, 9, where in the world? nusquam gentium, T. Ad. 540, nowhere in the world. Similarly, locī with adverbs of time or order, as with intereā in Plautus and Terence, postideā in Plautus, posteā in Sallust, and inde in Lucretius; also locōrum with adhūc and postid in Plautus.

1254. In Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus, genitives of abstracts are used with the adverbs eō, quō, and hūc: as, eō miseriārum, S. I. 14, 3, to that pitch of distress. Ones with ut: ut quisque audentiae habuisset, adcurrerent, Ta. 15, 53, they should run up, with a speed commensurate in every case to their daring.

The Genitive of Definition.

1255. (4.) The genitive is used to define that of which a thing consists: as,

magna multitūdō perditōrum hominum, 3, 17, 4, a perfect swarm of desperadoes. innumerābile pondus aurī, Sest. 93, a weight of gold too great to count. mīlle numerō nāvium clāssem, V. 1, 48, an armada a thousand sail strong.

1256. The genitive of an explicit word containing the leading idea is sometimes used to define a more general word; as,

praedae pecudum hominumque, L. 24, 20, 5, booty consisting of cattle and human beings. pignora coniugum ac līberōrum, L. 2, 1, 5, pledges in the shape of wives and children. cōnfīsus mūnītiōne fossae, Caes. C. 1, 42, 3, relying on the defensive works in the shape of a moat. Rarely in poetry and late prose, the proper name of a place, with urbs, prōmunturium, &c.: as, urbem Patavī, V., 1, 247, the city of Patavium (1045). Particularly with the words vōx, nōmen, genus, and especially causa: as, haec vōx voluptātis, Fin. 2, 6, this word ‘pleasure.’ nōmen amīcitiae, Fin. 2, 78, the name ‘friendship.’ Compare nōmen frāternum, 1, 36, 5, the name of brothers (1233). haec īgnōminiae causa, Clu. 120, this reason, namely the censor’s stigma. parvulae causae vel falsae suspīciōnis vel terrōris repentīnī, Caes. C. 3, 72, 4, insignificant causes, as for instance ungrounded suspicion or a panic. propter eam causam sceleris istīus, V. 4, 113, for this reason, namely the crime of the defendant.

1257. The genitive of definition is very common with causā, less common with grātiā, to define what the motive or cause is: as,

amīcitiae causā, 1, 39, 2, from motives of friendship. Compare vestrā magis hoc causā volēbam, quam meā, DO. 1, 164, I wished this more for your sake than for my own (1234). honestātis amplitūdinisque grātiā, RA. 15, in compliment to their respectability and high social standing. So also sometimes with nōmine, and in old or official Latin, with ergō.

1258. Conversely, the genitive of a generic word denoting a person is sometimes added to a leading word defining the kind of a person: as, frūstum puerī, Pl. Per. 849, thou bit of a boy. mōnstrum hominis, T. Eu. 696, thou fiend in human shape. quaedam pestēs hominum, Fam. 5, 8, 2, some regular plagues in the shape of men.

1259. quidquid est, quantum est, quod est, or quodcumque est, with a genitive, is equivalent to an emphatic omnis: as, quidquid patrum est, L. 3, 17, 5, whatever there is in the shape of senators, i.e. every single senator. quod est pecūniae, trādit, Caes. C. 2, 20, 8, what there is in the-way of money, he hands over. Similarly tantum for tot: as, tantum hominum, Pl. Poen. 619, such a mass of men.

The Objective Genitive.

1260. (5.) The objective genitive denotes the object of the action expressed in the limited substantive: as,

metus hostium, Gell. 9, 12, 13, the fear of the enemy, i.e. which is felt towards them. vēnditiō bonōrum, RA. 110, sale of the goods. lūctū fīlī, DO. 2, 193, from grief for his son. This construction is freely used, even when the parallel verb has a dative, an ablative, or a prepositional expression: as, fīdūciā locī, 7, 19, 2, from confidence in the position. līberātiōnem culpae, Lig. 1, acquittal from guilt. mīlitiae vacātiōnem, 6, 14, 1, exemption from military service. opīniōne trium legiōnum dēiectus, 5, 48, 1, disappointed in his hope of three legions. deōrum opīniō, TD. 1, 30, a conception of the gods. miserrima est contentiō honōrum, Off. 1, 87, a scramble for office is a pitiful thing.

1261. Instead of the objective genitive, a prepositional expression is sometimes used with greater precision: as,

metus ā vī atque īrā deōrum, DN. 1, 45, fear of the might and wrath of the gods. So especially the accusative, usually denoting a person, with in, ergā, or adversus, combined with substantives denoting feeling: as, odium in hominum ūniversum genus, TD. 4, 25, hatred to all mankind. vestra ergā mē voluntās, C. 4, 1, your good-will towards me.

1262. A possessive pronoun or adjective is sometimes used for the objective genitive: as,

(a.) odiō tuō, T. Ph. 1016, from hate to thee. tuā fīdūciā, V. 5, 176, from his reliance on you. aspectūque suō, Lucr. 1, 91, and at the sight of her. (b.) metus hostīlis, S. I. 41, 2, fear felt of the enemy. servīlis percontātiō, DO. 2, 327, crossquestioning of the servant-girls. firmus adversus mīlitārem largītiōnem, Ta. H. 2, 82, dead-set against any largess to the military.

II. The Genitive with Adjectives.

1263. (1.) The genitive is used with many adjectives to denote the object.

Such are chiefly adjectives meaning (a.) desirous, (b.) knowing, or remembering, (c.) participating, controlling, or guilty, (d.) full, and most of their opposites: as, (a.) aurī cupidus, Pl. Poen. 179, eager for gold. sapientiae studiōsōs, id est enim philosophōs, TD. 5, 9, devotees of wisdom, for that is what ‘philosophers’ means. So also aemulus, avidus, fastīdiōsus, invidus. (b.) gnārus rē̆ī pūblicae, Br. 228, familiar with government. rē̆ī mīlitāris perītissimus, 1, 21, 4, a master of the art military. hominēs adulēscentulōs, inperītōs rērum, T. Andr. 910, mere hobbledehoys, not up in the world’s ways. imperītus mōrum, RA. 143, behind the times. immemor beneficiōrum, memor patriae, Ph. 2, 27, forgetful of kindnesses, never forgetting his country. So also cōnscius, cōnsultus, īnscius, īnsolēns, īnsolitus, īnsuētus, iēiūnus, prōvidus, prūdēns, rudis. (c.) praedae participēs, Caes. C. 3, 82, 1, sharing in the booty. manifestus tantī sceleris, S. I. 35, 8, caught in committing this atrocious crime. expers glōriae, IP. 57, without a share in the glory. So also adfīnis, compos, cōnsors, exhērēs, potēns, reus. (d.) negōtī plēnus, Pl. Ps. 380, full of business. fōns plēnissimus piscium, V. 4, 118, a fountain swarming with fish. refertō praedōnum marī, IP. 31, when the sea was crammed with corsairs. So also fertilis, inops, līberālis, nūdus, prōfūsus.

1264. In poetry and late prose, a great many other adjectives of these meanings, besides those mentioned above, are also used with the genitive. Such are principally: (a.) avārus, cūriōsus, incūriōsus, sēcūrus. (b.) nescius, praesāgus, praescius, scītus. (c.) exsors, immūnis, impos, impotēns, innocēns, innoxius, īnsōns, noxius, suspectus. (d.) abundāns, dīves, egēnus, inānis, indigus, largus, parcus, pauper, prōdigus, sterilis, vacuus.

1265. With cōnscius and the genitive of a thing, the dative of a person is sometimes added: as, tot flāgitiōrum exercituī meō cōnscius, Ta. 1, 43, a participant with my army in so many outrages. Sometimes cōnscius has the dative of a thing: as, mēns cōnscia factīs, Lucr. 3, 1018, the mind of guilt aware.

1266. (2.) The genitive of the object is often used with present participles which express permanent condition.

These participles are chiefly from verbs which have a transitive use. Not common in old Latin: as, amantem uxōris, Pl. As. 857, devoted to his wife, fugitāns lītium, T. Ph. 623, inclined to dodge a suit at law. Very common in Cicero: as, semper appetentēs glōriae praeter cēterās gentīs fuistis, IP. 7, you have always been more hungry for glory than any other nation. Especially in set expressions: as, homo amantissimus patriae, Sull. 34, vir amantissimus rē̆ī pūblicae, C. 4, 13, ever a devoted patriot. negōtī gerentēs, Sest. 97, business men. aliēnī appetēns, DO. 2, 135, S. C. 5, 4, always hankering after other people’s things. In Caesar seldom: as, fugiēns labōris, C. 1, 69, 3, apt to shirk exertion.

1267. The genitive is hardly ever found with adjectives in -āx (284): as, huius re͡i mendācem, Pl. As. 855, untruthful in this point. But in poetry, from Vergil and Horace on, and in late prose, a few genitives occur with adjectives whose parallel verbs have a transitive use, such as capāx, edāx, tenāx, &c.: as, tempus edāx rērum, O. 15, 234, thou all-devourer—time.

1268. Some of the adjectives which usually take the genitive have occasionally other constructions.

Thus, with adfīnis the dative also occurs (1200), rarely with aemulus (1183); the ablative with adjectives of fulness, as dīves, plēnus, and refertus (1387); iūre with cōnsultus and perītus (1385). For vacuus, &c., see 1306. Prepositional constructions also occur with these adjectives, such as the accusative with ad or in, or the ablative with ab, dē, or in: see the dictionary.

1269. For the genitive, with words denoting relationship, connection, friendship, or hostility, see 1203; with similis, 1204. With dignus and indignus, worthy and unworthy, the ablative is regularly used (1392); rarely the genitive: as, nōn ego sum dignus salūtis? Pl. Tri. 1153, don’t I deserve a greeting too? indignus avōrum, V. 12, 649, unworthy of my sires.

1270. (3.) In poetry and late prose, the genitive is used very freely with many adjectives of various meanings, often merely to indicate what they apply to: as,

nēmō mīlitāris rē̆ī callidior habēbātur, Ta. H. 2, 32, at soldiering nobody was thought to have a greater knack. vetus operis ac labōris, Ta. 1, 20, an old hand at the toil and moil of army life. aevī mātūrus Acestēs, V. 5, 73, Acestes, ripe in years. sērī studiōrum, H. S. 1, 10, 21, what laggards at your books. integer vītae scelerisque pūrus, H. 1, 22, 1, the man unspotted in his life and clean of sin. fessī rērum, V. 1, 178, in travail spent. satin tū sānu’s mentis aut animī tuī? Pl. Tri. 454, art thou quite right in thy five wits? (1339).

III. The Genitive with Verbs.

Verbs Of Valuing.

1271. A few neuter adjectives of quantity are put in the genitive with verbs of valuing to denote the amount of estimation; such genitives are:

magnī, plūris, plūrimī; parvī, minōris, minimī; tantī, quantī.

The verbs with which these genitives are used are aestimō, dūcō, faciō, habeō, pendō, putō, and sum; rarely exīstimō: as, magnī opera eius aestimāta est, N. 24, 1, 2, his services were rated high. nōn magnī pendō, Pl. As. 460, I don’t care much. sua parvī pendere, S. C. 12, 2, a setting small store by what they had of their own. Verrēsne tibī̆ tantī fuit? V. 1, 77, was Verres so important in your eyes? est mihī̆ tantī. C. 2, 15, it is well worth my while. quantī is ā cīvibus suīs fieret īgnōrābās? V. 4, 19, did not you know how the man was prized by his own townsmen? Rarely maximī: as, maximī aestimāre, Clu. 159, to think all the world of.

1272. In expressions of worthlessness, other genitives are also used thus; such are nihilī, or, usually with a negative, āssis, floccī, naucī, pilī, teruncī: as, nōn āssis facis? Cat. 43, 13, car’st not a doit? So also huius: as, huius nōn faciam, T. Ad. 163, I shall not care a snap.

1273. With aestimō, the ablatives magnō and permagnō are sometimes used: as, quid? tū ista permagnō aestimās? V. 4, 13, tell me, do you rate that sort of thing very high yourself? Compare 1390.

1274. The genitives tantī and quantī, plūris and minōris are also used with verbs of buying and selling, hiring and letting, and costing. But other words are put in the ablative with these verbs: see 1391. For magnī, &c., with rēfert and interest, see 1279.

1275. A similar genitive occurs in one or two set forms, such as aequī bonīque dīcō, or faciō, aequī faciō, and bonī cōnsulō: as, istūc, Chremēs, aequī bonīque faciō, T. Hau. 787, I count that, Chremes, fair and good. aequī istūc faciō, Pl. MG. 784, that’s all the same to me.

The Verbs rēfert and interest.

1276. rēfert and interest, it concerns, are much alike in meaning and in construction. But the use of rēfert is characteristic of old Latin and poetry; in prose from Cicero on it is almost supplanted by interest, especially where persons are concerned.

1277. (1.) With rēfert and interest, a first or second person concerned is denoted by the possessive pronoun forms meā, tuā, nostrā, vestrā; and, from Cicero on, the third person reflexive by suā: as,

(a.) quid id rēfert meā? Pl. Cur. 395, what’s that to me? tuā istūc rēfert maxumē, Pl. Tri. 319, that is of most concern to thee. nōn suā rēferre, Quinct. 19, that it did not concern him. nōn nostrā magis quam vestrā rēfert vōs nōn rebellāre, L. 34, 17, 7, it is not more for our interest than for your own that you should not make war again. Without the verb: as, quid istūc nostrā, or quid id nostrā? T. Ph. 800, 940, what’s that to us? (b.) tuā et meā maximē interest tē valēre, Fam. 16, 4, 4, your health is a matter of the highest importance to you and to me. vestrā hōc maximē interest, Sull. 79, this is of vital moment to you.

1278. (2.) With interest, from Cicero on, a third person or thing concerned is denoted by the genitive. Also with rēfert, a few times from Sallust on: as,

(a.) quid eius intererat? RA. 96, what concern was it of his? interesse rē̆ī pūblicae sē cum Pompēiō colloquī, Caes. C. 1, 24, 5, that it was of importance to the common weal that he should have a parley with Pompey. (b.) faciundum aliquid, quod illōrum magis quam suā rētulisse vidērētur, S. I. 111, 1, that he must do something which should seem more for the other side’s good than his own. For the accusative with ad with these verbs, or for the dative with rēfert, see the dictionary.

1279. The matter of concern is expressed by a sentence or infinitive, or by a neuter pronoun; rarely by an appellative: as, nōn quō meā interesset locī nātūra, Att. 3, 19, 1, not that the character of the place concerned me. The degree of concern is expressed by an adverb, as magnopere, by a neuter accusative, as multum, or by a genitive of estimation, magnī, permagnī, plūris, parvī, tantī, quantī (1271).

Judicial Verbs.

1280. Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning, and acquitting, take a genitive of the charge: as,

C. Verrem īnsimulat avāritiae, V. 1, 128, he charges Verres with avarice. accūsātus est prōditiōnis, N. 1, 7, 5, he was charged with treason. capitis arcēssere, D. 30, accuse on a capital charge. prōditiōnis damnātus est, N. 2, 8, 2, he was convicted of treason. Pollis pecūniae pūblicae est condemnātus, Flacc. 43, Pollis was condemned for embezzlement of government money. maiestātis absolūtī sunt permultī, Clu. 116, a good many were acquitted of high treason. With this genitive, an ablative, crīmine, iūdiciō, nōmine, or lēge, is sometimes expressed (1377): as, nē quem umquam innocentem iūdiciō capitis arcēssās, Off. 2, 51, that you are never to accuse any innocent man on a charge affecting his status as a citizen.

1281. The charge is sometimes denoted by a prepositional construction: as, sescentī sunt, quī inter sīcāriōs et dē venēficiīs accūsābant, RA. 90, there are hundreds and hundreds that brought charges of murder, by steel and by poison. So also dē āleā, of gambling, in Cicero regularly dē pecūniīs repetundīs, of extortion, and necessarily dē vī, of an act of violence, as vīs has no genitive. For the neuter accusative, see 1172.

1282. The penalty also is sometimes denoted by the genitive: as, cupiō octuplī damnārī Aprōnium, V. 3, 28, I want to have Apronius condemned to a payment of eightfold. damnātusque longī Sīsyphus Aeolidēs labōris, H. 2, 14, 19, and Sisyphus the Aeolid, amerced with penance long. Sometimes by the ablative: as, capite, V. 5, 109. So usually from Livy on, when the penalty is a definite sum of money or fractional part of a thing.

Impersonal Verbs of Mental Distress.

1283. A genitive of the thing, commonly with an accusative of the person, is used with five impersonals of mental distress:

miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet: as,

tu͡i mē miseret, me͡i piget, E. in Div. 1, 66, I pity thee, I loathe myself. frātris mē pudet pigetque, T. Ad. 391, my brother stirs my shame and my disgust. mī pater, mē tu͡i pudet, T. Ad. 681, dear father, in thy presence I’m abashed. galeātum sēro duellī paenitet, J. 1, 169, too late, with casque on head, a combatant repenteth him of war. So also miserētur, and in old Latin inceptively, miserēscit, commiserēscit.

1284. These verbs sometimes have a sentence or a neuter pronoun as subject: as, nōn tē haec pudent? T. Ad. 754, does not this make thee blush for shame? Rarely an appellative: as, mē quidem haec condiciō nōn paenitet, Pl. St. 51, for my part, with my wedded state I’m well content. Or a person: as, pudeō, Pl. Cas. 877, I feel ashamed. For participles and gerundives, see 817.

1285. The genitive is used with the personals misereor or misereō, and in poetry with miserēscō: as,

aliquandō miserēminī sociōrum, V. 1, 72, do take pity on your allies, it is high time. nēminis miserēre certumst, quia me͡i miseret nēminem, Pl. Cap. 764, I’m bound to care for nobody, as no one cares for me. Arcadiī miserēscite rēgis, V. 8, 573, take pity on the king of Arcady.

1286. Personal verbs of desiring, loathing, admiring, and dreading, sometimes take the genitive: as, pol, quamquam domī cupiō, opperiar, Pl. Tri. 841, although I yearn for home, I vow I’ll wait (1263). fastīdit meī, Pl. Aul. 245, he views me with disdain (1263). iūstitiaene prius mīrer, bellīne labōrum? V. 11, 126, thy justice first shall I admire? thy toils in war? nē tuī quidem testimōnī veritus, Att. 8, 4, 1, not having any awe about your recommendation either.

Verbs of Memory.

1287. The genitive is used with verbs of remembering and forgetting when they denote an inherent state of memory or of forgetfulness: as,

faciam ut meī meminerīs dum vītam vīvās, Pl. Per. 494, I’ll make you remember me as long as you live. num potuī magis oblīvīscī temporum meōrum, meminisse āctiōnum? Fam. 1, 9, 8, could I have been more forgetful of my present interests, more mindful of my past career? reminīscerētur incommodī populī Rōmānī, 1, 13, 4, he had better bear in mind the rebuff dealt out to Rome. oblītusque meōrum oblīvīscendus et illīs, H. E. 1, 11, 10, of friends forgetful and by friends forgot. See 1263.

1288. The accusative is used with these verbs when they denote the mere intellectual exercise of memory or a failure to remember: as,

equid meministī tu͡om parentum nōmina? Pl. Poen. 1062, do you remember your parents’ names? Cinnam meminī vīdī Sūllam, Ph. 5, 17, I can remember Cinna, I have seen Sulla. utinam mēmet possim oblīscier! Accius ap. Non. 500, 5, oh that myself I could forget! subitō tōtam causam oblītus est, Br. 217, suddenly he forgot the whole case.

1289. recordor has once the genitive (Pis. 12), but from its meaning bring to heart it is naturally found oftener with the accusative. With it and with meminī, the ablative with dē also occurs. The rare reminīscor has the genitive once each in Caesar and Nepos; twice later; oftener the accusative. Neuter pronouns are in the accusative with all these verbs.

1290. The impersonal venit in mentem also takes the genitive: as, venit mihī̆ Platōnis in mentem, Fin. 5, 2, Plato comes into my head; very exceptionally the ablative with dē. But the verb in this combination is often used personally, with the thing occurring to the mind as the subject, and regularly in Cicero, when it is rēs or genus, or a neuter pronoun.

1291. Verbs of reminding take the accusative of a person and sometimes with it the genitive of a thing: as,

admonēbat alium egestātis, alium cupiditātis suae, S. C. 21, 4, he reminded one man of his beggary, another of his greed. So also commoneō, commonē̆faciō, and, in Tacitus only, moneō. Oftener however the thing is in the ablative with dē, or, if it is a neuter pronoun or adjective, in the accusative (1172). Rarely a substantive equivalent to a neuter pronoun: as, eam rem nōs locus admonuit, S. I. 79, 1, the place has reminded me of that.

Verbs of Participation and Mastery.

1292. Verbs of participation and mastery sometimes take the genitive in old Latin and in poetry: as, servom su͡i participat cōnsilī, Pl. Cist. 163, she makes a slave a sharer in her plot (1263). quā Daunus agrestium rēgnāvit populōrum, H. 3, 30, 11, where Daunus was the lord of rural folk (1260). So, even in prose, potior, which usually has the ablative (1379): as, totīus Galliae sēsē potīrī posse spērant, 1, 3, 8, they hope they can get the mastery over the whole of Gaul. Especially with persons, or with the genitive plural rērum: rērum potior, get to be, or often, am, master of the situation, or I am monarch of all I survey. Similarly in Tacitus apīscor, adipīscor: as, arma, quīs Servius Galba rērum adeptus est, Ta. 3, 55, the war by which Galba became master of the throne. In Plautus crēdō sometimes has the genitive of a thing and dative of a person.

Verbs of Fulness and Want.

1293. The genitive is sometimes used with verbs of filling, abounding, and lacking, as it is with the corresponding adjectives (1263): as,

convīvium vīcīnōrum cōtīdiē compleō, CM. 46, I fill out a dinner-party every day with neighbours. haec rēs vītae mē, soror, saturant, Pl. St. 18, these things, my sister, sicken me of life. terra ferārum nunc etiam scatit, Lucr. 5, 39, still teems the earth with ravin beasts. So with egeō sometimes: as, egeō cōnsilī, Att. 7, 22, 2, I am in need of some advice. And usually with indigeō: as, hoc bellum indiget celeritātis, Ph. 6, 7, this war requires rapid action. But, from Livy on, the ablative is commoner with indigeō: see 1305.

1294. With verbs of separating and abstaining, the ablative is regularly used (1302). But the genitive is sometimes found in poetry: as, mē omnium labōrum levās, Pl. R. 247, thou riddest me of all my woes. abstinētō īrārum calidaeque rixae, H. 3, 27, 69, from bursts of rage keep thou and hot affray.

IV. The Genitive of Exclamation.

1295. In poetry, the genitive with an adjective in agreement occurs two or three times in exclamation: as, foederis heu tacitī, Prop. 5, 7, 21, alas, that secret covenant. Usually the nominative (1117), or the accusative (1149).

The Ablative.

1296. The ablative is used principally with verbs and their participles, or with adjectives, and consists of three cases that were originally distinct.

1297. I. The Ablative proper denotes that from which something parts or proceeds (1302).

The ablative proper is often accompanied by the prepositions ab, dē, ex, prae, prō, sine, or tenus.

1298. With the ablative proper two other cases, originally distinct, a locative case and an instrumental case, were confounded, and merged under the common name of the ablative.

1299. II. The Locative case denotes the place in, at, or on which action occurs. A few forms of the locative proper are still preserved (1331). But the place where is ordinarily denoted by the locative ablative (1342).

The locative ablative is often accompanied by the prepositions in or sub.

1300. III. The Instrumental case denotes that by which or with which a main person or thing is attended (1356).

The instrumental ablative is often accompanied by the prepositions cum or cōram.

1301. The ablative or locative is sometimes attached immediately to a substantive.

Thus, (a.) sometimes to a substantive which denotes or implies action: as, interitus ferrō, destruction with the sword, like intereō ferrō; see 1307, 1331, 1342, 1376, 1377. (b.) In constructions in which the ablative is due to an older combination with a verb: as, vir singulārī virtūte, a man of unexampled bravery. See 1309 and 1375.

I. The Ablative Proper.

The Ablative of Separation and Want, and of Departure.

1302. Verbs of separation take an ablative of the thing from which separation takes place: as,

(a.) caruit forō posteā Pompēius, caruit senātū, caruit pūblicō, Mil. 18, after that Pompey had to keep away from the market place, from the senate, from highways and byways. adhūc Q. Ligārius omnī culpā vacat, Lig. 4, thus far Ligarius proves devoid of any guilt. egeō cōnsiliō, Att. 15, 1, A, 5, I need advice (1305). (b.) Ītaliā prohibētur: nōn tū eum patriā prīvāre, quā caret, sed vītā vīs, Lig. 11, he is kept out of Italy; you want to deprive him not of his country, from which he is debarred, but of life. līberēmus cūrā populum Rōmānum, L. 39, 51, 9, Hannibal’s words when he took poison, 183 B.C., let me relieve Rome of anxiety.

1303. This ablative is used (a.) with such verbs as mean abstain, abstineō, dēsistō, supersedeō; am devoid of, careō, vacō; need, egeō; and in addition to the accusative of the object, (b.) with verbs used transitively, such as mean keep off, arceō, exclūdō and interclūdō, prohibeō; drive away, remove, pellō, moveō, and their compounds; free, expediō, līberō, levō, solvō and exsolvō; deprive, orbō, prīvō, spoliō, nūdō, fraudō.

1304. A preposition, ab or ex, is often used with these verbs, and regularly when the ablative denotes a person. But careō and egeō, and exsolvō and levō, never have a preposition.

1305. With egeō, the genitive is sometimes used, and often with indigeō: see 1293. Also in poetry, with verbs of abstaining and separating: see 1294.

1306. The ablative of separation is sometimes used with such adjectives as aliēnus, expers, līber, nūdus, vacuus, &c.: as, negant id esse aliēnum maiestāte deōrum, Div. 2, 105, they maintain that this is not at variance with the greatness of the gods. vacuī cūrīs, Fin. 2, 46, devoid of cares. arce et urbe orba sum, E. Tr. 114, of tower and town bereft am I. But sometimes the genitive: see 1263 and 1264; sometimes also prepositional constructions: for these, and particularly for the different constructions of aliēnus, see the dictionary.

Town and Island Names.

1307. (1.) Proper names of towns and of little islands are put in the ablative with verbs of motion, to denote the place from which motion proceeds: as,

Dāmarātus fūgit Tarquiniōs Corinthō, TD. 5, 109, Damaratus ran away from Corinth to Tarquinii. sīgnum Carthāgine captum, V. 4, 82, the statue carried off from Carthage. Megaribus, Pl. Per. 137, from Megara. Lēmnō, Pl. Tru. 90, from Lemnos. Rōmā accēperam litterās, Att. 5, 8, 2, I had got a letter from Rome. Rarely with a substantive of motion (1301): as, dē illīus Alexandrēā discessū, Att. 11, 18, 1, about his departure from Alexandrea. Also in dating letters: as, V kal. Sextīl., Rēgiō, Fam. 7, 19, Regium, 28 July; less often the locative: as, Īdibus Iūniīs, Thessalonīcae, QFr. 1, 3, 10, Thessalonica, 13 June. Like a town name: Ācherunte, poet. in TD. 1, 37, from Acheron. With an attribute: ipsā Samō, V. 1, 51, from Samos itself. Teānō Sidicīnō, Att. 8, 11, B, 2, from Sidicinian Teanum.

1308. Singular town or island names sometimes have ex in old Latin: thus, Carystō, Pl. Ps. 730, from Carystus, or, ex Carystō, Ps. 737, indifferently. ex Andrō, T. Andr. 70, from Andros. In classical Latin, town names rarely have ab: as, ab Athēnīs proficīscī, Serv. in Fam. 4, 12, 2, to start from Athens; chiefly of neighbourhood: as, ab Gergoviā, 7, 43, 5: 7, 59, 1, from camp at Gergovia; or direction: as, ā Salōnīs ad Ōricum, Caes. C. 3, 8, 4, from Salonae to Oricum; regularly with longē: as, longē ā Syrācūsīs, V. 4, 107, far from Syracuse.

1309. The ablative of a town or country name is rarely attached immediately to a substantive, to denote origin: as, Periphanēs Rhodō mercātor dīves, Pl. As. 499, Periphanes from Rhodes a chapman rich. videō ibī̆ hospitem Zacynthō, Pl. Mer. 940, I see the friend there from Zacynthus. Rarely in Cicero: as, Teānō Āpulō laudātōrēs, Clu. 197, eulogists from Apulian Teanum; in Caesar twice. In Livy with ab only: as, Turnus ab Arīciā, L. 1, 50, 3, Turnus from Aricia. But the Roman tribe one belongs to, is regularly in the ablative: as, Q. Verrem Rōmiliā, sc. tribū, V. a. pr. 1, 23, Verres of the tribe Romilia.

1310. With a verb, country names regularly have a preposition, and always in Cicero, Sallust, and Livy: as, ē Ciliciā dēcēdēns, Br. 1, going away from Cilicia. The ablative alone is rare: as, Aegyptō adveniō domum, Pl. Most. 440, from Egypt I come home. Chiefly in Tacitus: as, Aegyptō remeāns, 2, 69, coming back from Egypt. In Caesar, by attraction: cōgēbantur Corcȳrā atque Acarnāniā pābulum supportāre, C. 3, 58, 4, they were forced to fetch fodder from Corcyra and even Acarnania.

1311. (2.) The ablatives domō and rūre, and in poetry humō, are used like proper names of towns: as,

(a.) domō excesserant, 4, 14, 5, they had gone away from home. Also metaphorically: as, domō doctus, Pl. Mer. 355, by home-experience taught. (b.) rūre rediīt uxor mea, Pl. Mer. 705, my wife’s come back from out of town. (c.) humō, in Vergil first: as, vix oculōs attollit humō, O. 2, 448, scarce from the ground her eyes she lifts.

The Ablative of Source, Stuff, or Material.

1312. The verb nāscor and participles of origin take an ablative to denote parentage or rank in life.

Such participles are: nātus, prōgnātus, and ortus; in poetry and late prose, also crētus, ēditus, generātus, genitus, satus, and oriundus: as, (a.) Rōmulus deō prōgnātus, L. 1, 40, 3, Romulus, sprung from a god. dīs genite, V. 9, 642, thou sired of gods. Of a parent, ex is sometimes used: as ex mē hic nātus nōn est, T. Ad. 40, he’s not my son; and of remoter ancestors, ab. (b.) locō nātus honestō, 5, 45, 2, respectably descended. summō locō nātus, 5, 25, 1, of high birth, familiā antīquissimā nātum, 7, 32, 4, a member of an old family. Rarely with dē: as, quō dē genere gnātust Philocratēs? Pl. Cap. 277, what is the parentage of Philocrates?

1313. The ablative with an attribute, attached to a substantive, sometimes denotes stuff or material: as, aere cavō clipeum, V. 3, 286, a targe of hallow bronze. perennī fronde corōnam, Lucr. 1, 118, a crown of amaranthine leaf. solidōque adamante columnae, V. 6, 552, and pillars of the solid adamant. This construction borders closely on the ablative of quality (1375). Rarely without an attribute: as, pīctās abiete puppīs, V. 5, 663, painted sterns of fir.

1314. A substantive denoting stuff or material is generally put in the ablative with dē or ex; thus,

(a.) Directly with a substantive: pōcula ex aurō, V. 4, 62, cups of gold. (b.) Oftener with an auxiliary verb or participle: sīgnum erat hoc Cupīdinis ē marmore, V. 4, 5, this statue of Cupid was made of marble. scūtīs ex cortice factīs, 2, 33, 2, with long shields made out of bark. ex ūnā gemmā pergrandī trūlla excavāta, V. 4, 62, a ladle scooped out of a single enormous semi-precious stone.

1315. The ablative with forms of faciō and sum denotes that with which or to which something is done: as, quid hōc homine faciās? Sest. 29, what can you do with such a fellow? quid mē fīet? T. Andr. 709, what will become of me? But often the dative (1205): as, quid tibī̆ faciam? Att. 7, 3, 2, what shall I do to you? Or the ablative with dē: as, dē frātre quid fīet? T. Ad. 996, as to my brother, what will come to pass?

The Ablative of Cause, Influence, or Motive.

1316. The ablative is used to denote cause, influence, or motive: as,

madeō metū, Pl. Most. 395, I’m drenched with dread. tū imprūdentiā lāberis, Mur. 78, you, sir, slip from inadvertence. maerōre et lacrimīs cōnsenēscēbat, Clu. 13, she just pined away in sorrow and tears. īrā incendor, Pl. Ps. 201, I’m getting hot with wrath. premor lūctū, Att. 3, 22, 3, I am bowed down with grief. quod ego nōn superbiā faciēbam, DO. 1, 99, I did not act thus from superciliousness, not I. nōn movētur pecūniā, V. 4, 18, he is not moved by money. boat caelum fremitū virūm, Pl. Am. 232, the welkin rings with roar of men. dēlictō dolēre, corrēctiōne gaudēre, L. 90, be pained by the sin, take pleasure in the reproof. aetāte nōn quīs optuērier, Pl. Most. 840, owing to age thou canst not see. Iovis iussū veniō, Pl. Am. prol. 19, at Jove’s behest I come. Sēiānus nimiā fortūnā sōcors, Ta. 4, 39, Sejanus giddy with over-prosperity. ferōx praedā glōriāque exercitus, Ta. H. 1, 51, the army flushed with booty and glory. exercitūs nostrī interitus ferrō, Pis. 40, the annihilation of our army by the sword (1301).

1317. Instead of the ablative, other constructions often occur, especially with verbs used transitively; such are:

(a.) Prepositional phrases with dē or ex, in Varro and Livy with ab; also with ob, per, or propter: as, multī in oppidum propter timōrem sēsē recipiunt, Caes. C. 2, 35, 6, a good many retreated to the town from fear. Sometimes with prae: as, prae amōre exclūstī hunc forās, T. Eu. 98, it was for love you turned him out of doors: in classical Latin, usually of hindrance: as, sōlem prae iaculōrum multitūdine nōn vidēbitis, TD. 1, 101, you won’t see the sun for the cloud of javelins. (b.) Circumlocutions with causā, less frequently with grātiā (1257). (c.) Ablatives absolute, or participles, particularly auxiliary participles with an ablative to express cause, oftener motive, such as captus, ductus, excitātus or incitātus, impulsus, incēnsus, īnflammātus, mōtus, perterritus: as, nōnnūllī pudōre adductī remanēbant, 1, 39, 3, some stuck by from shame.

1318. The person by whom the action of a passive verb is done, is denoted by the ablative with ab or ā. Also occasionally with verbs equivalent to a passive, such as cadō, intereō, pereō, vēneō, &c., &c. Things or animals are sometimes represented as persons by the use of ab: as, animus bene īnfōrmātus ā nātūrā, Off. 1, 13, a soul meetly fashioned by dame nature. See 1476-1478.

1319. In poetry, an ablative denoting a person, with an adjective in agreement, is sometimes equivalent to an expression with an abstract substantive: as, et adsiduō ruptae lēctōre columnae, J. 1, 13, and pillars by persistent reader riven, i.e. adsiduitāte lēctōris, or adsiduā lēctiōne. cūrātus inaequālī tōnsōre capillōs, H. E. 1, 1, 94, my locks by unsymmetric barber trimmed.

The Ablative of Comparison.

1320. (1.) The ablative may be used with a comparative adjective, when the first of two things compared is in the nominative, or is a subject-accusative.

Such an ablative is translated by than: as, (a.) lūce sunt clāriōra nōbīs tua cōnsilia, C. 1, 6, your schemes are plainer to us than day. ō mātre pulchrā fīlia pulchrior, H. 1, 16, 1, O daughter fairer than a mother fair. Particularly in sentences of negative import: as, quis Karthāginiēnsium plūris fuit Hannibale? Sest. 142, of all the sons of Carthage, who was rated higher than Hannibal? nec mihī̆ est tē iūcundius quicquam nec cārius, Fam. 2, 10, 1, and there is nothing in the world nearer and dearer to me than you. (b.) illud cōgnōscēs profectō, mihī̆ tē neque cāriōrem neque iūcundiōrem esse quemquam, Fam. 2, 3, 2, one thing I am sure you will see, that there is nobody nearer and dearer to me than you.

1321. (2.) The ablative of comparison is similarly used when the first member of comparison is an accusative of the object: as,

exēgī monumentum aere perennius, H. 3, 30, 1, I have builded up a monument more durable than bronze. Particularly so in sentences of negative import: as, hōc mihī̆ grātius facere nihil potes, Fam. 13, 44, you can do nothing for me more welcome than this. Also with predicate adjectives dependent on a verb of thinking (1167): as, Hērodotum cūr vērāciōrem dūcam Enniō? Div. 2, 116, why should I count Herodotus any more truthful than Ennius? Regularly when the second member of comparison is a relative: as, quā pecude nihil genuit nātūra fēcundius, DN. 2, 160, nature has created nothing more prolific than this animal, i.e. the sow.

1322. (3.) In poetry, the ablative of comparison may be used with the first member of comparison in any case: as, Lūcīlī rītū, nostrūm meliōris utrōque, H. S. 2, 1, 29, after Lucilius’s way, a better man than thou or I.

1323. (4.) In sentences of negative import, the ablative is sometimes used with alter and alius, as with a comparative: as, neque mēst alter quisquam, Pl. As. 492, and there’s no other man than I. nec quicquam aliud lībertāte commūnī quaesīsse, Brut. and Cass. in Fam. 11, 2, 2, and to have aimed at nothing else than freedom for all. But in prose, quam is commonly used.

1324. (1.) The second member of comparison is often introduced by quam, than, or in poetry by atque or ac. This member, whatever the case of the first member, is sometimes made the subject of a form of sum in a new sentence: as,

meliōrem quam ego sum suppōnō tibī̆, Pl. Cur. 256, I give you as a substitute a better than I am myself. verba M. Varrōnis, hominis quam fuit Claudius doctiōris, Gell. 10, 1, 4, the words of Varro, a better scholar than Claudius ever was. ut tibī̆ maiōrī quam Āfricanus fuit, mē adiūnctum esse patiāre, Fam. 5, 7, 3, so that you will allow me to be associated with you, a bigger man than Africanus ever was.

1325. (2.) When the first member is in the nominative or accusative, quam is commonly a mere coordinating word, with both members in the same case: as,

(a.) plūris est oculātus testis ūnus quam aurītī decem, Pl. Tru. 490, a single witness with an eye rates higher than a dozen with the ear. (b.) tū velim exīstimēs nēminem cuiquam neque cāriōrem neque iūcundiōrem umquam fuisse quam tē mihī̆, Fam. 1, 9, 24, I hope you will be convinced that nobody was ever nearer and dearer to anybody than you to me.

1326. An introductory ablative of a demonstrative or relative pronoun sometimes precedes the construction with quam: as, quid hōc est clārius, quam omnīs Segestae mātrōnās et virginēs convēnisse? V. 4, 77, what fact is there better known than this, to wit, that all the women in Segesta, married and single, came streaming together?

1327. The ablative is sometimes used with comparative adverbs also.

So particularly in sentences of negative import: as, nihil lacrimā citius ārēscit, Corn. 2, 50, nothing dries up quicker than a tear. Less frequently in positive sentences in prose: as, fortūna, quae plūs cōnsilīs hūmānīs pollet, contrāxit certāmen, L. 44, 40, 3, fortune, who is mightier than the devices of man, precipitated the engagement. Very commonly, however, quam is used with comparative adverbs.

1328. Designations of number or extent are often qualified by amplius, longius, or plūs, over, or by minus, under.

The word thus qualified is put in the case which the context would require without any such qualification: as, plūs septingentī captī, L. 41, 12, 8, over seven hundred were taken prisoners. tēcum plūs annum vīxit, Q. 41, he lived with you over a year (1151). cum equīs plūs quīngentīs, L. 40, 32, 6, with over five hundred horses. Less frequently with quam. When these words are felt as real substantives in the nominative or accusative, the ablative of comparison may be used (1320): as, plūs trīduō, RA. 74, more than three days.

1329. In expressions of age with nātus, the adjectives maior and minor are used as well as amplius and minus, and with the same construction (1328): as, annōs nātus maior quadrāgintā, RA. 39, over forty years old. For other constructions, see the dictionary. Similarly conlēctus aquae digitum nōn altior ūnum, Lucr. 4, 414, a pool no deeper than a finger’s breadth (1130). But commonly with comparative adjectives of extent, quam is used, or the ablative (1320): as, palūs nōn lātior pedibus quīnquāgintā, 7, 19, 1, a marsh not wider than fifty feet.

1330. With a comparative adjective or adverb, the ablatives opīniōne, exspectātiōne, and spē, and some others, chiefly in poetry, take the place of a sentence with quam: as,

opīniōne melius, Pl. Cas. 338, better than you thought. minōra opīniōne, Caes. C. 2, 31, 5, more insignificant than is thought. lātius opīniōne dissēminātum est hoc malum, C. 4, 6, this infection is more sweeping than anybody dreams. spē omnium sērius, L. 2, 3, 1, later than was generally expected.

II. The Locative Ablative.

(A.) THE LOCATIVE PROPER.

1331. (1.) Singular proper names of towns and of little islands are put in the locative to denote the place in or at which action occurs: as,

quid Rōmae faciam? mentīrī nescio, J. 3, 41, what can I do in Rome? I don’t know how to lie. Corinthī et Karthāginī, Agr. 2, 90, at Corinth and at Carthage. Lacedaemonī, N. praef. 4, in Lacedaemon. Tīburī, Att. 16, 3, 1, at Tibur. Rhodī, Fam. 4, 7, 4, at Rhodes. mānsiōnēs diutinae Lēmnī, T. Ph. 1012, protracted stays at Lemnos (1301). Sometimes in dates: as, data Thessalonīcae, Att. 3, 20, 3, given at Thessalonica (1307). The locative rarely means near: as, Antiī, L. 22, 1, 10, round about Antium. In Plautus only two singular town names with consonant stems occur, and these regularly in the locative, Carthāginī and Sicyōnī, three times each; once in a doubtful example, Sicyōne, Cist. 128. Terence has no examples of these stems. From Cicero on, the locative ablative is commoner with them (1343).

1332. With an adjective attribute also, the locative is used: as, Teānī Āpulī, Clu. 27, at the Apulian Teanum. Suessae Auruncae, L. 32, 9, 3, at the Auruncan Suessa. The appellative forum, market place, used, with an attribute, as a proper name, is sometimes put in the accusative with ad: as, Claternae, ad Forum Cornēlium, Fam. 12, 5, 2, at Claterna and at Forum Cornelium; sometimes in the locative ablative: Forō Iūlī, Plin. Ep. 5, 19, 7.

1333. When the locative is further explained by an appellative following, the appellative is put in the locative ablative, either alone, or with in: as, Antiochīae, celebrī quondam urbe, Arch. 4, at Antioch, once a bustling town. Neāpolī, in celeberrimō oppidō, RabP. 26, at Neapolis, a town swarming with people. An appellative in the ablative with in may be further defined by a proper name in the locative: as, duābus in īnsulīs, Melitae et Samī, V. 5, 184, in two islands—at Melita and Samos. in oppidō, Antiochīae, Att. 5, 18, 1, within town walls—at Antioch. in sēcessū, Apollōniae, Suet. Aug. 94, out of town—at Apollonia. Or in the ablative: as, in oppidō Citiō, N. 5, 3, 4, in the town of Citium. in urbe Rōmā, L. 39, 14, 7, in the city of Rome.

1334. In Plautus, singular town names with stems in -ā- or -o- are put in the locative ten or twelve times, in the ablative with in some fifteen times. Three such have only in, never the locative: in Anactoriō, Poen. 896, in Seleuciā, Tri. 901, in Spartā, Poen. 663; furthermore, in Epidamnō, Men. 267, 380 twice, in Ephesō, B. 309, MG. 441, 778, and in Epidaurō, Cur. 341, 429, E. 540, 541, 554, but also Epidamnī, Men. prol. 51, Ephesī, B. 336, 1047, MG. 648, and Epidaurī, E. 636. Terence, who has only -o- stems, uses the locative six times, the ablative with in four times: only with in: in Andrō, Andr. 931, in Imbrō, Hec. 171. Furthermore in Lēmnō, Ph. 873, 1004 but also Lēmnī, Ph. 680, 942, 1013. Also Mīlētī, Ad. 654, Rhodī, Eu. 107, Sūniī, Eu. 519.

1335. A town name is sometimes put in the ablative with in by assimilation with a parallel in: as, in Illyricō, in ipsā Alexandrēā, Att. 11, 16, 1, in Illyricum, and at Alexandrea itself. Antiochum in Syriā, Ptolemaeum in Alexandrīā esse, L. 42, 26, 7. that Antiochus was in Syria, Ptolemy at Alexandria. in mōnte Albānō Lāvīniōque, L. 5, 52, 8, on the Alban mount and at Lavinium. Also without assimilation: as, nāvis et in Caiētā est parāta nōbīs et Brundusiī, Att. 8, 3, 6, we have a vessel all chartered, one in Cajeta and one at Brundusium. in Hispalī, Caes. C. 2, 18, 1, in Hispalis.

1336. With country names, the locative is very exceptional: as, Chersonēsī, N. 1, 2, 4, at the Peninsula. Aegyptī, Val. M. 4, 1, 15, in Egypt. Similarly Accheruntī, Pl. Cap. 689, 998, Mer. 606, Tru. 749, in Acheron; Accherunte however once: Accheruntest, Pl. Poen. 431. In Sallust, Rōmae Numidiaeque, I. 33, 4, with assimilation of Numidiae to Rōmae.

1337. (2.) The locatives domī, rūrī, humī, and rarely orbī, are used like proper names of towns: as,

(a.) cēnābō domī, Pl. St. 482, I shall dine at home. Metaphorically, domī est, nāscitur, or habeō, I can get at home, I need not go abroad for, or I have in plenty: as, id quidem domī est, Att. 10, 14, 2, as for that, I have it myself. With a possessive pronoun or aliēnus in agreement, either the locative is used, or the ablative with in; for domuī, as, Off. 3, 99, see 594; with other adjectives the ablative with in. (b.) rūrī, T. Ph. 363, up in the country; for rūre, see 1344 and 1345. (c.) humī, on the ground, or to the ground, in Terence first: as, hunc ante nostram iānuam appōne:: obsecrō, humīne? T. Andr. 724, set down this baby at our door:: good gracious; on the ground? iacēre humī, C. 1, 26, sleeping on bare ground. (d.) orbī with terrae or terrārum: as, amplissimum orbī terrārum monumentum, V. 4, 82, the grandest monument in the wide wide world.

1338. The locatives bellī, older du͡ellī, and mīlitiae are sometimes used in contrast with domī: as, domī du͡ellīque, Pl. Cap. prol. 68, domī bellīque, L. 2, 50, 11, domī mīlitiaeque, TD. 5, 55, mīlitiae et domī, T. Ad. 495, at home and in the field. Rarely without domī: as, bellī, RP. 2, 56, mīlitiae, S. I. 84, 2.

1339. (3.) Other appellatives rarely have the locative: as, proxumae vīcīniae, Pl. B. 205, MG. 273, in the next neighbourhood. terrae, L. 5, 51, 9, in the earth. With verbs of suspense, doubt, and distress, and with many adjectives, animī, in soul, is not infrequent; and animī being mistaken for a genitive, mentis is also used: as, dēsipiēbam mentis, Pl. E. 138, I was beside myself. Oftener animō (1344).

1340. Many original locatives have become set as adverbs: as, peregrī, abroad. Particularly of pronouns: as, illī, Pl. Am. 249, off there, oftener illīc; istī or istīc, hīc; sometimes further defined by an added expression: as, hīc vīcīniae, T. Ph. 95, here in the neighbourhood. hīc proxumae vīcīniae, MG. 273, here in the house next door. hīc in Veneris fānō me͡a͡e vīcīniae, Pl. R. 613, here, in the shrine of Venus, in my neighbourhood. hīc Rōmae, Arch. 5, here in Rome.

1341. The locative proper sometimes denotes time when: as, lūcī, by light, temperī, betimes, herī or here, yesterday, vesperī, at evening, herī vesperī, DO. 2, 13, last evening. In Plautus, diē septimī, Men. 1156, Per. 260, on the seventh day, māne sānē septimī, Men. 1157, bright and early on the seventh, diē crāstinī, Most. 881, tomorrow. Often with an adjective juxtaposed: as, postrīdiē, the day after, postrīdiē māne, Fam. 11, 6, 1, early next day, cōtīdiē, each day, daily, prīdiē, the day before.

(B.) THE ABLATIVE USED AS LOCATIVE.

Place in, on, or at which.

1342. (1.) Plural proper names of towns and of little islands are put in the locative ablative to denote the place in or at which action occurs: as,

mortuus Cūmīs, L. 2, 21, 5, he died at Cumae. Athēnīs tenue caelum, crassum Thēbīs, Fat. 7, in Athens the air is thin, at Thebes it is thick. locus ostenditur Capreīs, Suet. Tib. 62, the place is pointed out at Capreae. Rarely with substantives of action (1301): as, mānsiō Formiīs, Att. 9, 5, 1, the stay at Formiae. With an attribute: Athēnīs tuīs, Att. 16, 6, 2, in your darling Athens. Curibus Sabīnīs, L. 1, 18, 1, at the Sabine Cures.

1343. (2.) Singular proper names of towns with consonant stems are oftener put in the locative ablative than in the locative proper: as,

adulēscentium gregēs Lacedaemone vīdimus, TD. 5, 77, we have seen the companies of young men in Lacedaemon. Karthāgine, Att. 16, 4, 2, at Carthage. Tībure, H. E. 1, 8, 12, at Tibur. Nārbōne, Ph. 2, 76, at Narbo. See 1331. So also Acherunte, Lucr. 3, 984, in Acheron. Calydōne et Naupāctō, Caes. C. 3, 35, 1, at Calydon and Naupactus, with Naupāctō attracted by Calydōne. With an attribute: Carthāgine Novā, L. 28, 17, 11, at New Carthage. Acherunte profundō, Lucr. 3, 978, in vasty Acheron.

1344. (3.) A few general appellatives are used in the locative ablative without an attribute, especially in set expressions, to denote the place where: as,

terrā marīque, IP. 48, by land and sea; less commonly marī atque terrā, S. C. 53, 2, by sea and land. dextrā Pīraeus, sinistrā Corinthus, Cael. in Fam. 4, 5, 4, Piraeus on the right, Corinth on the left. Rarely, rūre, Pl. Cas. 110, H. E. 1, 7, 1, in the country, for rūrī (1337). So animō, animīs, with verbs of feeling: as, angor animō, Br. 7, I am distressed in soul, or I am heart-broken. Metaphorically: locō, (a.) in the right place, also suō locō, or in locō. (b.) locō, instead; numerō, in the category, both with a genitive. prīncipiō, initiō, in the beginning.

1345. Certain appellatives, with an attribute, often denote the place where by the locative ablative; so especially locō, locīs, rūre, librō, librīs, parte, partibus: as, remōtō, salūbrī, amoenō locō, Fam. 7, 20, 2, in a sequestered, healthy, and picturesque nook. idōneō locō, 3, 17, 5, in an advantageous spot. inīquō locō, 5, 51, 1, on unsuitable ground. campestribus ac dēmissīs locīs, 7, 72, 3, in level and sunken places. rūre meō, H. E. 1, 15, 17, at my own country box. rūre paternō, H. E. 1, 18, 60, J. 6, 55, on the ancestral farm. aliō librō, Off. 2, 31, in another book.

1346. Substantives are often used in the locative ablative with tōtus in agreement, less often with cūnctus, omnis, or medius, to denote the place where: as, tōtā Galliā, 5, 55, 3, all over Gaul. tōtīs trepidātur castrīs, 6, 37, 6, there is a panic all over the camp. omnibus oppidīs, V. 2, 136, in all the towns. omnibus oppidīs maritimīs, Caes. C. 3, 5, 1, in all the seaports. mediā urbe, L. 1, 33, 8, in the heart of Rome. But sometimes in is used, or the accusative with per.

1347. (4.) With country names and most appellatives, the place where is generally expressed by the ablative with in. But even without an attribute, the ablative alone is sometimes used, especially in poetry: as,

Ītaliā, V. 1, 263, in Italy, lītore, V. 1, 184, upon the beach, corde, V. 1, 209, in heart, pectore, V. 1, 657, in breast, thalamō, H. 1, 15, 16, in bower, umerō, V. 1, 501, on shoulder, Ēsquiliīs, DN. 3, 63, on the Esquiline. Once in Plautus Ālide, Cap. 330, in Elis, but eight times in Ālide.

1348. The locative ablative is sometimes used with such verbs as teneō and recipiō: as, (a.) Ariovistus exercitum castrīs continuit, 1, 48, 4, Ariovistus kept his infantry in camp. oppidō sēsē continēbant, 2, 30, 2, they kept inside the town. (b.) oppidīs recipere, 2, 3, 3, to receive inside their towns. rēx ecquis est, qui senātōrem tēctō ac domō nōn invītet? V. 4, 25, is there a monarch in the wide world that would not welcome a senator to house and home?

1349. The locative ablative is used with fīdō and cōnfīdō, glōrior, laetor, nītor, stō, and with frētus: as, barbarī cōnfīsī locī nātūrā in aciē permānsērunt, 8, 15, 1, the natives, trusting in the nature of their position, kept their stand in battle array. superiōribus vīctōriis frētī, 3, 21, 1, relying on their former victories. For other constructions with these words, see the dictionary.

Time at which or Time within which.

1350. (1.) The locative ablative is used to denote the point of time at which action occurs.

So particularly of substantives denoting periods or points of time, thus: hieme, 5, 1, 1, in the winter. Kalendīs, H. Epod. 2, 70, upon the first, i.e. of the month. Generally with an attribute: as, prīmō vēre, 6, 3, 4, in the first month of spring. Mārtiīs Kalendīs, H. 3, 8, 1, upon the first of March. With a parallel locative (1341): vesperī eōdem diē, Att. 8, 5, 1, the evening of the same day.

1351. Words not in themselves denoting periods or points of time, are in the same way put in the ablative: as,

patrum nostrōrum memoriā, 1, 12, 5, in the memory of our fathers. nōn modo illīs Pūnicīs bellīs, sed etiam hāc praedōnum multitūdine, V. 4, 103, not only in the Punic wars of yore, but also in the present swarm of pirates. proxumīs comitiīs, 7, 67, 7, at the last election. spectāculīs, Att. 2, 19, 3, at the shows. Especially substantives of action in -tus or -sus (235): as, sōlis occāsū, 1, 50, 3, at sunset. adventū in Galliam Caesaris, 5, 54, 2, at Caesar’s arrival in Gaul. eōrum adventū, 7, 65, 5, after these people came. discessū cēterōrum, C. 1, 7, when the rest went away.

1352. (2.) The locative ablative is used to denote the space of time within which action occurs: as,

paucīs diēbus opus efficitur, 6, 9, 4, the job is finished up in a few days. tribus hōris Aduātucam venīre potestis, 6, 35, 8, in three hours you can get to Aduatuca. quae hīc mōnstra fīunt, annō vix possum ēloquī, Pl. Most. 505, what ghost-transactions take place here I scarce could tell you in a year. cum ad oppidum Senonum Vellaunodūnum vēnisset, id bīduō circumvāllāvit, 7, 11, 1, arriving at Vellaunodunum, a town of the Senons, in two days time he invested it. quicquid est, bīduō sciēmus, Att. 9, 14, 2, whatever it may be, we shall know in a couple of days.

1353. The ablative of the time at or within which action occurs is sometimes accompanied by in: as, in bellō, 6, 1, 3, in the war. in tempore, T. Hau. 364, in the nick of time. in adulēscentiā, Pl. B. 410, in my young days. in tālī tempore, Lucr. 1, 93, L. 22, 35, 7, in such a stress, at such an hour. in hōc trīduō, Pl. Ps. 316, within the next three days. Especially of repeated action, in the sense of a or every, with numerals: as, ter in annō, Pl. B. 1127, RA. 132, three times a year. in hōrā saepe ducentōs versūs dictābat, H. S. 1, 4, 9, two hundred verses in an hour he’d often dictate off. But occasionally without in: as, mē deciēns diē ūnō extrūdit aedibus, Pl. Aul. 70, ten times a day he thrusts me from the house. septiēns diē, L. 28, 6, 10, seven times a day.

1354. An ablative of the time within which action occurs is sometimes followed by a relative pronoun sentence, with the relative pronoun likewise in the ablative: as, quadrīduō, quō haec gesta sunt, rēs ad Chrȳsogonum dēfertur, RA. 20, within the four days space in which this occurred, the incident is reported to Chrysogonus, i.e. four days after this occurred. diēbus decem, quibus māteria coepta erat conportārī, omnī opere effectō, 4, 18, 1, the job being all done ten days after the carting of the stuff had begun.

1355. The ablative is exceptionally used to denote duration of time: as,

tōtā nocte continenter iērunt, 1, 26, 5, they went on and on all night without interruption. Regularly, however, the accusative (1151); but the ablative is common in inscriptions.

III. The Instrumental Ablative.

(A.) THE ABLATIVE OF ATTENDANCE.

The Ablative of Accompaniment.

1356. A few indefinite designations of military forces denote accompaniment by the ablative alone, or oftener with cum: as,

(a.) ad castra Caesaris omnibus cōpiīs contendērunt, 2, 7, 3, they marched upon Caesar’s camp with all their forces. omnibus cōpiīs ad Ilerdam proficīscitur, Caes. C. 1, 41, 2, he marches before Ilerda, horse, foot, and dragoons. (b.) is cīvitātī persuāsit, ut cum omnibus cōpiīs exīrent, 1, 2, 1, well, this man induced the community to emigrate in a body, bag and baggage.

1357. The participles iūnctus and coniūnctus take the ablative of the thing joined with: as, dēfēnsiōne iūncta laudātiō, Br. 162, a eulogy combined with a defence. But sometimes the ablative with cum is used, or the dative (1186).

The Ablative of Manner.

1358. (1.) Certain substantives without an attribute are put in the ablative alone to denote manner; but usually substantives without an attribute have cum.

(a.) Such adverbial ablatives are iūre and iniūriā, ratiōne et viā, silentiō, vitiō, ōrdine, sponte, cōnsuētūdine, &c.: as, Arātus iūre laudātur, Off. 2, 81, Aratus is justly admired. iniūriā suspectum, C. 1, 17, wrongfully suspected. in omnibus, quae ratiōne docentur et viā, O. 116, in everything that is taught with philosophic method. silentiō ēgressus, 7, 58, 2, going out in silence. cēnsōrēs vitiō creātī, L. 6, 27, 5, censors irregularly appointed. ōrdine cūncta exposuit, L. 3, 50, 4, he told the whole story from beginning to end, i.e. with all the particulars. (b.) With cum: face rem hanc cum cūrā gerās, Pl. Per. 198, see that this job with care thou dost. cum virtūte vīvere, Fin. 3, 29, to live virtuously.

1359. (2.) The ablative of a substantive with an attribute is often used to denote manner, sometimes with cum: as,

(a.) ī pede faustō, H. E. 2, 2, 37, go with a blessing on thy foot. dat sonitū magnō strāgem, Lucr. 1, 288, it deals destruction with a mighty roar. ferārum rītū sternuntur, L. 5, 44, 6, they throw themselves down beast-fashion. apis Matīnae mōre modōque operōsa carmina fingō, H. 4, 2, 27, in way and wise of Matin bee laborious lays I mould. ‘indoctus’ dīcimus brevī prīmā litterā, ‘īnsānus’ prōductā, ‘inhūmānus’ brevī, ‘īnfēlīx’ longā. O. 159, we pronounce indoctus with the first letter short, īnsānus with it long, inhūmānus with it short, īnfēlīx with it long (167). ternō cōnsurgunt ōrdine rēmī, V. 5, 120, with triple bank each time in concert rise the oars. (b.) Allobroges magnā cum cūrā suōs fīnēs tuentur, 7, 65, 3, the Allobrogans guard their own territory with great care.

1360. With a substantive meaning way or manner, as modō, rītū, &c., feeling or intention, as hāc mente, aequō animō, condition, as eā condiciōne, or a part of the body, as in nūdō capite, bareheaded, cum is not used.

1361. Other expressions denoting manner, particularly prepositional expressions with per, may be found in the dictionary: as, per dolum, 4, 13, 1, by deceit, per iocum, Agr. 2, 96, in fun, per litterās, Att. 5, 21, 13, by letter, in writing, per vim, RA. 32, violently, per praestigiās, V. 4, 53, by some hocus pocus or other, &c., &c. Sometimes the ablative with ex.

The Ablative Absolute.

1362. (1.) The ablative of a substantive, with a predicate participle in agreement, is used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action.

In this construction, which is called the Ablative Absolute, (a.) the present participle is sometimes used: as, nūllō hoste prohibente incolumem legiōnem in Nantuātīs perdūxit, 3, 6, 5, with no enemy hindering, he conducted the legion in safety to the Nantuates. Much oftener, however, (b.) the perfect participle: as, hōc respōnsō datō discessit, 1, 14, 7, this answer given he went away. (c.) The future participle is also used in the ablative absolute from Livy on: as, hospite ventūrō, cessābit nēmo tuōrum, J. 14, 59, a visitor to come, your slaves will bustle each and all.

1363. A predicate ablative with a participle meaning made, kept, chosen, or the like, occurs in Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, and Livy, but is rare (1167): as, Dolābellā hoste dēcrētō, Ph. 11, 16, Dolabella having been voted an enemy of the state.

1364. The perfect participles of deponents used actively in the ablative absolute, are chiefly those of intransitive use, such as nātus, mortuus, ortus, profectus. From Sallust on, other perfect deponent participles also are used actively with an accusative. Cicero and Caesar use a few deponent participles, such as ēmeritus, pactus, partītus, dēpopulātus, as passives, and later authors use many other participles so.

1365. (2.) The ablative of a substantive, with a predicate noun in agreement, is often used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action: as,

brevitātem secūtus sum tē magistrō, Fam. 11, 25, 1, I aimed at brevity with you as a teacher. nātus dīs inimīcīs, Pl. Most. 563, born under wrath of gods. M. Messālā et M. Pīsōne cōnsulibus, 1, 2, 1, in the consulship of Messala and Piso. istō praetōre vēnit Syrācūsās, V. 4, 61, in the defendant’s praetorship he came to Syracuse.

1366. The nominative quisque, plerīque, or ipse, sometimes accompanies the ablative absolute: as, causā ipse prō sē dictā, damnātur, L. 4, 44, 10, he is condemned after pleading his case in person.

1367. The ablative absolute may denote in a loose way various relations which might be more distinctly expressed by subordinate sentences.

So particularly: (a.) Time: as, tertiā initā vigiliā exercitum ēdūcit, Caes. C. 3, 54, 2, at the beginning of the third watch he leads the army out. (b.) Cause or means: as, C. Flāminium Caelius religiōne neglēctā cecidisse apud Trāsumēnum scrībit, DN. 2, 8, Caelius writes that Flaminius fell at Trasumene in consequence of his neglect of religious observances. (c.) Concession: as, id paucīs dēfendentibus expugnāre nōn potuit, 2, 12, 2, though the defenders were few, he could not take it by storm. (d.) Hypothesis: as, quae potest esse vītae iūcunditās sublātīs amīcitiīs? Pl. 80, what pleasure can there be in life, if you take friendships away? (e.) Description: as, domum vēnit capite obvolūtō, Ph. 2, 77, he came home with his head all muffled up.

1368. It may be seen from the examples above that a change of construction is often desirable in translating the ablative absolute. Particularly so in many set idiomatic expressions: as, nūllā interpositā morā, Caes. C. 3, 75, 1, without a moment’s delay, instantly. equō admissō, 1, 22, 2, equō citātō, Caes. C. 3, 96, 3, full gallop. clāmōre sublātō, 7, 12, 5, with a round of cheers. bene rē gestā salvos redeō, Pl. Tri. 1182, crowned with success I come back safe and sound.

1369. The substantive of the ablative absolute usually denotes a different person or thing from any in the main sentence. But exceptions to this usage sometimes occur: as,

quibus audītīs, eōs domum remittit, 4, 21, 6, after listening to these men, he sends them home again. sī ego mē sciente paterer, Pl. MG. 559, if I should wittingly myself allow, more emphatic than sciēns. sē iūdice nēmo nocēns absolvitur, J. 13, 2, himself the judge, no criminal gets free.

1370. Two ablatives absolute often occur together, of which the first indicates the time, circumstances, or cause of the second: as, exaudītō clāmōre perturbātīs ōrdinibus, 2, 11, 5, the ranks being demoralized from hearing the shouts. cōnsūmptīs omnibus tēlīs gladiīs dēstrictīs, Caes. C. 1, 46, 1, drawing their swords after expending all their missiles.

1371. The substantive is sometimes omitted in the ablative absolute, particularly when it is a general word for a person or a thing which is explained by a relative: as, praemissīs, quī repūrgārent iter, L. 44, 4, 11, sending sappers and miners ahead to clear a way. relātīs ōrdine, quae vīdissent, L. 42, 25, 2, telling circumstantially all they had seen.

1372. The ablative neuter of some perfect participles is used impersonally (1034). This use is rare in old Latin, in classical Latin commonest in Cicero, and afterwards in Livy: as, auspicātō, DN. 2, 11, with auspices taken. sortītō, V. 2, 126, lots being drawn, or by lot. Such ablatives readily become adverbs (704). Substantives are also sometimes used alone: as, austrō, Div. 2, 58, when the wind is south. tranquillitāte, Plin. Ep. 8, 20, 6, when it is calm. serēnō, L. 37, 3, 3, the day being clear.

1373. The ablative neuter of some perfect participles is occasionally used in agreement with a sentence or an infinitive: as, cōgnitō vīvere Ptolomaeum, L. 33, 41, 5, it being known that Ptolomy was alive. This construction is not used in old Latin, and is rare in classical Latin, but common in Livy and Tacitus. So adjectives also: as, incertō quid vītārent, L. 28, 36, 12, it not being obvious what they were to steer clear of.

1374. The ablative absolute is sometimes attended, especially in Livy and Tacitus, by an explanatory word, such as etsī, tamen, nisi, quasi, quamquam, or quamvīs: as, etsī aliquō acceptō dētrīmentō, tamen summā exercitūs salvā, Caes. C. 1, 67, 5, though with some loss, yet with the safety of the army as a whole.

The Ablative of Quality.

1375. The ablative with an adjective in agreement or with a limiting genitive is used to denote quality, either predicatively or attributively: as,

(a.) Predicatively: capillō sunt prōmissō, 5, 14, 3, they have long hair, or let their hair grow long. singulārī fuit industriā, N. 24, 3, 1, he had unparalleled activity. animō bonō’s, Pl. Aul. 732, be of good cheer. ad flūmen Genusum, quod rīpīs erat impedītīs, Caes. C. 3, 75, 4, to the river Genusus, which had impracticable banks. (b.) Attributively: difficilī trānsitū flūmen rīpīsque praeruptīs, 6, 7, 5, a river hard to cross and with steep banks. interfectus est C. Gracchus, clārissimō patre, avō, maiōribus, C. 1, 4, Gracchus was done to death, a man with an illustrious father, grandfather, and ancestors in general (1044). bōs cervī figūrā, 6, 26, 1, an ox with the shape of a stag. Compare the genitive of quality (1239).

The Ablative of the Route taken.

1376. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of motion to denote the route taken: as,

Aurēliā viā profectus est, C. 2, 6, he has gone off by the Aurelia Road. omnibus viīs sēmitīsque essedāriōs ex silvīs ēmittēbat, 5, 19, 2, he kept sending his chariot men out by all possible highways and byways. hīs pontibus pābulātum mittēbat, Caes. C. 1, 40, 1, by these bridges he sent foraging. frūmentum Tiberī vēnit, L. 2, 34, 5, some grain came by the Tiber. lupus Ēsquilīna portā ingressus per portam Capēnam prope intāctus ēvāserat, L. 33, 26, 9, a wolf that came in town by the Esquiline gate had got out through the Capene gate, almost unscathed. This construction gives rise to some adverbs: see 707. The ablative of the route is sometimes used with a substantive of action (1301): as, nāvigātiō īnferō, Att. 9, 5, 1, the cruise by the lower sea. eōdem flūmine invectiō, Fin. 5, 70, entrance by the same river.

(B.) THE INSTRUMENTAL PROPER.

The Ablative of Instrument or Means.

1377. The ablative is used to denote the instrument or means: as,

pugnābant armīs, H. S. 1, 3, 103, they fought with arms. clārē oculīs videō, sum pernīx pedibus, manibus mōbilis, Pl. MG. 630, I can see distinctly with my eyes, I’m nimble with my legs, and active with my arms. iuvābō aut rē tē aut operā aut cōnsiliō bonō, Pl. Ps. 19, I’ll help thee either with my purse or hand or good advice. lacte et carne vīvunt, pellibusque sunt vestītī, 5, 14, 2, they live on milk and meat, and they are clad in skins. contentus paucīs lēctōribus, H. S. 1, 10, 74, content with readers few. centēnāque arbore flūctum verberat, V. 10, 207, and with an hundred beams at every stroke the wave he smites. Rarely with substantives denoting action (1301): as, gestōrēs linguīs, audītōrēs auribus, Pl. Ps. 429, reporters with their tongues and listeners with their ears. tenerīs labellīs mollēs morsiunculae, Pl. Ps. 67^a, caressing bites with velvet lips.

1378. When the instrument is a person, the accusative with per is used: as, haec quoque per explōrātōrēs ad hostēs dēferuntur, 6, 7, 9, this too is reported to the enemy through the medium of scouts. Or a circumlocution, such as virtūte, beneficiō, benignitāte, or especially operā, with a genitive or possessive; as, deūm virtūte multa bona bene parta habēmus, Pl. Tri. 346, thanks to the gods, we’ve many a pretty penny prettily put by. meā operā Tarentum recēpistī, CM. 11, It was through me you got Tarentum back. Rarely the ablative of a person, the person being then regarded as a thing: as, iacent suīs testibus, Mil. 47, they are cast by their own witnesses.

1379. The instrumental ablative is used with the five deponents fruor, fungor, potior, ūtor, vēscor, and several of their compounds, and with ūsus est and opus est: as,

pāce numquam fruēmur, Ph. 7, 19, we never shall enjoy ourselves with peace, i.e. we never shall enjoy peace. fungar vice cōtis, H. AP. 304, I’ll play the whetstone’s part. castrīs nostrī potītī sunt, 1, 26, 4, our people made themselves masters of the camp. vestrā operā ūtar, L. 3, 46, 8, I will avail myself of your services. carne vēscor, TD. 5, 90, I live on meat. opust chlamyde, Pl. Ps. 734, there is a job with a cloak, i.e. we need a cloak.

1380. Instead of the instrumental ablative, some of the above verbs take the accusative occasionally in old and post-Augustan Latin: thus, in Plautus, Terence, Cato, always abūtor, also fungor, except once in Terence; fruor in Cato and Terence, and perfungor in Lucretius, once each; potior twice in Plautus and three times in Terence, often also the genitive (1292). The gerundive of these verbs is commonly used personally in the passive, as if the verbs were regularly used transitively (2244).

1381. ūtor often has a second predicative ablative: as, administrīs druidibus ūtuntur, 6, 16, 2, they use the druids as assistants. facilī mē ūtētur patre, T. Hau. 217, an easy-going father he will find in me.

1382. ūsus est and opus est sometimes take a neuter participle, especially in old Latin: as, vīsō opust cautōst opus, Pl. Cap. 225, there’s need of sight, there’s need of care. Sometimes the ablative with a predicate participle: as, celeriter mī eō homine conventōst opus, Pl. Cur. 302, I needs must see that man at once.

1383. With opus est, the thing wanted is often made the subject nominative or subject accusative, with opus in the predicate: as, dux nōbīs et auctor opus est, Fam. 2, 6, 4, we need a leader and adviser. Usually so when the thing needed is a neuter adjective or neuter pronoun: as, multa sibī̆ opus esse, V. 1, 126, that he needed much. A genitive dependent on opus is found once or twice in late Latin (1227).

1384. ūsus est is employed chiefly in comedy, but also once or twice in Cicero, Lucretius, Vergil, and Livy. Once with the accusative: ūsust hominem astūtum, Pl. Ps. 385, there’s need of a sharp man.

The Ablative of Specification.

1385. The instrumental ablative is used to denote that in respect of which an assertion or a term is to be taken: as,

temporibus errāstī, Ph. 2, 23, you have slipped up in your chronology. excellēbat āctiōne, Br. 215, his forte lay in delivery. Helvētiī reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecēdunt, 1, 1, 4, the Helvetians outdo the rest of the Kelts in bravery. hī omnēs linguā, īnstitūtīs, lēgibus inter sē differunt, 1, 1, 2, these people all differ from each other in language, usages, and laws. sunt quīdam hominēs nōn rē sed nōmine, Off. 1, 105, some people are human beings not in reality but in name. ūna Suēba nātiōne, altera Nōrica, 1, 53, 4, one woman a Suebe by birth, the other Noric. vīcistis cochleam tarditūdine, Pl. Poen. 532, you’ve beaten snail in slowness. dēmēns iūdiciō volgī, H. S. 1, 6, 97, mad in the judgement of the world. sapiunt me͡ā sententiā, T. Ph. 335, in my opinion they are wise. meā quidem sententiā, CM. 56, in my humble opinion. quis iūre perītior commemorārī potest? Clu. 107, who can be named that is better versed in the law?

The Ablative of Fulness.

1386. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of abounding, filling, and furnishing: as,

vīlla abundat porcō, haedō, āgnō, CM. 56, the country place is running over with swine, kid, and lamb. tōtum montem hominibus complērī iussit, 1, 24, 3, he gave orders for the whole mountain to be covered over with men. Māgōnem poenā adfēcērunt, N. 23, 8, 2, they visited Mago with punishment. legiōnēs nimis pulcrīs armīs praeditās, Pl. Am. 218, brigades in goodliest arms arrayed. cōnsulārī imperiō praeditus, Pis. 55, vested with the authority of consul. For the genitive with compleō and impleō, see 1293.

1387. The ablative is sometimes used with adjectives of fulness, instead of the regular genitive (1263). Thus, in later Latin, rarely with plēnus: as, maxima quaeque domus servīs est plēna superbīs, J. 5, 66, a grand establishment is always full of stuck-up slaves. et ille quidem plēnus annīs abiīt, plēnus honōribus, Plin. Ep. 2, 1, 7, well, as for him, he has passed away, full of years and full of honours. So in Cicero and Caesar, once each. Also with dīves in poetry, and, from Livy on, in prose. With refertus, the ablative of things is common, while persons are usually in the genitive (1263). With onustus, the ablative is generally used, rarely the genitive.

The Ablative of Measure, Exchange, and Price.

1388. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of measuring and of exchanging, and in expressions of value and price: as,

(a.) quod magnōs hominēs virtūte mētīmur, N. 18, 1, 1, because we gauge great men by their merit. (b.) nēmō nisi vīctor pāce bellum mūtāvit, S. C. 58, 15, nobody except a conqueror has ever exchanged war for peace. (c.) haec sīgna sēstertiūm sex mīllibus quīngentīs esse vēndita, V. 4, 12, that these statues were sold for sixty-five hundred sesterces. aestimāvit dēnāriīs III, V. 3, 214, he valued it at three denars. trīgintā mīllibus dīxistis eum habitāre, Cael. 17, you have said he pays thirty thousand rent. quod nōn opus est, āsse cārum est, Cato in Sen. Ep. 94, 28, what you don’t need, at a penny is dear. hem, istūc verbum, mea voluptās, vīlest vīgintī minīs, Pl. Most. 297, bless me, that compliment, my charmer, were at twenty minas cheap.

1389. With mūtō and commūtō, the ablative usually denotes the thing received. But sometimes in Plautus, and especially in Horace, Livy, and late prose, it denotes the thing parted with: as, cūr valle permūtem Sabīnā dīvitiās operōsiōrēs? H. 3, 1, 47, why change my Sabine dale for wealth that brings more care? Similarly with cum in the prose of Cicero’s age: as, mortem cum vītā commūtāre, Sulp. in Fam. 4, 5, 3, to exchange life for death.

1390. The ablative of price or value is thus used chiefly with verbs or verbal expressions of bargaining, buying or selling, hiring or letting, costing, being cheap or dear. Also with aestimō, of a definite price, and sometimes magnō, permagnō (1273).

1391. The ablatives thus used, are (a.) those of general substantives of value and price, such as pretium, (b.) numerical designations of money, or (c.) neuter adjectives of quantity, magnō, permagnō, quam plūrimō, parvō, minimō, nihilō, nōnnihilō: as, magnō decumās vēndidī, V. 3, 40, I sold the tithes at a high figure. For tantī and quantī, plūris and minōris, see 1274.

1392. The ablative is also used with dignus and indignus: as,

dignī maiōrum locō, Agr. 2, 1, well worthy of the high standing of their ancestors. nūlla vōx est audīta populī Rōmānī maiestāte indigna, 7, 17, 3, not a word was heard out of keeping with the grandeur of Rome. See also dignor in the dictionary. Similarly in Plautus with condignē, decōrus, decet, aequē, aequos. For the genitive with dignus, see 1269; for the accusative with dignus and a form of sum, 1144.

The Ablative of the Amount of Difference.

1393. The instrumental ablative is used to denote the amount of difference.

This ablative is used with any words whatever of comparative or of superlative meaning: as, ūnō diē longiōrem mēnsem faciunt aut bīduō, V. 2, 129, they make the month longer by a day, or even by two days. ubī̆ adbibit plūs paulō, T. Hau. 220, when he has drunk a drop too much. nummō dīvitior, Pl. Ps. 1323, a penny richer. bīduō post, 1, 47, 1, two days after. multīs ante diēbus, 7, 9, 4, many days before. paucīs ante diēbus, C. 3, 3, a few days ago. nimiō praestat, Pl. B. 396, ‘t is ever so much better. multō mālim, Br. 184, I would much rather. multō maxima pars, C. 4, 17, the largest part by far.

1394. In expressions of time, the accusative is sometimes used with post, less frequently with ante, as prepositions, instead of the ablative of difference: as, post paucōs diēs, L. 21, 51, 2, post diēs paucōs, L. 37, 13, 6, paucōs post diēs, L. 33, 39, 2, after a few days. paucōs ante diēs, L. 39, 28, 4, diēs ante paucōs, L. 31, 24, 5, a few days before. With this prepositional construction, ordinals are common: as, post diem tertium, 4, 9, 1, after the third day, according to the Roman way of reckoning, i.e. the next day but one.

1395. (1.) When the time before or after which anything occurs is denoted by a substantive, the substantive is put in the accusative with ante or post: as,

paulō ante tertiam vigiliam, 7, 24, 2, a little before the third watch. bīduō ante vīctōriam, Fam. 10, 14, 1, the day but one before the victory. paucīs diēbus post mortem Āfricānī, L. 3, a few days after the death of Africanus.

1396. Sometimes in late writers, as Tacitus, Pliny the younger, and Suetonius, a genitive is loosely used: as, sextum post clādis annum, Ta. 1, 62, i.e. sextō post clādem annō, six years after the humiliating defeat. post decimum mortis annum, Plin. Ep. 6, 10, 3, ten years after his death. Similarly intrā sextum adoptiōnis diem, Suet. Galb. 17, not longer than six days after the adoption-day.

1397. (2.) When the time before or after which anything occurs is denoted by a sentence, the sentence may be introduced:

(a.) By quam: as, post diem tertium gesta rēs est quam dīxerat, Mil. 44, it took place two days after he said it. With quam, post is sometimes omitted. Or (b.) less frequently by cum: as, quem trīduō, cum hās dabam litterās, exspectābam, Planc. in Fam. 10, 23, 3, I am looking for him three days after this writing (1601). For a relative pronoun sentence, see 1354.

1398. Verbs of surpassing sometimes have an accusative of extent (1151): as, mīrāmur hunc hominem tantum excellere cēterīs? IP. 39, are we surprised that this man so far outshines everybody else? With comparatives, the accusative is rare: as, aliquantum inīquior, T. Hau. 201, somewhat too hard. Similarly permultum ante, Fam. 3, 11, 1, long long before.

1399. In numerical designations of distance, the words intervāllum and spatium are regularly put in the ablative: as, rēx VI mīlium passuum intervāllō ā Saburrā cōnsēderat, Caes. C. 2, 38, 3, the king had pitched six miles away from Saburra. So sometimes mīlle: as, mīlibus passuum VI a Caesaris castrīs sub monte cōnsēdit, 1, 48, 1. See 1152.

Two or More Ablatives Combined.

1400. Two or more ablatives denoting different relations are often combined in the same sentence: as,

Menippus, meō iūdiciō (1385) tōtā Asiā (1346) illīs temporibus (1350) disertissimus, Br. 315, Menippus, in my opinion the most gifted speaker of that day in all Asia. hāc habitā ōrātiōne (1362) mīlitibus studiō (1316) pugnae ardentibus (1370) tubā (1377) sīgnum dedit, Caes. C. 3, 90, 4, seeing that his soldiers were hot for battle after this speech, he gave the signal by trumpet.

Use of Cases with Prepositions.

1401. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative, are used with prepositions.

1402. Prepositions were originally adverbs which served to define more exactly the meaning of a verb.

Thus, endo, in, on, the older form of in, is an adverb, in an injunction occurring in a law of the Twelve Tables, 451 B.C., manum endo iacitō, let him lay hand on. Similarly, trāns, over, in trānsque datō, and he must hand over, i.e. trāditōque.

1403. In the course of time such adverbs became verbal prefixes; the verbs compounded with them may take the case, accusative or ablative, required by the meaning of the compound. Thus, amīcōs adeō, I go to my friends (1137); urbe exeō, I go out of town (1302).

1404. For distinctness or emphasis, the prefix of the verb may be repeated before the case: as, ad amīcōs adeō; ex urbe exeō. And when it is thus separately expressed before the case, it may be dropped from the verb: as, ad amīcōs eō; ex urbe eō.

1405. The preposition thus detached from the verb becomes an attendant on a substantive, and serves to show the relation of the substantive in a sentence more distinctly than the case alone could.

1406. A great many adverbs which are never used in composition with a verb likewise become prepositions: as, apud, circiter, īnfrā, iūxtā, pōne, propter, &c., &c. The inflected forms of substantives, prīdiē, postrīdiē (1413), tenus (1420), and fīnī (1419), are also sometimes used as prepositions. And vicem (1145), causā, grātiā, nōmine, ergō (1257), resemble prepositions closely in meaning.

1407. A trace of the original adverbial use of prepositions is sometimes retained, chiefly in poetry, when the prefix is separated from its word by what is called Tmesis: as, īre inque gredī, i.e. ingredīque, Lucr. 4, 887, to walk and to step off. per mihī̆ mīrum vīsum est, DO. 1, 214, passing strange it seemed to me.

1408. Even such words as are used almost exclusively as prepositions sometimes retain their original adverbial meaning also: as, adque adque, E. in Gell. 10, 29, 2, and up and up, and on and on, or and nearer still and still more near. occīsīs ad hominum mīlibus quattuor, 2, 33, 5, about four thousand men being killed. susque dēque, Att. 14, 6, 1, up and down, topsy turvy, no matter how.

1409. On the other hand, some verbal prefixes are never used as separate prepositions with a substantive. These are called Inseparable Prepositions; they are: amb-, round, an-, up, dis-, in two, por-, towards, rē̆d-, back. Usually also sēd-, apart (1417).

Prepositions used with the Accusative.

1410. The accusative is accompanied by the following prepositions:

ad, to, adversus or adversum, towards, against, ante, in composition also antid-, before, apud, near, at, circā, circum, circiter, round, about, cis, citrā, this side of, contrā, opposite to, ergā, towards, extrā, outside, īnfrā, below, inter, between, intrā, within, iūxtā, near, ob, against, penes, in the possession of, per, through, pōne, post, in Plautus postid, poste, pos, behind, praeter, past, prope (propius, proximē), propter, near, secundum, after, subter, under, suprā, above, trāns, across, uls, ultrā, beyond. For the various shades of meaning and applications of these prepositions, see the dictionary.

1411. Prepositions which accompany the accusative may be easily remembered in this order:

ante, apud, ad, adversum,

circum, cis, ob, trāns, secundum,

penes, pōne, prope, per,

post, and all in -ā and -ter.

1412. Of the above named words some are not used as prepositions till a relatively late period.

Thus, īnfrā is first used as a preposition by Terence and once only; circā somewhat before and citrā about Cicero’s time; ultrā first by Cato; iūxtā by Varro. In Cicero iūxtā is still used only as an adverb, in Caesar and Nepos as a preposition.

1413. The substantive forms prīdiē, the day before, and postrīdiē, the day after, are sometimes used with an accusative like prepositions, mostly in Cicero, to denote dates: as, prīdiē nōnās Māiās, Att. 2, 11, 2, the day before the nones of May, i.e. 6 May. postrīdiē lūdōs Apollinārīs, Att. 16, 4, 1, the day after the games of Apollo, i.e. 6 July. For the genitive with these words, see 1232.

1414. The adverb vorsus or versus, wards, occurs as a post positive (1434) preposition rarely: once in Sallust, Aegyptum vorsus, J. 19, 3, Egyptwards, in Cicero a few times, twice in Pliny the elder. usque, even to, occurs with names of towns in Terence (once), Cicero, and later; with appellatives in Cato (once) and late writers.

1415. clam, secretly, is ordinarily an adverb. But in old Latin it is used often as a preposition, unknown to, with an accusative of a person. Terence has once the diminutive form clanculum, Ad. 52. With the ablative only in the MSS. of Caesar, once, clam vōbīs, C. 2, 32, 8, without your knowledge, and in Bell. Afr. 11, 4.

1416. subter, under, is used in poetry, once by Catullus and once by Vergil, with the locative ablative: as, Rhoetēō subter lītore, Cat. 65, 7, beneath Rhoeteum’s strand.

Prepositions used with the Ablative.

1417. The ablative is accompanied by the following prepositions:

abs, ab, or ā, from, cōram, face to face, dē, down from, from, of, ex or ē, out of, prae, at the fore, in front of, prō, before, quom or cum, with, sine, without. In official or legal language, also sēd or sē, without. For the different classes of ablatives with these prepositions, see 1297-1300; for the various shades of meanings and applications, see the dictionary.

1418. Prepositions which accompany the ablative may be easily remembered in this order:

abs (ab, ā), cum, cōram, dē,

prae, prō, sine, ex (or ē).

1419. The ablative fīnī, as far as, is used in old Latin as a preposition with the ablative: as, osse fīnī, Pl. Men. 859, down to the bone. operītō terrā rādīcibus fīnī, Cato, RR. 28, 2, cover with loam the length of the roots. Also, as a real substantive, with a genitive (1255): as, ānsārum īnfimārum fīnī, Cato, RR. 113, 2, up to the bottom of the handles. Rarely fīne, and before the genitive: as, fīne genūs, O. 10, 537, as far as the knee.

1420. tenus, the length, was originally a substantive accusative (1151). From Cicero on, it is used as a preposition with the ablative, and standing after its case: as, Taurō tenus, D. 36, not further than Taurus. pectoribus tenus, L. 21, 54, 9, quite up to the breast. hāctenus, thus far, only thus far. Also, as a real substantive, with a genitive, usually a plural, mostly in verse (1232): as, labrōrum tenus, Lucr. 1, 940, the length of the lips, up to the lips. Cūmārum tenus, Cael. in Fam. 8, 1, 2, as far as Cumae.

1421. The adverbs palam, in presence of, procul, apart from, either near or far, simul, with, are rarely used in poetry and late prose as prepositions with the ablative. coram occurs but once as a preposition (inscriptional) before Cicero’s time. absque with the ablative occurs once each in Cicero and Quintilian; in Plautus and Terence only in a coordinate protasis (1701; 2110).

Prepositions used with the Accusative or the Ablative.

1422. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative, are accompanied by the prepositions in, older endo, indu, into, in, sub, under, and super, over, on.

1423. (1.) in and sub accompany the accusative of the end of motion, the locative ablative of rest: as,

(a.) in cūriam vēnimus, V. 4, 138, we went to the senate-house. in vincla coniectus est, V. 5, 17, he was put in irons. hīc pāgus eius exercitum sub iugum mīserat, 1, 12, 5, this canton had sent his army under the yoke. (b.) erimus in castrīs, Ph. 12, 28, we shall be in camp. viridī membra sub arbutō strātus, H. 1, 1, 21, stretched out—his limbs—all under an arbute green.

1424. Verbs of rest sometimes have in with the accusative, because of an implied idea of motion. And, conversely, verbs of motion sometimes have in with the ablative, because of an implied idea of rest: as,

(a.) mihi in mentem fuit, Pl. Am. 180, it popped into my head, i.e. came in and is in (compare venithoc mī in mentem, Pl. Aul. 226. in eius potestātem venīre nōlēbant, V. 1, 150. in eōrum potestātem portum futūrum intellegēbant, V. 5, 98, they knew full well the haven would get under the control of these people). (b.) Caesar exercitum in hībernīs conlocāvit, 3, 29, 3, Caesar put the army away in winter quarters, i.e. put them into and left them in. eam in lectō conlocārunt, T. Eu. 593, they laid the lady on her couch. So commonly with locō, conlocō, statuō, cōnstituō, pōnō, and its compounds. For expōnō and impōnō, see the dictionary.

1425. (2.) super accompanies the ablative when it has colloquially the sense of dē, about, in reference to: as, hāc super rē scrībam ad tē Rēgiō, Att. 16, 6, 1, I’ll write you about this from Regium. In other senses, the accusative, but sometimes in poetry the ablative, chiefly in the sense of on: as, ligna super focō largē repōnēns, H. 1, 9, 5, piling on hearth the faggots high. nocte super mediā, V. 9, 61, at dead of night. paulum silvae super hīs, H. S. 2, 6, 3, a bit of wood to crown the whole.

Combination of Substantives by a Preposition.

1426. (1.) Two substantives are sometimes connected by a preposition, to indicate certain attributive relations (1043); such are particularly:

(a.) Place: as, illam pugnam nāvālem ad Tenedum, Mur. 33, the sea-fight off Tenedus. excessum ē vītā, Fin. 3, 60, the departure from life. (b.) Source, origin, material: as, ex Aethiopiā ancillulam, T. Eu. 165, a lady’s maid from Aethiopia. pōcula ex aurō, V. 4, 62, bowls of gold (1314). (c.) Direction of action, connection, separation: as, amor in patriam, Fl. 103, love of country. vestra ergā mē voluntās, C. 4, 1, your good will towards me. proelium cum Tūscīs ad Iāniculum, L. 2, 52, 7, the battle with the Tuscans at Janiculum. vir sine metū, TD. 5, 48, a man devoid of fear (1043).

1427. (2.) Very commonly, however, other constructions are used, even to indicate the relations above: as,

bellum Venetōrum, 3, 16, 1, war with the Venetans (1231). bellō Cassiānō, 1, 13, 2, in the war with Cassius (1233). in aureīs pōculīs, V. 4, 54, in golden bowls (1233). scūtīs ex cortice factīs, 2, 33, 2, with long shields made out of bark (1314). post vīctōriam eius bellī, quod cum Persīs fuit, Off. 3, 49, after the victory in the war with the Persians.

1428. Prepositional expressions are sometimes used predicatively: as, sunt omnēs sine maculā, Pl. 6, 14, they are all without spot or blemish. And sometimes they are equivalent to adjectives: as, contrā nātūram, TD. 4, 11, unnatural, suprā hominem, DN. 2, 34, superhuman. Or to substantives: as, sine pondere, O. 1, 20, things without weight. Or to adverbs: as, sine labōre, Pl. R. 461, easily.

Repetition or Omission of a Preposition with several Substantives.

1429. (1.) A preposition is often repeated with emphasis before two or more substantives: as,

in labōre atque in dolōre, Pl. Ps. 685, in toil and in trouble. Particularly so with et... et, aut... aut, nōn sōlum... sed etiam, nōn minus... quam, &c., &c.: as, et ex urbe et ex agrīs, C. 2, 21, from Rome and from the country too.

1430. (2.) A preposition is often used with the first only of two or more substantives: as, in labōre ac dolōre, TD. 5, 41, in toil and trouble. incidit in eandem invidiam quam pater suus, N. 5, 3, 1, he fell under the selfsame ban as his father. Particularly when the second is in apposition: as, cum duōbus ducibus, Pyrrhō et Hannibale, L. 28, with two commanders, Pyrrhus and Hannibal.

Two Prepositions with one Substantive.

1431. (1.) When two prepositions belong to one and the same substantive, the substantive is expressed with the first. With the second, the substantive is repeated, or its place is taken by a pronoun: as,

contrā lēgem prōque lēge, L. 34, 8, 1, against the law and for the law. partim contrā Avītum, partim prō hōc, Clu. 88, partly against Avitus, partly for him. If, however, the two prepositions accompany the same case, the substantive need not be repeated: as, intrā extrāque mūnītiōnēs, Caes. C. 3, 72, 2, inside and outside the works.

1432. (2.) The second preposition is often used adverbially, without any substantive: as, et in corpore et extrā, Fin. 2, 68, both in the body and outside.

Position of Prepositions.

1433. In general a preposition precedes its case: see 178.

1434. Disyllabic prepositions sometimes follow their substantives. Thus, in Cicero, contrā, ultrā, and sine, sometimes stand after a relative; so likewise inter in Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust; occasionally also penes and propter. For versus, see 1414; for fīnī, 1419; for tenus, 1420.

1435. Of monosyllables, ad and dē often follow a relative. Also cum often in Cicero and Sallust, and regularly in Caesar. With a personal or a reflexive pronoun, cum regularly follows, as mēcum, nōbīscum, sēcum.

1436. In poetry and late prose, prepositions are freely put after their cases.

1437. In oaths and adjurations, per is often separated from its proper accusative by the accusative of the object: as, per tē de͡ōs ōrō, T. Andr. 538, I beg thee by the gods, in the gods’ name.

Use of Adverbs.

1438. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

(a.) With verbs, all sorts of adverbs are used: as, of Place: quis istīc habet? Pl. B. 114, who lives in there? Time: tum dentēs mihi cadēbant prīmulum, Pl. Men. 1116, my teeth were just beginning then to go. Number: bis cōnsul fuerat P. Āfricānus, Mur. 58, Africanus had twice been consul. Degree, Amount: Ubiī magnopere ōrābant, 4, 16, 5, the Ubians earnestly entreated. Dumnorīx plūrimum poterat, 1, 9, 3, Dumnorix was all-powerful. Manner: bene quiēvit, libenter cibum sūmpsit, Plin. Ep. 3, 16, 4, he has slept beautifully, he has relished his food. (b.) With adjectives and adverbs, oftenest adverbs of degree or amount only, or their equivalents, such as bene, ēgregiē, &c.: as, valdē dīligēns, Ac. 2, 98, very particular. ēgregiē fortis, DO. 2, 268, exceptionally brave. Adverbs of manner, however, are also used, especially in poetry: as, turpiter hīrtum, H. E. 1, 3, 22, disreputably rough, i.e. disreputable and rough.

1439. An adverb is sometimes used with the meaning of an adjective: as,

reliquīs deincēps diēbus, 3, 29, 1, the remaining successive days. dē suīs prīvātim rēbus, 5, 3, 5, in relation to their personal interests. undique silvae, Plin. Ep. 1, 6, 2, the surrounding woods. Particularly when the substantive expresses character, like an adjective: as, vērē Metellus, Sest. 130, a trueblooded Metellus. rūsticānus vir, sed plānē vir, TD. 2, 53, a country man, but every inch a man.

1440. Perfect participles used as substantives are commonly qualified by an adverb, and not by an adjective. Particularly so dictum, factum, inventum, respōnsum, with bene and male, and their synonymes: as, rēctē ac turpiter factum, 7, 80, 5, heroism and cowardice. bene facta male locāta male facta arbitror, E. in Off. 2, 62, good deeds ill put, bad deeds I count. In superlative qualifications, however, the adjective is preferred.

1441. Other substantives also may be qualified by an adverb, when a verb construction or a participle is implied: as, C. Flāminius cōnsul iterum, Div. 1, 77, Flaminius in his second consulship. ō totiēns servos, H. S. 2, 7, 70, time and again a slave. ictū comminus, Caecin. 43, by a hand-to-hand blow. pūblicē testem, V. 2, 156, a government witness. populum lātē rēgem, V. 1, 21, a nation regnant wide. lātē tyrannus, H. 3, 17, 9, lord paramount far and near.

1442. An adverb sometimes takes the place of a substantive: as, cum amīcī partim dēseruerint mē, partim etiam prōdiderint, QFr. 1, 3, 5, since my friends have some of them abandoned me, and others again have actually betrayed me, i.e. aliī... aliī. postquam satis tūta circā vidēbantur, L. 1, 58, 2, finding every thing round about looked pretty safe, i.e. quae circā erant. palam laudārēs, sēcrēta male audiēbant, Ta. H. 1, 10, his outward walk you would have admired; his private life was in bad odour, i.e. quae palam fīēbant.

Negative Adverbs.

1443. (1.) The negative oftenest used in declaration or interrogation is nōn, not: as,

nōn metuō mihi, Pl. B. 225, I fear not for myself. nōn semper imbrēs nūbibus hīspidōs mānant in agrōs, H. 2, 9, 1, not always from the clouds do showers on stubbly fields come dripping dropping down. nōn dīcēs hodiē? H. S. 2, 7, 21, will you not say without delay?

1444. nōn is a modification of noenum or noenu, compounded of ne, no, and the accusative oinom or oenum, the older form of ūnum, one thing. noenum occurs in Plautus twice, in Ennius, Lucilius, Afranius, and Varro, once each, and noenu occurs twice in Lucretius (99).

1445. Negation is often expressed by other compounds of ne. In such cases the Latin idiom frequently differs from the English, and a transfer of the negative is required in translation.

Such compounds are: (a.) Verbs, such as negō, nequeō, nesciō, nōlō: as, negat vērum esse, Mur. 74, he maintains it is not true. (b.) Nouns, such as nēmō, neuter, nūllus, nihil: as, nēminī meus adventus labōrī fuit, V. 1, 16, my visit did not trouble anybody. (c.) Adverbs, such as numquam, nusquam. (d.) Similarly, the conjunction neque is used for and not, but not, unless a single word is to be emphasized or contrasted: as, nec frūstrā, 8, 5, 3, and not in vain.

1446. A form nec is used rarely in old Latin in the sense of nōn: as, tū dīs nec rēctē dīcis, Pl. B. 119, thou dost abuse the gods, i.e. nōn rēctē or male dīcis. After Plautus’s time, nec for nōn occurs in a few set combinations, such as nec opīnāns, not expecting, and, from Livy on, necdum, not yet, i.e. nōndum.

1447. The form nē usually introduces an imperative or a subjunctive, as will be explained further on. But nē is also used in the combination nē... quidem, not even, not... either, with the emphatic word between nē and quidem: as, nē tum quidem, 1, 50, 2, not even then. nē Vorēnus quidem sēsē vāllō continet, 5, 44, 6, Vorenus did not keep inside the palisade either.

1448. The adjective nūllus is sometimes used, chiefly in colloquial language, for nōn or nē (1051): as, Philotīmus nūllus vēnit, Att. 11, 24, 4, no Philotimus has shown himself. nūllus crēduās, Pl. Tri. 606, you needn’t believe it at all.

1449. (2.) The negative haut or haud, not, is used principally with adjectives and adverbs, less frequently with verbs: as,

(a.) haud mediocris vir, RP. 2, 55, no ordinary man. rem haud sānē difficilem, CM. 4, a thing not particularly hard. haud procul, CM. 15, not far. In all periods of the language often combined with quisquam, ūllus, umquam, usquam. (b.) In old Latin haud is freely used with all sorts of verbs, especially with possum. In Cicero, it occurs here and there with a few verbs, such as adsentior, errō, īgnōrō, nītor, amō, but is principally confined to sciō, in the combination haud sciō an, I don’t know but (1782). Caesar uses haud once only, and then in this combination.

1450. A shorter form, hau, occurs often in old Latin, and a few times in the classical period: as, heic est sepulcrum hau pulcrum pulcrai fēminae, CIL. I, 1007, 2, on the burial site of a woman, here is the site not sightly of a sightly dame. In Plautus it is juxtaposed with sciō, making hausciō, i.e. nesciō.

1451. (3.) Negation may also be intimated by such words as vix, hardly, parum, not... enough, not quite, minus, less, not, minimē, least of all, male, &c.

1452. Two negatives in the same sentence are usually equivalent to an affirmative.

Thus, with nōn first, an indefinite affirmative: as, nōn nēmō, somebody, a certain gentleman, one or another. nōn nūllus, some. nōn nihil, something, somewhat. nōn numquam, sometimes. With nōn second, a universal affirmative: as, nēmō nōn, everybody, every human being. nūllus nōn, every. nihil nōn, every thing. numquam nōn, always. nōn possum nōn cōnfitērī, Fam. 9, 14, 1, I must confess. nēmō īgnōrat, V. 2, 111, everybody knows.

1453. Sometimes, however, in old Latin, a second negation is used merely to emphasize the negative idea: as, lapideō sunt corde multī, quōs nōn miseret nēminis, E. in Fest. p. 162, there’s many a man with heart of stone, that feels for nobody. For doubled negatives in compound sentences, see 1660.

Use of Degrees of Comparison.

The Positive.

1454. The positive sometimes expresses an idea of disproportion: as,

prō multitūdine hominum angustōs sē fīnīs habēre arbitrābantur, 1, 2, 5, in view of their large numbers they thought they had a cramped place to live in. Generally, however, disproportion is expressed as in 1460 or 1461.

The Comparative.

1455. When two things only are compared, the comparative is used: as,

uter igitur melior? Div. 2, 133, which of the two then is the better? uter est īnsānior hōrum? H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these two is crazier? uter erātis, tūn an ille, maior? Pl. Men. 1119, you were—which of the two the bigger, thou or he?

1456. The superlative is sometimes loosely used when only two things are meant: as, Numitōrī, quī stirpis maximus erat, rēgnum lēgat, L. 1, 3, 10, to Numitor, who was the eldest of the family, he bequeaths the crown, of two brothers, Numitor and Amulius. id me͡ā minumē rēfert, quī sum nātū maxumus, T. Ad. 881, that is of small concern to me, who am the eldest son, says Demea, who has only one brother.

1457. From Cicero on, an adjective or adverb is sometimes compared with another adjective or adverb. In such comparisons quam is always used.

In this case: (a.) Both members may have the positive form, the first with magis: as, Celer disertus magis est quam sapiēns, Att. 10, 1, 4, Celer is more eloquent than wise. magis audācter quam parātē, Br. 241, with more assurance than preparation. Or (b.) Both members may have the comparative suffix: as, lubentius quam vērius, Mil. 78, with greater satisfaction than truth. pestilentia minācior quam perniciōsior, L. 4, 52, 3, a plague more alarming than destructive.

1458. But sometimes the second member is put in the positive, even when the first has the comparative suffix: as, ācrius quam cōnsīderātē, Ta. H. 1, 83, with more spirit than deliberation. And sometimes both members: as, clārīs maiōribus quam vetustīs, Ta. 4, 61, of a house famous rather than ancient.

1459. The comparative may be modified by ablatives of difference, such as multō, far, aliquantō, considerably, paullō or paulō, a little, nimiō, too much, ever so much (1393). Also by etiam, even, still, and in Catullus, Sallust, Vergil, and later Latin by longē, far, adhūc, still.

1460. The comparative of an adjective or adverb often denotes that which is more than usual or more than is right: as,

solēre aiunt rēgēs Persārum plūrēs uxōrēs habēre, V. 3, 76, they say the Persian kings generally have several wives. senectūs est nātūrā loquācior, CM. 55, age is naturally rather garrulous. stomachābātur senex, sī quid asperius dīxeram, DN. 1, 93, the old gentleman always got provoked if I said anything a bit rough.

1461. The comparative of disproportion is often defined by some added expression: as,

prīvātīs maiōra focīs, J. 4, 66, something too great for private hearths (1321). flāgrantior aequō nōn dēbet dolor esse virī, J. 13, 11, the indignation of a man must not be over hot (1330). In Livy and Tacitus by quam prō with the ablative: see the dictionary. Sometimes a new sentence is added: as, sum avidior, quam satis est, glōriae, Fam. 9, 14, 2, I am over greedy of glory. For quam ut or quam quī, see 1896.

1462. The comparative with a sentence of negative import is often preferred to the superlative with a positive sentence: as,

elephantō bēluārum nūlla prūdentior, DN. 1, 97, of the larger beasts not one is more sagacious than the elephant, or the elephant is the most sagacious of beasts. sequāmur Polybium, quō nēmō fuit dīligentior, RP. 2, 27, let us follow Polybius, the most scrupulous of men. For nēmō or quis, the more emphatic nihil or quid is often used: as, Phaedrō nihil ēlegantius, nihil hūmānius, DN. 1, 93, Phaedrus was the most refined and sympathetic of men.

1463. In colloquial language, a comparative suffix is sometimes emphasized by the addition of magis: as, mollior magis, Pl. Aul. 422, more tenderer. And sometimes by a mixture of construction, the comparative is modified by aequē, like the positive: as, homo mē miserior nūllus est aequē, Pl. Mer. 335, there’s not a man so woebegone as I, for miserior alone, or aequē miser.

1464. The comparative with the ablative is particularly common, when a thing is illustrated by some striking typical object, usually an object of nature. In such illustrations, the positive with as is commonly used in English: as, lūce clārius, V. 2, 186, plain as day. ō fōns Bandusiae, splendidior vitrō, H. 3, 13, 1, ye waters of Bandusia, as glittering as glass. melle dulcior ōrātiō, E. in CM. 31, words sweet as honey. ventīs ōcior, V. 5, 319, quick as the winds. vacca candidior nivibus, O. Am. 3, 5, 10, a cow as white as driven snow. caelum pice nigrius, O. H. 17, 7, a sky as black as pitch. dūrior ferrō et saxō, O. 14, 712, as hard as steel and stone.

The Superlative.

1465. When more than two things are compared, the superlative is used to represent a quality as belonging in the highest degree to an individual or to a number of a class: as,

proximī sunt Germānīs, 1, 1, 3, they live the nearest to the Germans. hōrum omnium fortissimī, 1, 1, 3, the bravest of these all.

1466. The superlative may be strengthened by the addition of such words as ūnus, preeminently, usually with a genitive, maximē, quam, with or without a form of possum, as possible, &c., &c. (1892). In old Latin by multō; from Cicero on, by longē, far, and vel, perhaps, even: as,

cōnfirmāverim rem ūnam esse omnium difficillimam, Br. 25, I am not afraid to avouch it is the one hardest thing in the world. longē nōbilissimus, 1, 2, 1, the man of highest birth by far. quam maximīs potest itineribus in Galliam contendit, 1, 7, 1, he pushes into Gaul by the quickest marches he can. quam mātūrrimē, 1, 33, 4, as early as possible.

1467. The superlative is also used to denote a very high degree of the quality.

This superlative, called the Absolute Superlative, or the Superlative of Eminence, may be translated by the positive with some such word as most, very: as, homo turpissimus, V. 4, 16, an utterly unprincipled man. Often best by the positive alone: as, vir fortissimus, Pīsō Aquītānus, 4, 12, 4, the heroic Piso of Aquitain (1044).

1468. In exaggerated style, the superlative of eminence may be capped by a comparative: as, stultior stultissumō, Pl. Am. 907, a greater than the greatest fool. ego miserior sum quam tū, quae es miserrima, Fam. 14, 3, 1, I am myself more unhappy than you, who are a most unhappy woman.

(B.) Use of the Verb.

Voice.

The Active Voice.

1469. In the active voice, the subject is represented as performing the action of the verb.

1470. By action is meant the operation of any verb, whether active or passive, and whether used intransitively or transitively.

1471. The active of one verb sometimes serves as the passive of another: thus, pereō, go to destruction, die, serves as the passive of perdō, destroy, and vēneō, go to sale, am sold, as the passive of vēndō, put for sale, sell. Similarly fīō, become, get to be, am made, is used in the present system as the passive of faciō, make (788).

The Passive Voice.

1472. In the passive voice, the subject is represented as acted upon.

1473. The object accusative of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive voice (1125); and the predicate accusative of the active voice becomes a predicate nominative with the passive voice (1167).

Thus (a.) in the active construction: illum laudābunt bonī, hunc etiam ipsī culpābunt malī, Pl. B. 397, the one the good will praise, the other e’en the bad themselves will blame. In the passive: laudātur ab hīs, culpātur ab illīs, H. S. 1, 2, 11, he’s praised by some, by others blamed. Active: cīvēs Rōmānōs interficiunt, 7, 3, 1, they slay some citizens of Rome. Passive: Indutiomarus interficitur, 5, 58, 6, Indutiomarus is slain. (b.) Active: mīlitēs certiōrēs facit, 3, 5, 3, he informs the soldiers. Passive: certior factus est, 2, 34, he was informed.

1474. Verbs which have two accusatives, one of the person and one of the thing in the active voice, generally have the person as subject in the passive, less frequently the thing: see 1171.

1475. An emphasizing or defining accusative, or an accusative of extent or duration, is occasionally made the subject of a passive: as,

haec illīc est pugnāta pugna, Pl. Am. 253, this fight was fought off there (1140). tōta mihī dormītur hiems, Mart. 13, 59, 1, all winter long by me is slept, i.e. tōtam dormiō hiemem (1151).

1476. The person by whom the action is done is put in the ablative with ab or ā (1318); the thing by which it is done is put in the instrumental ablative (1377); as,

(a.) nōn numquam latrō ā viātōre occīditur, Mil. 55, once in a while the robber gets killed by the wayfarer. respondit, ā cīve sē spoliārī mālle quam ab hoste vēnīre, Quintil. 12, 1, 43, he said in reply that he would rather be plundered by a Roman than sold by an enemy (1471). (b.) ūnīus virī prūdentiā Graecia līberāta est, N. 2, 5, 3, Greece was saved from slavery by the sagacity of a single man, i.e. Themistocles. Very often, however, the person or thing is not expressed, particularly with impersonals.

1477. When the person is represented as a mere instrument, the ablative is used without ab (1378); and when collectives, animals, or things without life are personified, the ablative takes ab (1318): as,

(a.) neque vērō minus Platō dēlectātus est Diōne, N. 10, 2, 3, and Plato on his part was just as much bewitched with Dion. (b.) eius ōrātiō ā multitūdine et ā forō dēvorābātur, Br. 283, his oratory was swallowed whole by the untutored many and by the bar.

1478. Sometimes the person by whom the action is done is indicated by the dative of the possessor: see 1216. And regularly with the gerund and gerundive construction (2243).

1479. Only verbs of transitive use have ordinarily a complete passive. Verbs of intransitive use have only the impersonal forms of the passive (1034): as,

diū atque ācriter pugnātum est, 1, 26, 1, there was long and sharp fighting. tōtīs trepidātur castrīs, 6, 37, 6, all through the camp there was tumult and affright. mihī̆ quidem persuādērī numquam potuit, animōs ēmorī, CM. 80, for my part, I never could be convinced that the soul becomes extinct at death (1181). Similarly verbs which have a transitive use may also be used impersonally: as, di͡ēs noctīsque ēstur, bibitur, Pl. Most. 235, there is eating and drinking all day and all night (1133).

1480. The complementary dative of a verb in the active voice is in poetry very rarely made the subject of a passive verb: as, invideor, H. AP. 56, I am envied. imperor, H. E. 1, 5, 21, I charge myself.

1481. The passive had originally a reflexive meaning, which is still to be seen in the passive of many verbs: as,

exercēbātur plūrimum currendō et lūctandō, N. 15, 2, 4, he took a great deal of exercise in running and wrestling. dēnsōs fertur in hostīs, V. 2, 511, he tries to charge upon the serried foes. quod semper movētur, aeternum est, TD. 1, 53, anything that is always moving, is eternal.

1482. The present participle of reflexives is sometimes used in a reflexive sense: as, exercēns, exercising oneself, exercising, ferēns, tearing along, vehēns, riding, and invehēns, mounted on, pāscēns, browsing, versāns, playing, being, volvēns, rolling. Also the gerund: as, iūs vehendī, the privilege of riding.

1483. Passive forms of coepī and dēsinō are commonly used in the perfect system, when a dependent infinitive is passive: as,

litterīs ōrātiō est coepta mandārī, Br. 26, oratory began to be put in black and white. veterēs ōrātiōnēs legī sunt dēsitae, Br. 123, the old speeches ceased to be read. But the active forms are sometimes used by Cornificius, Sallust, and Livy, and regularly by Tacitus. The active forms are used with fierī also, which is not passive (789); but even with fierī, Livy uses the passive forms.

1484. Similar attractions with a passive infinitive occur in potestur, &c., quītur and quitus sum, nequītur, &c., rarely, and mostly in old Latin: as, fōrma in tenebrīs nōscī nōn quitast, T. Hec. 572, her shape could hardly be distinguished in the dark.

1485. Some perfect participles have an active meaning: as, adultus, grown up. See 907, and also in the dictionary cautus, cōnsultus, concrētus, dēflāgrātus, incōnsīderātus, occāsus, nūpta.

Deponents.

1486. Many verbs have only passive inflections, but with the meaning of active inflections. Such verbs are called Deponents.

1487. In many deponents, a reflexive, passive, or reciprocal action is still clearly to be seen: as,

nāscor, am born; moror, delay myself, get delayed; ūtor, avail myself; amplectimur, hug each other; fābulāmur, talk together; partīmur, share with one another.

1488. Some verbs have both active and deponent inflections: as, adsentiō, agree, more commonly adsentior. mereō, earn, and mereor, deserve. See also in the dictionary altercor, auguror, comitor, cōnflīctor, fabricor, faeneror, mūneror, ōscitor, palpor, populor, revertor. The following have active inflections in the present system and deponent inflections in the perfect system: audeō, cōnfīdō and diffīdō, gaudeō, soleō: see also 801.

1489. In old Latin especially, many verbs which afterwards became fixed as deponents occur with active inflections also: as, adūlō, arbitrō, aucupō, auspicō, lūctō, lūdificō, morō, partiō, venerō, &c., &c.

1490. Verbs which are usually deponent are rarely found with a passive meaning: as, Sūllānās rēs dēfendere crīminor, LAgr. 3, 13, I am charged with defending Sulla’s policy.

1491. When it is desirable to express the passive of a deponent, a synonyme is sometimes used: thus, the passive of mīror, admire, may sometimes be represented by laudor, am praised. Or some circumlocution: as, habet venerātiōnem quidquid excellit, DN. 1, 45, anything best in its kind is looked on with respect, as passive of veneror. familia in suspīciōnem est vocāta, V. 5, 10, the household was suspected, as passive of suspicor.

1492. The perfect participle of deponents is sometimes used with a passive meaning. Some of the commonest of these participles are: adeptus, commentus, complexus, cōnfessus, ēmentītus, expertus, meditātus, opīnātus, pactus, partītus, testātus, &c., &c.

Mood.

The Indicative Mood.

Declarations.

1493. The indicative mood is used in simple, absolute declarations: as,

arma virumque canō, V. 1, 1, arms and the man I sing. leve fit quod bene fertur onus, O. A. 4, 2, 10, light gets the load that’s bravely borne.

1494. The negative used with the indicative is commonly nōn, not (1443). For other negative expressions, see 1445-1451.

1495. Certain verbs and verbal expressions denoting ability, duty, propriety, necessity, and the like, mostly with an infinitive, are regularly put in the indicative, even when the action of the infinitive is not performed.

This applies to declarations, questions, or exclamations: as, (a.) possum dē ichneumonum ūtilitāte dīcere, sed nōlō esse longus, DN. 1, 101, I might expatiate on the usefulness of the ichneumon, but I do not care to be long-winded. inter ferās satius est aetātem dēgere quam in hāc tantā immānitāte versārī, RA. 150, it would be better to pass your days in the midst of howling beasts than to live and move among such brutish men. (b.) stultī erat sperāre, Ph. 2. 23, it would have been folly to hope. quid enim facere poterāmus? Pis. 13, for what else could we have done? (c.) licuit uxōrem genere summō dūcere, Pl. MG. 680, I might have married a wife of high degree. nōn potuit pīctor rēctius dēscrībere eius fōrmam, Pl. As. 402, no painter could have hit his likeness more exactly. (d.) quantō melius fuerat prōmissum patris nōn esse servātum, Off. 3, 94, how much better it would have been, for the father’s word not to have been kept.

1496. The principal verbs and verbal expressions thus used are: (a.) possum, licet, dēbeō, oportet, convenit, decet. (b.) aequum, aequius, iūstum, fās, necesse est; cōnsentāneum, satis, satius, optābile, optābilius est; ūtilius, melius, optimum, pār, rēctum est; facile, difficile, grave, īnfīnītum, longum, magnum est; est with the predicative genitive, or a possessive pronoun (1237). (c.) Similarly, but without an infinitive, forms of sum with a gerund, a gerundive, or a future participle.

1497. The imperfect of most of the above verbs and verbal expressions often relates to action not performed at the present time: as,

hīs aliās poteram subnectere causās; sed eundum est, J. 3, 315, to these I might add other grounds; but I must go. The context must determine whether the imperfect relates (a.) to action not performed either in the present as here, or in the past as in 1495, or (b.) to action performed in the past: as, sollicitāre poterat, audēbat, C. 3, 16, he had at once the assurance and the ability to play the tempter’s part.

1498. Forms of possum are sometimes put in the subjunctive (1554). Thus, possim, &c., often (1556), also possem, &c., usually of present time (1560), less frequently of past time (1559), potuissem, &c., particularly in sentences of negative import (1561), rarely potuerim, &c. (1558). Sometimes also dēbērem, &c., of present time (1560), dēbuissem, &c., chiefly in apodosis.

Questions.

1499. The indicative is the mood ordinarily used in enquiries and in exclamations: as,

(a.) huic ego ‘studēs?’ inquam. respondit ‘etiam.’ ‘ubī̆?’ ‘Mediōlānī.’ ‘cūr nōn hīc?’ ‘quia nūllōs hīc praeceptōrēs habēmus,’ Plin. Ep. 4, 13, 3, said I to the boy, ‘do you go to school?’ ‘yes, sir,’ said he; ‘where?’ ‘at Mediolanum;’ ‘why not here?’ ‘oh because we haven’t any teachers here.’ (b.) ut ego tuum amōrem et dolōrem dēsīderō, Att. 3, 11, 12, how I always feel the absence of your affectionate sympathy.

1500. Questions and exclamations are used much more freely in Latin than in English. Particularly common are two questions, of which the first is short and general, leading up to the real question: as,

sed quid ais? ubi nunc adulēscēns habet? Pl. Tri. 156, but tell me, where is the youngster living now? estne? vīcī? et tibī̆ saepe litterās dō? Cael. in Fam. 8, 3, 1, is it true? have I beaten? and do I write to you often? The real question is often preceded by quid est, quid dīcis, or by quid, quid vērō, quid tum, quid posteā, quid igitur, quid ergō, &c., &c.: as, quid? canis nōnne similis lupō? DN. 1, 97, why, is not the dog like the wolf?

1501. There are two kinds of questions: (1.) Such questions as call for the answer yes or no in English: as, is he gone? These may conveniently be called Yes or No Questions. (2.) Questions introduced by an interrogative pronoun, or by a word derived from an interrogative pronoun: as, who is gone? where is he? These are called Pronoun Questions.

Yes or No Questions.

1502. (1.) Yes or No questions are sometimes put without any interrogative particle: as,

Thraex est Gallīna Syrō pār? H. S. 2, 5, 44, of two gladiators, is Thracian Bantam for the Syrian a match? Often intimating censure: as, rogās? Pl. Aul. 634, dost ask? or what an absurd question. prōmpsistī tū illī vīnum?:: nōn prōmpsī, Pl. MG. 830, thou hast been broaching wine for him?:: not I. Especially with nōn: as, patēre tua cōnsilia nōn sentīs? C. 1, 1, you don’t see that your schemes are out? It is often doubtful whether such sentences are questions, exclamations, or declarations.

1503. (2.) Yes or No questions are usually introduced by one of the interrogative particles -ne or -n, nōnne, num, an, anne.

1504. A question with -ne or -n may enquire simply, without any implication as to the character of the answer, or it may either expect an affirmative answer like nōnne, or less frequently a negative answer like num: as,

(a.) valen? Pl. Tri. 50, art well? habētin aurum? Pl. B. 269, have you got the gold? (b.) iussīn in splendōrem darī bullās hās foribus? Pl. As. 426, didn’t I give orders to polish up the bosses of the door? facitne ut dixī? Pl. Am. 526, isn’t he acting as I said? (c.) istō immēnsō spatiō quaerō, Balbe, cūr Pronoea vestra cessāverit. labōremne fugiēbat? DN. 1, 22, I want to know, Balbus, why your people’s Providence lay idle all that immeasurable time; it was work she was shirking, was it? quid, mundum praeter hunc umquamne vīdistī? negābis, DN. 1, 96, tell me, did you ever see any universe except this one? you will say no.

1505. Sometimes the -ne of an interrogative sentence is transferred to a following relative, chiefly in Plautus and Terence: as, rogās? quīne arrabōnem ā mē accēpistī ob mulierem? Pl. R. 860, how can you ask, when you have got the hansel for the girl from me? Similarly, ō sērī studiōrum, quīne putētis difficile, H. S. 1, 10, 21, what laggards at your books, to think it hard, i.e. nōnne estis sērī studiōrum, quī putētis difficile? Compare 1569.

1506. To a question with nōnne, a positive answer is usually expected, seldom a negative: as,

(a.) nōnne meministī?:: meminī vērō, TD. 2, 10, don’t you remember?:: oh yes. Sometimes a second or third question also has nōnne, but oftener nōn: as, nōnne ad tē L. Lentulus, nōn Q. Sanga, nōn L. Torquātus vēnit? Pis. 77, did not Lentulus and Sanga and Torquatus come to see you? (b.) nōnne cōgitās? RA. 80, do you bear in mind? nōnne is rare in Plautus, comparatively so in Terence, but very common in classical Latin.

1507. To a question with num a negative answer is generally expected. Less frequently either a positive or a negative answer indifferently: as,

(a.) num negāre audēs? C. 1, 8, do you undertake to deny it? num, tibi cum faucēs ūrit sitis, aurea quaeris pōcula? H. S. 1, 2, 114, when thirst thy throat consumes, dost call for cups of gold? Rarely numne: as, quid, deum ipsum numne vīdistī? DN. 1, 88, tell me, did you ever see god in person? (b.) sed quid ais? num obdormīvistī dūdum? Pl. Am. 620, but harkee, wert asleep a while ago? numquīd vīs? Pl. Tri. 192, hast any further wish?

1508. A question with an, less often anne, or if negative, with an nōn, usually challenges or comments emphatically on something previously expressed or implied: as,

an habent quās gallīnae manūs? Pl. Ps. 29, what, what, do hens have hands? an is also particularly common in argumentative language, in anticipating, criticising, or refuting an opponent: as, quid dīcis? an bellō Siciliam virtūte tuā līberātam? V. 1, 5, what do you say? possibly that it was by your prowess that Sicily was rid of the war? at vērō Cn. Pompēī voluntātem ā mē aliēnābat ōrātiō mea. an ille quemquam plūs dīlēxit? Ph. 2, 38, but it may be urged that my way of speaking estranged Pompey from me. why, was there anybody the man loved more? In old Latin, an is oftener used in a single than in an alternative question, while in classical Latin it is rather the reverse.

1509. (3.) Yes or No questions are sometimes introduced by ecquis, ecquō, ecquandō, or ēn umquam: as,

heus, ecquis hīc est? Pl. Am. 420, hollo, is e’er a person here? ecquid animadvertis hōrum silentium? C. 1, 20, do you possibly observe the silence of this audience? (1144). ō pater, ēn umquam aspiciam tē? Pl. Tri. 588, O father, shall I ever set mine eyes on thee?

1510. (4.) In Plautus, satin or satin ut, really, actually, sometimes becomes a mere interrogative or exclamatory particle: as, satin abiīt ille? Pl. MG. 481, has that man really gone his way?

Positive and Negative Answers.

1511. There are no two current Latin words corresponding exactly with yes and no in answers.

1512. (1.) A positive answer is expressed by some emphatic word of the question, repeated with such change as the context may require: as,

an nōn dīxī esse hoc futūrum?:: dīxtī, T. Andr. 621, didn’t I say that this would be?:: you did. hūc abiīt Clītiphō:: sōlus?:: sōlus, T. Hau. 904, here Clitipho repaired:: alone?:: alone. The repeated word may be emphasized by sānē, vērō: as, dāsne manēre animōs post mortem?:: dō vērō, TD. 1, 25, do you grant that the soul lives on after death?:: oh yes. Often, however, adverbs are used, without the repetition, such as certē, certō, etiam, factum, ita, ita enimvērō, ita vērō, sānē, sānē quidem, scīlicet, oh of course, vērō, rarely vērum.

1513. (2.) A negative answer is expressed by a similar repetition, with nōn or some other negative added: as,

estne frāter intus?:: nōn est, T. Ad. 569. is brother in?:: he’s not. Or, without repetition, by such words as nōn, nōn ita, nōn quidem, nōn hercle vērō, minimē, minimē quidem, minimē vērō, nihil minus.

1514. immō introduces a sentence rectifying a mistake, implied doubt, or understatement in a question: as, nūllane habēs vitia?:: immō alia, et fortasse minōra, H. S. 1, 3, 20, have you no faults?:: I beg your pardon, other faults, and peradventure lesser ones. causa igitur nōn bona est? immō optima, Att. 9, 7, 4, isn’t the cause a good one then? good? yes, more than good, very good.

Alternative Questions.

1515. The alternative question belongs properly under the head of the compound sentence. But as the interrogative particles employed in the single question are also used in the alternative question, the alternative question is most conveniently considered here.

1516. In old English, the first of two alternative questions is often introduced by the interrogative particle whether, and the second by or: as, whether is it easier to say, Thy sins be forgiven thee, or to say Arise? In modern English, whether is not used thus.

1517. The history of the Latin alternative question is just the reverse of the English. In old Latin, the first question is very often put without any interrogative particle. Later, in the classical period, the use of -ne, or oftener of utrum, etymologically the same as whether, is overwhelmingly predominant.

1518. In the simplest form of the alternative sentence, neither question is introduced by an interrogative particle: as,

quid agō? adeō, maneō? T. Ph. 736, what shall I do? go up and speak, or wait? (1531).

1519. Of two alternative questions, the first either has no interrogative particle at all, or is more commonly introduced by utrum, -ne, or -n. The second is introduced by an, rarely by anne, or if it is negative, by an nōn: as,

(a.) album an ātrum vīnum pōtās? Pl. Men. 915, do you take light wine or dark? Tacitus es an Plīnius? Plin. Ep. 9, 23, 3, are you Tacitus or Pliny? sortiētur an nōn? PC. 37, will he draw lots or not? (b.) iam id porrō utrum libentēs an invītī dabant? V. 3, 118, then furthermore did they offer it voluntarily or did they consent to give it under stress? utrum cētera nōmina in cōdicem acceptī et expēnsī dīgesta habēs an nōn? RC. 9, have you all other items methodically posted in your ledger or not? (c.) servosne es an līber? Pl. Am. 343, art bond or free? esne tū an nōn es ab illō mīlitī Macedoniō? Pl. Ps. 616, art thou or art thou not the Macedonian captain’s man? videōn Clīniam an nōn? T. Hau. 405, do I see Clinia or not?

1520. necne for an nōn is rare: as, sēmina praetereā linquontur necne animāī corpore in exanimō? Lucr. 3, 713, are seeds moreover left or not of soul within the lifeless frame? Twice in Cicero: as, sunt haec tua verba necne? TD. 3, 41, are these your words or not? But necne is common in indirect questions.

1521. Instead of a single second question with an, several questions may be used if the thought requires it, each introduced by an.

1522. Sometimes an introductory utrum precedes two alternative questions with -ne and an: as, utrum tū māsne an fēmina ’s? Pl. R. 104, which is it, art thou man or maid? This construction has its origin in questions in which utrum is used as a live pronoun: as, utrum māvīs? statimne nōs vēla facere an paululum rēmigāre? TD. 4, 9, which would you rather do, have us make sail at once, or row just a little bit? In Horace and late prose, utrumne... an is found a few times.

1523. Sometimes a second alternative question is not put at all: as, utrum hōc bellum nōn est? Ph. 8, 7, in old English, whether is not this war?

1524. Two or more separate questions asked with -ne... -ne, or with num... num, must not be mistaken for alternative questions: as, num Homērum, num Hēsiodum coēgit obmūtēscere senectūs? CM. 23, did length of days compel either Homer or Hesiod to hush his voice? (1692).

1525. An alternative question is answered by repeating one member or some part of it, with such changes as the context may require.

Pronoun Questions.

1526. Pronoun questions or exclamations are introduced by interrogative pronouns, or words of pronoun origin.

Such words are: (a.) quis, quī, quoius, uter, quālis, quantus, quotus: as, quid rīdēs? H. S. 2, 5, 3, why dost thou laugh? (1144). uter est īnsānior hōrum? H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these is the greater crank? hōra quota est? H. S. 2, 6, 44, what’s o’clock? (b.) Or unde, ubī̆, quō, quōr or cūr, quī ablative, how, quīn, why not, quam, how, quandō, quotiēns: as, unde venīs et quō tendis? H. S. 1, 9, 62, whence dost thou come, and whither art thou bound? deus fallī quī potuit? DN. 3, 76, how could a god have been taken in? (1495). quam bellum erat cōnfitērī nescīre, DN. 1, 84, how pretty it would have been to own up that you did not know (1495).

1527. Sometimes quīn loses its interrogative force, and introduces an impatient imperative, particularly in Plautus and Terence, or an indicative of sudden declaration of something obvious or startling: as,

(a.) quīn mē aspice, Pl. Most. 172, why look me over, won’t you? i.e. mē aspice, quīn aspicis? So twice in Cicero’s orations. (b.) quīn discupiō dīcere, Pl. Tri. 932, why I am bursting with desire to tell.

1528. In Plautus, Terence, Horace, and Livy, ut, how, also is used in questions: as, ut valēs? Pl. R. 1304, how do you do? ut sēsē in Samniō rēs habent? L. 10, 18, 11, how is every thing in Samnium? Very commonly, and in Cicero only so, in exclamations also: as, ut fortūnātī sunt fabrī ferrāriī, quī apud carbōnēs adsident; semper calent, Pl. R. 531, what lucky dogs the blacksmiths be, that sit by redhot coals; they’re always warm.

1529. In poetry, quis, uter, and quantus are found a few times with -ne attached; as, uterne ad cāsūs dubiōs fīdet sibi certius? H. S. 2, 2, 107, which of the two in doubtful straits will better in himself confide?

1530. Two or more questions or exclamations are sometimes united with one and the same verb: as,

unde quō vēnī? H. 3, 27, 37, whence whither am I come? quot diēs quam frīgidīs rēbus absūmpsī, Plin. Ep. 1, 9, 3, how many days have I frittered away in utter vapidities. quantae quotiēns occāsiōnēs quam praeclārae fuērunt, Mil. 38, what great chances there were, time and again, splendid ones too.

Some Applications of Questions.

1531. A question in the indicative present or future may be used to intimate command or exhortation, deliberation, or appeal: as,

(a.) abin hinc? T. Eu. 861, will you get out of this? abin an nōn?:: abeō, Pl. Aul. 660, will you begone or not?:: I’ll go. quīn abīs? Pl. MG. 1087, why won’t you begone? or get you gone, begone. nōn tacēs? T. Ph. 987, won’t you just hold your tongue? ecquis currit pollinctōrem arcēssere? Pl. As. 910, won’t some one run to fetch the undertaker man? quīn cōnscendimus equōs? L. 1, 57, 7, why not mount? or to horse, to horse. (b.) quid est, Crasse, īmusne sessum? DO. 3, 17, what say you, Crassus, shall we go and take a seat? quoi dōnō lepidum novum libellum? Cat. 1, 1, unto whom shall I give the neat new booklet? quid agō? adeō, maneō? T. Ph. 736, what shall I do? go up and speak, or wait? (c.) eōn? vocō hūc hominem?:: ī, vocā, Pl. Most. 774, shall I go, and shall I call him here?:: go call him. See also 1623. Such indicative questions occur particularly in old Latin, in Catullus, in Cicero’s early works and letters, and in Vergil.

1532. Some set forms occur repeatedly, especially in questions of curiosity, surprise, incredulity, wrath, or captiousness: as,

sed quid ais? T. Andr. 575, but apropos, or but by the way (1500). quid istīc? T. Andr. 572, well, well, have it your way: compare quid istīc verba facimus? Pl. E. 141. ain tū? Br. 152, no, not seriously? itane? T. Eu. 1058, not really? Frequently egone: as, quid nunc facere cōgitās?:: egone? T. Hau. 608, what do you think of doing now?:: what, I? In Plautus, threats are sometimes introduced by scīn quō modō? do you know how? i.e. at your peril.

1533. A question is sometimes united with a participle, or an ablative absolute, or thrown into a subordinate sentence: as,

quem frūctum petentēs scīre cupimus illa quō modō moveantur? Fin. 3, 37, with what practical end in view do we seek to know how yon bodies in the sky keep in motion? quā frequentiā prōsequente crēditis nōs illinc profectōs? L. 7, 30, 21, by what multitudes do you think we were seen off when we left that town? ‘hominēs’ inquit ‘ēmistī.’ quid utī faceret? Sest. 84, ‘you bought up men’ says he; with what purpose?

The Infinitive of Intimation.

1534. The infinitive is principally used in subordination, and will be spoken of under that head. One use, however, of the present infinitive in main sentences, as a kind of substitute for a past indicative, requires mention here.

1535. In animated narration, the present infinitive with a subject in the nominative sometimes takes the place of the imperfect or perfect indicative: as,

interim cōtīdiē Caesar Aeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre, 1, 16, 1, there was Caesar meantime every day dunning and dunning the Aeduans for the grain. Diodōrus sordidātus circum hospitēs cursāre, rem omnibus nārrāre, V. 4, 41, Diodorus kept running round in sackcloth and ashes from friend to friend, telling his tale to everybody. intereā Catilīna in prīmā aciē versārī, labōrantibus succurrere, S. C. 60, 4, Catiline meantime bustling round in the forefront of battle, helping them that were sore bestead. tum vērō ingentī sonō caelum strepere, et micāre ignēs, metū omnēs torpēre, L. 21, 58, 5, at this crisis the welkin ringing with a dreadful roar, fires flashing, everybody paralyzed with fear. This infinitive occurs in almost all writers, for instance, Plautus, Terence, Cicero, Horace, and particularly Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus. Less commonly in Caesar. Usually two or more infinitives are combined, and infinitives are freely mixed with indicatives. The subject is never in the second person.

1536. This infinitive is used to sketch or outline persistent, striking, or portentous action, where description fails; and as it merely intimates the action, without distinct declaration, and without notation of time, number, or person, it is called the Infinitive of Intimation. It cannot be adequately represented in English.

1537. The infinitive of intimation is sometimes used without a subject, when emphasis centres in the action alone; as,

ubī̆ turrim procul cōnstituī vīdērunt, inrīdēre ex mūrō, 2, 30, 3, when they saw the tower planted some way off, jeer after jeer from the wall. tum spectāculum horribile in campīs patentibus: sequī fugere, occīdī capī, S. I. 101, 11, then a heartrending spectacle in the open fields: chasing and racing, killing and catching.

1538. Terence and Petronius have it in questions: as, rēx tē ergō in oculīs:: scīlicet:: gestāre?:: vērō, T. Eu. 401, your king then always bearing you:: of course, of course:: in eye?:: oh yes. quī morī timōre nisi ego? Petr. 62.

1539. It may be mentioned here, that the infinitive of intimation is sometimes used from Sallust on in relative clauses and with cum, when. Also by Tacitus in a temporal protasis with ubī̆, ut, dōnec, or postquam, co-ordinated with a present or imperfect indicative protasis: as,

(a.) cingēbātur interim mīlite domus, cum Libō vocāre percussōrem, Ta. 2, 31, the house meantime was encompassed with soldiers, when Libo called for somebody to kill him (1869). (b.) ubī̆ crūdēscere sēditiō et ā convīciīs ad tēla trānsībant, inicī catēnās Flāviānō iubet, Ta. H. 3, 10, when the riot was waxing hot, and they were proceeding from invectives to open violence, he orders Flavian to be clapped in irons (1933).

The Subjunctive Mood.

Declarations.

I. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF DESIRE.

(A.) Wish.

1540. The subjunctive may be used to express a wish.

Wishes are often introduced by utinam, in old and poetical Latin also by utī, ut, and curses in old Latin by quī; these words were originally interrogative, how. Sometimes the wish is limited by modo, only. In negative wishes nē is used, either alone, or preceded by utinam or modo; rarely nōn, or the old-fashioned nec, not (1446).

1541. (1.) The present and perfect represent a wish as practicable; although a hopeless wish may, of course, if the speaker chooses, be represented as practicable: as,

(a.) tē spectem, suprēma mihī cum vēnerit hōra, Tib. 1, 1, 59, on thee I’d gaze, when my last hour shall come. utinam illum diem videam, Att. 3, 3, I hope I may see the day. (b.) utinam cōnēre, Ph. 2, 101, I hope you may make the effort. (c.) dī vortant bene quod agās, T. Hec. 196, may gods speed well whate’er you undertake. quī illum dī omnēs perduint, T. Ph. 123, him may all gods fordo. ō utinam hībernae duplicentur tempora brūmae, Prop. 1, 8, 9, oh that the winter’s time may doubled be. utinam revīvīscat frāter, Gell. 10, 6, 2, I hope my brother may rise from his grave. nē istūc Iuppiter sīrit, L. 28, 28, 11, now Jupiter forefend. The perfect is found principally in old Latin.

1542. The present is very common in asseveration: as,

peream, nisi sollicitus sum, Fam. 15, 19, 4, may I die, if I am not worried. sollicitat, ita vīvam, me tua valētūdō, Fam. 16, 20, your state of health worries me, as I hope to live. ita vīvam, ut maximōs sūmptūs faciō, Att. 5, 15, 2, as I hope to be saved, I am making great outlays. See also 1622.

1543. The perfect subjunctive sometimes refers to past action now completed: as, utinam abierit malam crucem, Pl. Poen. 799, I hope he’s got him to the bitter cross (1165). utinam spem implēverim, Plin. Ep. 1, 10, 3, I hope I may have fulfilled the expectations.

1544. (2.) The imperfect represents a wish as hopeless in the present or immediate future, the pluperfect represents it as unfulfilled in the past: as,

(a.) tēcum lūdere sīcut ipsa possem, Cat. 2, 9, could I with thee but play, e’en as thy mistress’ self, to Lesbia’s sparrow. utinam ego tertius vōbīs amīcus adscrīberer, TD. 5, 63, would that I could be enrolled with you myself, as the third friend, says tyrant Dionysius to Damon and Phintias. (b.) utinam mē mortuum prius vīdissēs, QFr. 1, 3, 1, I wish you had seen me dead first. (c.) utinam nē in nemore Pēliō secūribus caesa accēdisset abiēgna ad terram trabēs, E. in Cornif. 2, 34, had but, in Pelion’s grove, by axes felled, ne’er fallen to the earth the beam of fir, i.e. for the Argo. utinam ille omnīs sēcum cōpiās ēdūxisset, C. 2, 4, I only wish the man had marched out all his train-bands with him.

1545. In old or poetical Latin, the imperfect sometimes denotes unfulfilled past action, like the usual pluperfect; as, utinam in Siciliā perbīterēs, Pl. R. 494, would thou hadst died in Sicily. utinam tē dī prius perderent, Pl. Cap. 537, I wish the gods had cut thee off before. See 2075.

1546. In poetry, a wish is sometimes thrown into the form of a conditional protasis with sī or ō sī: as, ō sī urnam argentī fōrs quae mihi mōnstret, H. S. 2, 6, 10, oh if some chance a pot of money may to me reveal.

(B.) Exhortation, Direction, Statement of Propriety.

1547. The subjunctive may be used to express an exhortation, a direction, or a statement of propriety.

The subjunctive of exhortation is sometimes preceded in old Latin by utī or ut, originally interrogative. In negative exhortations or directions, nē, nēmō, nihil, or numquam, &c., is used, rarely nōn.

1548. (1.) The present expresses what is to be done or is not to be done in the future: as,

(a.) hoc quod coepī prīmum ēnārrem, T. Hau. 273, first let me tell the story I’ve begun. taceam nunc iam, Pl. B. 1058, let me now hold my tongue. cōnsīdāmus hīc in umbrā, Leg. 2, 7, let us sit down here in the shade. nē difficilia optēmus, V. 4, 15, let us not hanker after impossibilities. (b.) HAICE · VTEI · IN · COVENTIONID · EXDEICATIS, CIL. I, 196, 23, this you are to proclaim in public assembly. (c.) nōmina dēclīnāre et verba in prīmīs puerī sciant, Quintil. 1, 4, 22, first and foremost boys are to know how to inflect nouns and verbs. utī adserventur magnā dīligentiā, Pl. Cap. 115, let them be watched with all due care. nē quis tamquam parva fastīdiat grammaticēs elementa, Quintil. 1, 4, 6, let no man look down on the rudiments of grammar fancying them insignificant.

1549. (2.) The perfect subjunctive is rare: as, idem dictum sit, Quintil. 1, 1, 8, the same be said, once for all. Mostly in prohibitions: as, morātus sit nēmō quō minus abeant, L. 9, 11, 13, let no man hinder them from going away.

1550. In positive commands, the second person singular often has a definite subject in old or epistolary Latin, and particularly sīs, for the imperative es or estō. Usually however an indefinite subject (1030): as,

(a.) eās, Pl. R. 519, be off. hīc apud nōs hodiē cēnēs, Pl. Most. 1129, dine here with us today. cautus sīs, mī Tirō, Fam. 16, 9, 4, you must be careful, dear Tiro. (b.) istō bonō ūtāre, dum adsit, CM. 33, enjoy this blessing while you have it with you.

1551. When a prohibition is expressed in the subjunctive, the second person of the present is often used in old Latin, sometimes the perfect. Later, however, the perfect is generally prevalent. In the classical period, the present is almost confined to poetry. For the imperative in prohibitions, see 1581-1586.

(a.) nē illum verberēs, Pl. B. 747, you mustn’t thrash the man. Once in Horace: nē sīs patruos mihī, S. 2, 3, 88, don’t play stern governor to me. (b.) nē trānsierīs Ibērum, L. 21, 44, 6, do not cross the Iberus. quod dubitās nē fēcerīs, Plin. Ep. 1, 18, 5, what you have doubt about, never do.

1552. (3.) The imperfect or (but not in old Latin) pluperfect subjunctive is sometimes used to express past obligation or necessity: as,

(a.) Imperfect: quae hīc erant cūrārēs, T. Hec. 230, thou shouldst have looked to matters here. paterētur, T. Hau. 202, he should have stood it. quod sī meīs incommodīs laetābantur, urbis tamen perīculō commovērentur, Sest. 54, well, if they did gloat over my mishaps, still they ought to have been touched by the danger to Rome. crās īrēs potius, Pl. Per. 710, you’d better have gone tomorrow, i.e. have resolved to go tomorrow. poenās penderēs, Pl. B. 427, thou hadst to pay a penalty. (b.) Pluperfect: restitissēs, rēpugnāssēs, mortem pugnāns oppetīssēs, Poet. in Sest. 45, thou shouldst have made a stand, fought back, and fighting met thy fate. quid facere dēbuistī? frūmentum nē ēmissēs, V. 3, 195, what ought you to have done? you should not have bought any wheat. Usually, however, past obligation or necessity is expressed by the gerundive construction, or by some separate verb meaning ought (1496).

(C.) Willingness, Assumption, Concession.

1553. The subjunctive of desire may be used to denote willingness, assumption, or concession: as,

ōderint dum metuant, Poet. in Suet. Cal. 30, they are welcome to hate, as long as they fear. nē sit sānē summum malum dolor, malum certē est, TD. 2, 14, grant for aught I care that pain is not the worst evil, an evil it certainly is. nīl fēcerit, estō, J. 6, 222, he may be guiltless, be it so.

II. The Subjunctive of Action Conceivable.

1554. The subjunctive is often used to represent action as conceivable, without asserting that it actually takes place.

In some of its applications, this subjunctive is often more exactly defined by an expression of doubt or of assurance: as, fors fuat an in Plautus, forsitan from Terence on (rarely forsan, fors), fortasse, may be, perhaps; opīnor, haud sciō an, I fancy; facile, easily, sine ūllā dubitātiōne, unhesitatingly, &c., &c. The negative used with this subjunctive is nōn.

1555. This subjunctive is particularly common in guarded or diffident statements: thus, velim, I could wish, nōlim, I should not be willing, mālim, I would rather, dīxerim, I should say, are often preferred to a blunter volō, I insist, nōlō, I won’t, mālō, I prefer, or dīcō, I say.

1556. The present denotes action in an indefinite future: as,

(a.) ego forsitan in grege adnumerer, RA. 89, as for me, I might perhaps be counted in the common herd. mūtuom argentum rogem, Pl. Tri. 758, money I might borrow. haud sciō an rēctē dīcāmus, Sest. 58, I rather think we may say with propriety. (b.) The second person singular generally has an imaginary subject (1030): as, dīcās hīc forsitan, J. 1, 150, here peradventure thou mayst say, i.e. anybody may say. rogēs mē quid sit deus, auctōre ūtar Simōnidē, DN. 1, 60, you may ask me what god is; I should follow the lead of Simonides. migrantīs cernās, V. 4, 401, thou canst descry them on the move (1635). Often with some generalizing word, such as saepe, numquam, plūrēs: as, saepe videās, H. S. 1, 4, 86, thou oft canst see. Fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās, Publil. Syr. 168, dame Fortune thou mayst sooner find than bind. (c.) nunc aliquis dīcat mihi, H. S. 1, 3, 19, now somebody may say to me (more commonly dīcet aliquis, dīcēs, 1620). forsitan aliquis dīcat, L. 5, 52, 5, perhaps somebody may say. hoc vōbīs incrēdibile videātur, V. 3, 109, this may seem incredible to you.

1557. (1.) The perfect seldom occurs in old Latin. Later, it is rarely used of past time. In this use it resembles the perfect of concession (1553): as,

(a.) forsitan temere fēcerim, RA. 31, peradventure I may have acted rashly. errāverim fortasse, Plin. Ep. 1, 23, 2, I may have been mistaken perhaps. (b.) concēdō; forsitan aliquis aliquandō eius modī quippiam fēcerit, V. 2, 78, I grant it; perhaps somebody, at some time or other, may have done something of the sort. haec ipsa forsitan fuerint nōn necessāria, Br. 52, even this may perhaps have been superfluous.

1558. (2.) The perfect is oftenest used with a future meaning, and particularly the first person singular active of verbs meaning think or say: as,

(a.) nōn facile dīxerim, TD. 5, 121, I could not readily say. hoc sine ūllā dubitātiōne cōnfirmāverim, Br. 25, this I can assert without any hesitation. pāce tuā dīxerim, TD. 5, 12, by your leave I would say. The first person plural occurs first in Cornificius, and is rare: as, hunc deum rīte beātum dīxerīmus, DN. 1, 52, such a god we should be right in pronouncing happy. (b.) plānē perfectum Dēmosthenem facile dīxerīs, Br. 35, you would readily pronounce Demosthenes absolutely perfect (1030). tū vērō eum nec nimis valdē umquam nec nimis saepe laudāverīs, Leg. 3, 1, oh no, rest assured you never can praise him too emphatically nor too often. conluviem istam nōn nisi metū coērcuerīs, Ta. 14, 44, such a motley rabble you can only keep under by terrorism. (c.) forsitan quispiam dīxerit, Off. 3, 29, perhaps somebody may say.

1559. (1.) The imperfect properly denotes action which might have taken place in the past: as,

(a.) nōn ego hoc ferrem calidus iuventā cōnsule Plancō, H. 3, 14, 27, this I should not have brooked in my hot youth, in Plancus’ consulate. (b.) The second person singular, particularly of verbs meaning see, make out, think, say, generally has an imaginary subject (1030): as, vidērēs, H. S. 2, 8, 77, thou mightst have seen. cernerēs, L. 22, 7, 12, you might have descried. nescīrēs, L. 3, 35, 3, you could not have told. tē columen rē̆ī pūblicae dīcerēs intuērī, Sest. 19, you would have sworn you were gazing on a pillar of the state. (c.) quī vidēret, urbem captam dīceret, V. 4, 52, anybody who saw it, would have said it was a captured city. dīcī hoc in tē nōn potest, posset in Tarquiniō, cum rēgnō esset expulsus, TD. 1, 88, this cannot be said in your case; it might have been said in Tarquin’s, when he was driven from the throne. numquam faceret, T. Ph. 121, he never would have done it.

1560. (2.) The imperfect often denotes action not performed at the present time; so especially vellem (nōllem, māllem): as,

(a.) nimis vellem habēre perticam, Pl. As. 589, I wish so much I had a stick. vellem adesse posset Panaetius; quaererem ex eō, TD. 1, 81, I only wish Panaetius could be with us: I should ask him (Panaetius was dead). cuperem voltum vidēre tuum, Att. 4, 16, 7, I should like to see the expression of your face. māllem Cerberum metuerēs, TD. 1, 12, I would rather you stood in dread of Cerberus. possem idem facere, TD. 1, 84, I could do the same. (b.) melius sequerēre cupīdine captam, O. 14, 28, better for thee it were a loving bride to woo. (c.) in hāc fortūnā perūtilis eius opera esset, Att. 9, 17, 2, in the present pinch his services would be extremely valuable.

1561. The pluperfect represents action which did not take place in the past: as,

(a.) vellem quidem licēret: hoc dīxissem, RA. 138, I only wish it were allowed; I should have said so and so. (b.) dedissēs huic animō pār corpus, fēcisset quod optābat, Plin. Ep. 1, 12, 8, you might have given this spirit a body to match; he would have done what he craved to do. (c.) urbēs et rēgna celeriter tanta nēquitia dēvorāre potuisset, Ph. 2, 67, such colossal prodigality might have been capable of swallowing down cities and kingdoms speedily. vīcissent inprobōs bonī; quid deinde? Sest. 43, the good might have overpowered the bad; what next?

1562. It may be mentioned here, that the subjunctive of action conceivable often extends to subordinate sentences: see 1731.

Questions.

1563. I. The subjunctive is often used to ask what action or whether any action is desired, commanded, proper, or necessary.

In many instances a negative answer or no answer at all is expected The negative is nē, sometimes nōn.

(a.) quō mē vertam? Scaur. 19, which way shall I turn? quid faciam, praescrībe:: quiēscās:: nē faciam, inquis, omnīnō versūs? H. S. 2, 1, 5, lay down the law, what I’m to do:: keep still:: wilt have me write, sayst thou, no verse at all? quid igitur faciam? nōn eam? T. Eu. 46, what then am I to do? not go? quid nī meminerim? DO. 2, 273, why should not I remember? or of course I remember. huic cēdāmus? huius condiciōnēs audiāmus? Ph. 13, 16, shall we bow the knee to him? shall we listen to his terms? (b.) quid tandem mē facere decuit? quiēscerem et paterer? L. 42, 41, 12, what in the world ought I to have done? keep inactive and stand it?

1564. Such questions sometimes have the alternative form: as, Corinthiīs bellum indīcāmus, an nōn? Inv. 1, 17, are we to declare war against Corinth, or not? utrum indicāre mē e͡i thēnsaurum aequom fuit, an ego alium dominum paterer fierī hīsce aedibus? Pl. Tri. 175, should I have pointed out the hoard to him, or should I have allowed another to become the owner of this house? here paterer is equivalent to aequom fuit patī (1495).

1565. II. The subjunctive is often used to ask whether action is conceivable: as,

(a.) quis putet celeritātem ingenī L. Brūtō dēfuisse? Br. 53, who can suppose that Brutus lacked ready wit? i.e. nēmō putet (1556), putābit (1620), or putāre potest. sī enim Zēnōnī licuit, cūr nōn liceat Catōnī? Fin. 3, 15, for if it was allowed Zeno, why should not it be allowed Cato? (b.) hoc tantum bellum quis umquam arbitrārētur ab ūnō imperātōre cōnficī posse? IP. 31, who would ever have dreamed that this stupendous war could be brought to a close by a single commander? The imperfect sometimes denotes action not performed at the present time (1560): quis enim cīvis rēgī nōn favēret? D. 6, for what Roman would not feel for the king? (c.) ego tē vidēre nōluerim? QFr. 1, 3, 1, I have objected to seeing you?

1566. The subjunctive is often used in interrogative outbursts of surprise, disapprobation, indignation, or captious rejoinder. In such questions a pronoun, ego, tū (ille), is usually expressed. The negative is nōn.

This subjunctive occurs in Plautus and Terence, in Cicero, oftenest the letters, in Horace, Vergil, and Livy. Not in Caesar nor Sallust.

1567. (1.) The question may have no interrogative word, or may have -ne, especially in comedy: as,

(a.) nōn tacēs?:: taceam? T. Ph. 987, you hold your tongue:: I hold my tongue? nē flē:: egone illum nōn fleam? Pl. Cap. 139, weep not:: what, I not weep for him? tū pulsēs omne quod obstat? H. S. 2, 6, 30, what, you, sir, punch whatever’s in your way? faveās tū hostī? ille litterās ad tē mittat? Ph. 7, 5, you, sir, sympathize with the enemy? he correspond with you? sapiēnsne nōn timeat? Ac. 2, 135, a sage not be afraid? (b.) ego mihī̆ umquam bonōrum praesidium dēfutūrum putārem? Mil. 94, could I have dreamed that I should ever lack the protection of the patriotic? (c.) ‘apud exercitum mihī̆ fuerīs’ inquit ‘tot annōs?’ Mur. 21, ‘to think of your having been with the army, bless my soul?’ says he, ‘so many years.’ (d.) mihī̆ cuiusquam salūs tantī fuisset, ut meam neglegerem? Sull. 45, could anybody’s safety have been so important in my eyes as to make me disregard my own?

1568. (2.) The question may have utī or ut: as,

tē ut ūlla rēs frangat? tū ut umquam tē corrigās? C. 1, 22, any thing break you down? you ever reform? pater ut obesse fīlīo dēbeat? Planc. 31, a father morally bound to work against his son?

1569. (3.) The question with utī or ut is sometimes attended by a remnant of another question with -ne or -n. In this combination, -ne either precedes, joined to an emphatic word, or it is attached directly to utī or ut: as,

(a.) egone ut tē interpellem? TD. 2, 42, what I? interrupt you? illīne ut impūne concitent fīnitima bella? L. 4, 2, 12, what, they be allowed to stir up border warfare with impunity? virgō haec līberast:: meane ancilla lībera ut sit, quam ego numquam ēmīsī manū? Pl. Cur. 615, this girl is free:: my servant-girl? she to be free, when I have never set her free? (b.) utne tegam spurcō Dāmae latus? H. S. 2, 5, 18, what, I’m to shield a nasty Dama’s side? somnium. utine haec īgnōrāret su͡om patrem? T. Ph. 874, oh bosh, not to have known the father that begat her? See 1505 and 1532.

1570. It may be mentioned here, that the interrogative subjunctive is often used in subordinate sentences: see 1731.

The Imperative Mood.

Command.

1571. The second person of the imperative mood is used in commands, either particular or general.

Commands are very often attended by a vocative or vocative nominative, or by tū, sir, sirrah, or vōs, gentlemen, you people (1118). They are of various kinds, as follows: (a.) Order, often to an inferior: thus, to an official: līctor, conligā manūs, Rab. 13, L. 1, 26, 7, Gell. 12, 3, 2, lictor, tie up his wrists. To soldiers: as, dēsilīte mīlitēs, 4, 25, 3, overboard, my men. sīgnifer, statue sīgnum, L. 5, 55, 1, standardbearer, plant your standard. īnfer mīles sīgnum, L. 6, 8, 1, advance your standard, man, or charge. To sailors: as, hūc dīrigite nāvēs, L. 29, 27, 13, head your galleys this way. To slaves: as, convorrite aedēs scōpīs, agite strēnuē, Pl. B. 10, sweep up the house with brooms, be brisk. Also to an equal: as, aperīte aliquis, Pl. Mer. 130, open the door there somebody (1080). Or to a superior: as, heus, exī, Phaedrome, Pl. Cur. 276, ho Phaedromus, come out. (b.) Exhortation, entreaty, summons, request, prayer, imprecation, wish, concession, &c.: as, vōs vōbīs cōnsulite, 7, 50, 5, every man of you for himself. ēs, bibe, animō obsequere, Pl. MG. 677, eat, drink, and be merry. sperne voluptātēs, H. E. 1, 2, 55, scorn thou delights. quīn tū ī intrō, Pl. Most. 815, go in, go in, won’t you go in? (1527). patent portae, proficīscere, ēdūc tēcum etiam omnīs tuōs, C. 1, 10, the gates are open, march forth; take out all your myrmidons with you too. audī, Iuppiter, L. 1, 32, 6, bow down thine ear, Jupiter. ī in crucem, Pl. As. 940, get you gone to the cross. vīve valēque, H. S. 2, 5, 109, long live and thrive, or farewell. tibī̆ habē, Pl. Men. 690, you keep it yourself.

1572. The imperative is often softened by the addition of amābō, obsecrō, quaesō, prithee, I beg, or sīs, sultis, sōdēs, please (97). It is sharpened by age, agedum or agidum, age sīs, mark me, or ī, go, come on, or by modo, only. The concessive imperative sometimes has sānē, for all me.

1573. In Plautus and Terence, the enclitic dum, a while, a minute, just, is often attached to the imperative: as, manedum, Pl. As. 585, wait a minute. In classical Latin, dum is retained with age and agite: as, agedum cōnferte cum illīus vītā P. Sūllae, Sull. 72, come now, compare Sulla’s life with that man’s (1075).

1574. It may be mentioned here, that the imperative is often used in the protasis of a conditional sentence: as,

tolle hanc opīniōnem, lūctum sustuleris, TD. 1, 30, do away with this notion, and you will do away with mourning for the dead. Once only in old Latin, but often in late Latin, with a copulative: as, perge, ac facile ecfēceris, Pl. B. 695, start on, and you will do it easily.

1575. (1.) The third person, and the longer forms of the second person, are used particularly in laws, legal documents, and treaties, and also in impressive general rules and maxims: as,

(a.) rēgiō imperiō duō suntō, Leg. 3, 8, there shall be two men vested with the power of kings. amīcitia rēgī Antiochō cum populō Rōmānō hīs lēgibus estō, L. 38, 38, 1, there shall be amity between king Antiochus and Rome on the following terms. (b.) vīcīnīs bonus estō, Cato, RR. 4, always be good to your neighbours. mōribus vīvitō antīquīs, Pl. Tri. 295, live thou in old-time ways. The longer forms are often called the Future Imperative.

1576. (2.) The longer forms of the second person are also sometimes used in the ordinary speech of everyday life: as, cavētō, QFr. 1, 3, 8, beware. In old Latin, often ēs, be thou, but in classical Latin, oftener estō (or sīs). Usually habētō, meaning keep, or consider, regularly scītō, scītōte, you must know (846). In verse, the long forms may sometimes be due to the metre: as, hīc hodiē cēnātō, Pl. R. 1417, take dinner here today. pār prō parī refertō, T. Eu. 445, pay tit for tat. But also without such necessity: as, aufertō intrō, Pl. Tru. 914, take it within. quiētus estō, inquam, T. Ph. 713, be not concerned, I say.

1577. (3.) It may be mentioned here, that the longer forms are very often used in the apodosis of a complex sentence, particularly with a future or a future perfect protasis: as,

sī iste ībit, ītō, Pl. Ps. 863, if he shall go, go thou. medicō mercēdis quantum poscet, prōmittī iubētō, Fam. 16, 14, 1, you must order your medical man to be promised all he shall charge in the way of a fee. ubī̆ nihil erit quod scrībās, id ipsum scrībitō, Att. 4, 8b, 4, when you don’t have anything to write, then write just that. cum ego P. Grānium testem prōdūxerō, refellitō, sī poteris, V. 5, 154, when I put Granius on the witness stand, refute him if you can.

1578. In such combinations, however, the shorter forms are sometimes found: as, ubi volēs, accerse, T. Andr. 848, fetch me when you will. And conversely the longer forms are also found with a present protasis: as, ūnum illud vidētō, sī mē amās, Fam. 16, 1, 2, attend to this one thing, an thou lovest me.

1579. A command is sometimes expressed by the subjunctive, accompanying fac, facitō, fac ut, facitō ut, cūrā ut, cūrātō ut, vidē, vidē ut, volō, or particularly velim: as,

magnum fac animum habeās et spem bonam, QFr. 1, 2, 16, see that you keep up an heroic soul and unabated hope (1712). fac cōgitēs, Fam. 11, 3, 4, see that you bear in mind. cūrā ut valeās, Fam. 12, 29, 3, take good care of yourself. velim exīstimēs, Fam. 12, 29, 2, I should like to have you consider. For commands in the subjunctive alone, see 1547; in the future indicative, 1624; in the form of a question, 1531.

1580. A periphrastic perfect passive form is rare: as, iūre caesus estō, Twelve Tables in Macrob. Sat. 1, 4, 19, he shall be regarded as killed with justifying circumstances. probē factum estō, L. 22, 10, 6, let it be considered justified. at vōs admonitī nostrīs quoque cāsibus este, O. Tr. 4, 8, 51, but be ye warned by our misfortunes too.

Prohibition.

1581. (1.) In prohibitions with the second person, the imperative with nē is used in old Latin, and with nēve as a connective, rarely neque: as,

nē flē, Pl. Cap. 139, weep not. nē saevī tantō opere, T. Andr. 868, be not thus wroth. Sometimes in classical poetry also, in imitation of old style: as, nē saevī, magna sacerdōs, V. 6, 544, rave not, thou priestess grand. Once in Livy: nē timēte, 3, 2, 9, be not afraid.

1582. From Ovid on, nōn is used a few times for nē: as, nōn cārīs aurēs onerāte lapillīs, O. AA. 3, 129, load not with precious stones your ears.

1583. (2.) Prohibitions in the second person are usually expressed by nōlī or nōlīte with the infinitive, particularly in classical prose: as,

obiūrgāre nōlī, Att. 3, 11, 2, don’t scold. nōlīte id velle quod fierī nōn potest, Ph. 7, 25, don’t yearn after the unattainable.

1584. In poetry, equivalents for nōlī are sometimes used with the infinitive, such as fuge, parce or comperce, conpesce, mitte or omitte, absiste: as, quid sit futūrum crās, fuge quaerere, H. 1, 9, 13, what fate the morrow brings, forbear to ask. Livy has once parce, 34, 32, 20.

1585. (3.) A prohibition in the second person is often expressed by the subjunctive accompanying cavē̆, fac nē, vidē nē, vidētō nē, cūrā nē, cūrātō nē, or nōlim, and in old Latin cavē̆ nē: as,

cavē festīnēs, Fam. 16, 12, 6, don’t be in a hurry. cavētō nē suscēnseās, Pl. As. 372, see that thou beest not wroth. hoc nōlim mē iocārī putēs, Fam. 9, 15, 4, I should hate to have you think I am saying this in fun. For prohibitions in the second person with nē and the present or perfect subjunctive, see 1551. For the subjunctive coordinated with cavē̆, see 1711.

1586. In law language, prohibitions are expressed by the third person of the imperative with nē, and with nēve as a connective: as,

hominem mortuom in urbe nē sepelītō nēve ūritō, Twelve Tables in Leg. 2, 58, he shall not bury nor yet shall he burn a dead man in town. mulierēs genās nē rāduntō nēve lessum fūneris ergō habentō, Twelve Tables in Leg. 2, 59, women shall not tear their cheeks nor shall they keen in lamentation for the dead (1257). Likewise with nēmō: as, nēminī pārentō, Twelve Tables in Leg. 3, 8, they shall not be subject to anybody. See also 1548.

Tense.

The Tenses of the Indicative.

The Present Tense.

1587. The present indicative represents action as going on at the time of speaking or writing: as,

scrībō, I write, or I am writing. nunc prīmum audiō, T. Andr. 936, for the first time I hear. notat ad caedem ūnum quemque nostrūm, C. 1, 2, he is marking us out for death, each and all. domus aedificātur, Att. 4, 2, 7, the house is building.

1588. The present is used to denote action customary or repeated at any time, or a general truth: as,

agrī cultūrae nōn student, 6, 22, 1, they do not apply themselves to farming. virī in uxōrēs vītae necisque habent potestātem, 6, 19, 3, the married men have power of life and death over their wives. probitās laudātur et alget, J. 1, 74, uprightness gets extolled, and left out in the cold. dum vītant stultī vitia, in contrāria currunt, H. S. 1, 2, 24, while fools essay a vice to shun, into its opposite they run. mors sōla fatētur quantula sint hominum corpuscula, J. 10, 172, death is the only thing that tells what pygmy things men’s bodies be. stultōrum plēna sunt omnia, Fam. 9, 22, 4, the world is full of fools. rīsū ineptō rēs ineptior nūllast, Cat. 39, 16, there’s nothing sillier than a silly laugh.

1589. The present, when accompanied by some expression of duration of time, is often used to denote action which has been going on some time and is still going on.

This present is translated by the English perfect: as, Lilybaeī multōs iam annōs habitat, V. 4, 38, he has lived at Lilybaeum this many a year. iam dūdum auscultō, H. S. 2, 7, 1, I have been listening for an age. satis diū hōc iam saxum vorsō, T. Eu. 1085, I’ve trundled at this boulder long enough as ’t is. nimium diū tē castra dēsīderant, C. 1, 10, the camp has felt your absence altogether too long. iam diū īgnōrō quid agās, Fam. 7, 9, 1, I have not known this long time how you are getting on. This use extends to the subjunctive and to nouns of the verb also. But if the action is conceived as completed, the perfect is used: as, sērō resistimus ē̆ī quem per annōs decem aluimus, Att. 7, 5, 5, it is too late to oppose a man whom we have been supporting ten long years.

1590. The present is often used to represent past action as going on now. This is called the Present of Vivid Narration: as,

trānsfīgitur scūtum Puliōni et verūtum in balteō dēfīgitur. āvertit hīc cāsus vāgīnam, inpedītumque hostēs circumsistunt, 5, 44, 7, Pulio has his shield run through, and a javelin sticks fast in his sword belt. This mischance puts his scabbard out of reach, and the enemy encompass him in this hampered condition. This present often stands side by side with a past tense. It is common in subordinate sentences also.

1591. The present is sometimes used in brief historical or personal memoranda, to note incidents day by day or year by year as they occur. This is called the Annalistic Present: as,

Proca deinde rēgnat. is Numitōrem prōcreat. Numitōrī rēgnum vetustum Silviae gentis lēgat, L. 1, 3, 9, after this Proca is king; this man begets Numitor; to Numitor he bequeaths the ancient throne of the Silvian race. duplicātur cīvium numerus. Caelius additur urbī mōns, L. 1, 30, 1, number of citizens doubled; Mt. Caelius added to city. in Māmurrārum lassī deinde urbe manēmus, H. S. 1, 5, 37, in the Mamurras’ city then forspent we sleep. Particularly common with dates: as, A. Vergīnius inde et T. Vetusius cōnsulātum ineunt, L. 2, 28, 1, then Verginius and Vetusius enter on the consulship. M. Sīlānō L. Nōrbānō cōnsulibus Germānicus Aegyptum proficīscitur, Ta. 2, 59, in the consulship of Silanus and Norbanus, Germanicus leaves for Egypt.

1592. Verbs of hearing, seeing, and saying are often put in the present, even when they refer to action really past: as,

audiō Valerium Mārtiālem dēcessisse, Plin. Ep. 3, 21, 1, I hear that Martial is dead, i.e. the epigrammatist, 102 A.D. Particularly of things mentioned in books, or in quoting what an author says: as, Hercyniam silvam, quam Eratosthenī nōtam esse videō, 6, 24, 2, the Hercynian forest, which I see was known to Eratosthenes. Platō ‘ēscam malōrum’ appellat voluptātem, CM. 44, Plato calls pleasure the ‘bait of sin.’

1593. The present is sometimes loosely used of future action: as,

crās est mihī̆ iūdicium, T. Eu. 338, tomorrow I’ve a case in court. ego sȳcophantam iam condūcō dē forō, Pl. Tri. 815, for me, a sharper from the market place I’ll straight engage. quam mox inruimus? T. Eu. 788, how soon do we pitch in? This present is also used in subordinate sentences with antequam and priusquam (1912, 1915), with dum, until (2006), and sometimes with sī.

The Imperfect Tense.

1594. The imperfect indicative represents action as going on in past time: as,

scrībēbam, I was writing, or I wrote. ei mihi quālis erat, V. 2, 274, woe’s me, how ghastly he appeared. multōsque per annōs errābant āctī fātīs, V. 1, 31, and they for many a year were roaming round, by fates pursued.

1595. The imperfect often denotes past action lasting while something else occurred: as,

an tum erās cōnsul, cum mea domus ardēbat? Pis. 26, were you perhaps consul at the time my house was burning down? neque vērō tum īgnōrābat sē ad exquīsīta supplicia proficīscī, Off. 3, 100, and all the time he knew perfectly well that he was starting off to suffer studied torments.

1596. The imperfect is used to denote repeated or customary past action or condition: as,

commentābar dēclāmitāns cōtīdiē, Br. 310, I always practised speaking my compositions every day. noctū ambulābat in pūblicō Themistoclēs, TD. 4, 44, Themistocles used to promenade the streets nights.

1597. The imperfect, when accompanied by some expression of duration of time, is used to denote action which had been going on for some time, and was still going on.

This imperfect, which is translated by the English pluperfect, is analogous to the present in 1589: as, pater grandis nātū iam diū lectō tenēbātur, V. 5, 16, his aged father had long been bedridden. hōram amplius iam permultī hominēs mōliēbantur, V. 4, 95, something over an hour a good many men had been prizing away. But if the action is conceived as completed at a past time, the pluperfect is used: as, diem iam quīntum cibō caruerat, 6, 38, 1, four whole days he had gone without eating.

1598. In a few examples, the imperfect is used to denote action suddenly recognized, though going on before: as, ehem, Parmenō, tūn hīc erās? T. Hec. 340, why bless me, Parmeno, were you here all this time?

1599. In descriptions of place or in general truths, where the present might be expected, the imperfect is sometimes used, by assimilation to past action in the context: as, ipsum erat oppidum Alesia in colle summō, 7, 69, 1, Alesia proper was situated on the top of a hill. Often also in subordinate sentences.

1600. For the imperfect indicative of certain verbs relating to action not performed at the present time, see 1497; for the conative use, see 2302.

1601. In letters, the imperfect may denote action at the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,

haec tibi dictābam post fānum putre Vacūnae, H. E. 1, 10, 49, I dictate this for thee behind Vacuna’s crumbling shrine. nihil habēbam quod scrīberem, Att. 9, 10, 1, I have nothing to write. Similarly in the delivery of messages: as, scrībae ōrābant, H. S. 2, 6, 36, the clerks request. The present, however, is very often used where the imperfect would be applicable. Compare 1616.

The Perfect Tense.

1602. The Latin perfect indicative represents two English tenses: thus, the preterite, I wrote, and the perfect, I have written, are both expressed by the perfect scrīpsī. In the first sense, this perfect is called the Historical Perfect; in the second sense, it is called the Perfect Definite.

The Historical Perfect.

1603. The historical perfect simply expresses action as having occurred at an indefinite past time, without implying anything as to the duration of the action: as,

scrīpsī, I wrote. vēnī, vīdī, vīcī, Caesar in Suet. Iul. 37, came, saw, overcame. apud Helvētiōs longē nōbilissimus fuit Orgetorīx, 1, 2, 1, among the Helvetians, the man of highest birth by all odds was Orgetorix. Diodōrus prope triennium domō caruit, V. 4, 41, for nearly three years Diodorus had to keep away from home. in Graeciā mūsicī flōruērunt, discēbantque id omnēs, TD. 1, 4, in Greece musicians stood high, and everybody studied the art (1596).

1604. It may be mentioned here, that in subordinate sentences the historical perfect is sometimes loosely used from the writer’s point of view, instead of the more exact pluperfect demanded by the context: as, aliquantum spatiī ex eō locō, ubī̆ pugnātum est, aufūgerat, L. 1, 25, 8, he had run off some distance from the spot where the fighting had occurred. See 1925.

The Perfect Definite.

1605. The perfect definite expresses action which is already completed at the present time, and the effects of which are regarded as continuing: as,

scrīpsī, I have written. dīxērunt, Clu. 73, dīxēre, Quintil. 1, 5, 43, they have finished speaking. spectātōrēs, fābula haec est ācta, Pl. Most. 1181, ladies and gentlemen, this play is done.

1606. In old Latin, habeō with the perfect participle is sometimes equivalent to a periphrastic perfect: as, illa omnia missa habeō, Pl. Ps. 602, I’ve dropped all that, i.e. mīsī. But in classical Latin, the participle and a tense of habeō are more or less distinct in their force: as, Caesar aciem īnstrūctam habuit, 1, 48, 3, Caesar kept his line drawn up, not had drawn up. Compare 2297.

1607. With verbs of inceptive meaning the perfect definite is equivalent to the English present: as,

cōnsistō, take my stand, cōnstitī, stand, cōnsuēscō, get used, cōnsuēvī, am used, nōscō, learn, nōvī, know. Similarly meminī, remember, and ōdī, hate. The pluperfect of such verbs is represented by the English imperfect, and the future perfect by the English future.

1608. The perfect often denotes a present resulting state: as, vīcīne, periī, interiī, Pl. Most. 1031, my neighbour, I am dead and gone. Particularly in the passive voice: as, Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs, 1, 1, 1, Gaul, including everything under the name, is divided into three parts. Compare 1615.

1609. In the perfect passive, forms of fuī, &c., are sometimes used to represent a state no longer existing: as, monumentō statua superimposita fuit, quam dēiectam nūper vīdimus ipsī, L. 38, 56, 3, on the monument there once stood a statue which I saw not long ago with my own eyes, lying flat on the ground. Similarly, in the pluperfect, fueram, &c.: as, arma quae fīxa in parietibus fuerant, ea sunt humī inventa, Div. 1, 74, the arms which had once been fastened on the walls were found on the floor. Sometimes, however, forms of fuī, &c., fueram, &c., and fuerō, &c., are used by Plautus, Cicero, especially in his letters, Nepos, Sallust, and particularly Livy, in passives and deponents, quite in the sense of sum, &c.

1610. The perfect of some verbs may imply a negative idea emphatically by understatement, as:

fuit Īlium, V. 2, 325, Ilium has been, i.e. Ilium is no more. vīximus, flōruimus, Fam. 14, 4, 5, we have lived our life, we have had our day. fīlium ūnicum adulēscentulum habeō. āh, quid dīxī? habēre mē? immō habuī, T. Hau. 93, I have one only son, a growing boy. Ah me, what did I say, I have? Oh no, have had.

1611. The perfect may denote an action often done, or never done: as,

iam saepe hominēs patriam cārōsque parentēs prōdiderunt, Lucr. 3, 85, time and again have men their land betrayed and parents dear. nōn aeris acervus et aurī dēdūxit corpore febrīs, H. E. 1, 2, 47, no pile of brass and gold hath fevers from the body drawn. multī, cum obesse vellent, prōfuērunt et, cum prōdesse, obfuērunt, DN. 3, 70, many a man has done good, when he meant to do harm, and when he meant to do good, has done harm. Common from Cicero, Sallust, and Catullus on, especially in poetry.

1612. The perfect is sometimes used as a lively future perfect to express completed future action: as,

quam mox coctumst prandium? Pl. R. 342, how soon is lunch all cooked? cui sī esse in urbe licēbit, vīcimus, Att. 14, 20, 3, if he shall be allowed to stay in town, the day is ours. periī, sī mē aspexerit, Pl. Am. 320, I’m gone, if he lays eyes on me.

1613. It may be mentioned here, that the perfect is regularly used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a present of repeated action (1588). In such sentences the present is preferred in English: as,

reliquī, quī domī mānsērunt, sē atque illōs alunt, 4, 1, 5, the others, that stay at home, always support themselves and the above-mentioned also. sī quī aut prīvātus aut populus eōrum dēcrētō nōn stetit, sacrificiīs interdīcunt, 6, 13, 6, if any man or any community does not abide by their decree, they always debar them from sacrifices. So also with quom or cum, quotiēns, simul atque, ubī̆. Compare 1618.

The Pluperfect Tense.

1614. The pluperfect indicative expresses past action, completed before another past action expressed or understood: as,

scrīpseram, I had written. Pyrrhī temporibus iam Apollō versūs facere dēsierat, Div. 2, 116, in Pyrrhus’s day Apollo had quite given up making poetry. mortuus erat Āgis rēx. fīlium relīquerat Leōtychidem, N. 17, 1, 4, Agis the king had died; he had left a son Leotychides.

1615. The pluperfect often expresses a past resulting state: as,

castra oportūnīs locīs erant posita, 7, 69, 7, the camp was pitched on favourable ground. ita ūnō tempore et longās nāvēs aestus complēverat, et onerāriās tempestās adflīctābat, 4, 29, 2, thus at one and the same time the tide had filled the men-of-war, and the gale of wind kept knocking the transports about. This use is analogous to that of the perfect in 1608.

1616. In letters, the pluperfect is sometimes used to denote action occurring previous to the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,

ūnam adhūc ā tē epistolam accēperam, Att. 7, 12, 1, I have only had one letter from you thus far. This use is analogous to that of the imperfect in 1601, and very often, where this pluperfect would be applicable, the perfect is used.

1617. The pluperfect is sometimes used where the perfect would be expected. Particularly so when it anticipates a past tense to follow in a new sentence: as, quod factum prīmō populārīs coniūrātiōnis concusserat. neque tamen Catilīnae furor minuēbātur, S. C. 24, 1, this terrified the conspirators at first; and yet Catiline’s frenzy was not getting abated. Verbs of saying are also often put in the pluperfect in subordinate sentences referring to a preceding statement: as, Epidamniēnsis ille, quem dūdum dīxeram, adoptat illum puerum surruptīcium, Pl. Men. prol. 57, said man of Epidamnus that I named erewhile adopts said kidnapped boy.

1618. It may be mentioned here, that the pluperfect is used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a past tense of repeated action. In such sentences the preterite is preferred in English: as,

hostēs ubī̆ aliquōs singulārēs cōnspexerant, incitātīs equīs adoriēbantur, 4, 26, 2, every time the enemy caught sight of detached parties, they would always charge full gallop. Compare the analogous perfect in 1613.

The Future Tense.

1619. The future indicative expresses future action, either momentary or continuous: as,

scrībam, I shall write, I shall be writing, or I will write, I will be writing. The future commonly expresses either prediction, or will, determination, promise, threat: as, (a.) tuās litterās exspectābō, Att. 5, 7, I shall be on the lookout for letters from you. (b.) vīvum tē nōn relinquam; moriēre virgīs, V. 4, 85, I will not leave you alive; you shall die under the rod. But separate forms to mark the sharp distinction which exists between shall and will in the English future and future perfect are utterly unknown in Latin: thus, in occīdar equidem, sed victus nōn perībō, Cornif. 4, 65, I shall be murdered, to be sure, but I will not die a vanquished man, the difference between the prediction contained in I shall, and the determination contained in I will, cannot be expressed in Latin by the future indicative.

1620. The future is often used in diffident assertion, to express an assumption, a belief, conviction, or concession, of the speaker himself, without implying its universal acceptance: as,

dīcēs, TD. 2, 60, you will say. dīcet aliquis, TD. 3, 46, somebody will say (1556). dabit hoc Zēnōnī Polemō, Fin. 4, 51, Polemo will concede this point to Zeno. excūdent aliī spīrantia mollius aera, crēdō equidem, V. 6, 847, with greater grace, I well believe, shall others shape the bronze that breathes. Particularly in conclusions: as, sequētur igitur vel ad supplicium beāta vīta virtūtem, TD. 5, 87, happiness then will walk with goodness even to the scaffold. Or in general truths: as, cantābit vacuus cōram latrōne viātor, J. 10, 22, the pourë man whan he goth by the weye, bifore the thevës he may synge and pleye.

1621. The future sometimes predicts that a thing not yet known to be true will prove to be true: as, haec erit bonō genere nāta, Pl. Per. 645, this maid, you’ll find, is come of honest stock, i.e. esse reperiētur. Compare the imperfect in 1598.

1622. In Plautus and Terence, the future is sometimes used in protestations, wishes, or thanks: as, ita mē dī amābunt, T. Hau. 749, so help me heaven. dī tē amābunt, Pl. Men. 278, the gods shall bless thee. Usually, however, the subjunctive: see 1542 and 1541.

1623. The future is sometimes used in questions of deliberation or appeal: as, dēdēmus ergō Hannibalem? L. 21, 10, 11, are we then to surrender Hannibal? hancine ego ad rem nātam memorābō? Pl. R. 188, am I to say that I was born for such a fate? Oftener the present subjunctive (1563), or sometimes the present indicative (1531).

1624. The future is sometimes used, particularly in the second person, to express an exhortation, a direction, a request, a command, or with nōn a prohibition: as,

crās ferrāmenta Teānum tollētis, H. E. 1, 1, 86, tomorrow to Teanum you will take your tools. bonā veniā mē audiēs, DN. 1, 59, you will listen to me with kind indulgence. tū intereā nōn cessābis, Fam. 5, 12, 10, meantime you will not be inactive. haec igitur tibī̆ erunt cūrae, Fam. 3, 9, 4, you will attend to this then, i.e. haec cūrābis.

1625. It may be mentioned here, that the future is used in sentences subordinate to a future, an imperative, or a subjunctive implying a future: as,

profectō nihil accipiam iniūriae, sī tū aderis, Att. 5, 18, 3, I am sure I shall suffer no harm, if you are with me. ut mēd esse volēs, ita erō, Pl. Ps. 239, as you will have me be, so will I be. ut is quī audiet, cōgitet plūra, quam videat, DO. 2, 242, so that the hearer may imagine more than he sees. But sometimes a present is used (1593).

The Future Perfect Tense.

1626. The future perfect indicative expresses completed future action: as,

scrīpserō, I shall have written, or I will have written. The future perfect is very common in Latin, particularly in protasis with a relative, with cum, ubī̆, &c., with antequam or priusquam, with ut (... ita), as (... so), or with sī, to express action anterior in time to a future; in English, this future perfect is usually represented by a loose present or perfect: as, quicquid fēceris, adprobābō, Fam. 3, 3, 2, whatever you do, I shall think right. Examples will be given further on, in speaking of the complex sentence.

1627. It may be mentioned here that the future perfect in protasis and apodosis both denotes two actions occurring at one and the same time; these actions are usually identical: as,

quī Antōnium oppresserit, is hoc bellum taeterrimum cōnfēcerit, Fam. 10, 19, 2, the man that puts down Antony will put an end to this cruel war, i.e. putting down Antony will be ending the war. respīrārō, sī tē vīderō, Att. 2, 24, 5, I shall take breath again, if I set eyes on you.

1628. The future perfect sometimes denotes a future resulting state: as,

molestus certē e͡i fuerō, T. Andr. 641, at all events I shall have proved a bane to him. meum rē̆ī pūblicae atque imperātōrī officium praestiterō, 4, 25, 3, I will have my duty all done to country and commander too.

1629. The future perfect is sometimes used to express rapidity of future action, often with the implication of assurance, promise, or threat: as,

abierō, Pl. Most. 590, I’ll instantly be gone. iam hūc revēnerō, Pl. MG. 863, B. 1066, I’ll be back here again forthwith. prīmus impetus castra cēperit, L. 25, 38, 17, the first rush will see the camp carried.

1630. The future perfect often denotes action postponed to a more convenient season, or thrown upon another person.

Often thus with post, aliās, and particularly mox: as, vōbīs post nārrāverō, Pl. Ps. 721, I’ll tell you by and by, i.e. I won’t tell you now. ad frātrem mox īerō, Pl. Cap. 194, I’ll to my brother’s by and by, i.e. not yet. fuerit ista eius dēlīberātiō, L. 1, 23, 8, that is a question for him to settle, i.e. not me. Especially vīderō: as, quae fuerit causa, mox vīderō, Fin. 1, 35, what the reason was, I won’t consider now. rēctē secusne aliās vīderimus, Ac. 2, 135, whether right or not, we will consider some other time, i.e. never. vōs vīderitis, L. 1, 58, 10, that is a question for you, i.e. not me.

1631. The future perfect sometimes denotes action which will have occurred while something else takes place: as,

nōn erō vōbīs morae: tībīcen vōs intereā hīc dēlectāverit, Pl. Ps. 573^a, I will not keep you long; meantime the piper will have entertained you here. tū invītā mulierēs, ego accīverō puerōs, Att. 5, 1, 3, do you, sir, invite the ladies, and I will meantime have fetched the children.

1632. The future perfect is often not perceptibly different from the future, especially in the first person singular in old Latin: as,

ego mihī prōvīderō, Pl. Most. 526, I’ll look out for myself. erōs in obsidiōne linquet, inimīcūm animōs auxerit, Pl. As. 280, he’ll leave his owners in a state of siege, he’ll swell the courage of the enemy. Similarly Cicero, in the protases sī potuerō, sī voluerō, sī licuerit, sī placuerit.

The Future Active Participle with sum.

1633. The future active participle combined with the tenses of sum expresses action impending, resolved on, or destined, at the time indicated by the tense of the verb: as,

cum hōc equite pugnātūrī estis, L. 21, 40, 10, with this kind of cavalry are you going to fight. bellum scrīptūrus sum, quod populus Rōmānus cum Iugurthā gessit, Sall. I. 5, 1, I purpose to write the history of the war that the people of Rome carried on with Jugurtha. fīet illud, quod futūrum est, Div. 2, 21, whatever is destined to be, will be. Delphōs petiīt, ubī̆ columnās, quibus impositūrī statuās rēgis Perseī fuerant, suīs statuīs dēstināvit, L. 45, 27, 6, he went to Delphi, where he appropriated for his own statues the pillars on which they had intended to put statues of king Perses.

The Tenses of the Subjunctive.

1634. In simple sentences, the tenses of the subjunctive correspond in general to the same tenses of the indicative. But the present has a future meaning; the imperfect sometimes expresses past, sometimes present action; and the perfect sometimes expresses past action, and sometimes future action.

1635. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in reference to past action, like the indicative present of vivid narration (1590): as, migrantīs cernās, V. 4, 401, you can descry them swarming out (1556). comprehendī iussit; quis nōn pertimēscat? V. 5, 14, he ordered them to be arrested; who would not be thoroughly scared? (1565). See also 2075.