One Thousand Ways to Make a Living

Plan No. 961. Transportation — Introductory

Acknowledgment

This monograph was prepared by Clarence E. Bonnett, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Percy R. Todd, General Manager, Bangor & Aroostook Railroad, Bangor, Me., and to Dr. John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance.

What Transportation Involves

In transportation men are concerned with the moving of persons and goods from one place to another. Transportation requires, however, many other operations than simply loading, hauling, and unloading passengers and freight. Charges must be determined and collected, records must be kept, movements of trains, cars, boats, and other vehicles must be directed, repairs to equipment must be made, and numerous other matters must be handled. These numerous operations call for hundreds of thousands of employees in many different trades and occupations.

Occupations Varied but of Great Responsibility

Thus in transportation there are so many different sorts of occupations that nearly any individual who likes responsibility can become interested in some part of the great field. There are occupations in which responsibility rests upon the employee for insuring the safety of property, and this responsibility is not by any means inconsiderable. In other occupations employees are responsible for lives as well as property, and risk their own lives in the service. There is office work for those who like it and plenty of traveling for those who enjoy that. If a life out of doors appeals to you, transportation can give you a job of that sort. In short, if you have a liking for responsibility you can find a job in transportation service that will suit you.

Disabilities and Retraining

If you were engaged in transportation before you were disabled, you are probably still interested in this work, and would return to it if you did not feel that your disabilities unfitted you for your old job. If you wish to go back into transportation and can not take up your old job or a new one in that field without retraining, you want to know how to get retraining and how retraining will help you. Retraining and devices may help you to get your old job again. Retraining ought to do more than simply this. It ought to get you a better job than you had before. It is to help you to analyze and see your own possibilities as they are related to the various transportation occupations that this booklet is written.

Divisions of Transportation

In general, transportation is performed by steam railroads, by street railways, by wagons and automobiles, and by boats. Of these agencies, steam railroads employ the largest number of men in so far as regular occupations are concerned. We shall, therefore, consider first the occupations and trades connected with the operation of steam railroads.

Plan No. 962. Part I. Steam Railroads

Railroading in the United States is a gigantic enterprise. In 1916, a prewar year, our railroads possessed about 65,000 locomotives, 2,342,000 freight cars, 55,000 passenger cars, and 98,000 company service cars. There were 259,000 miles of single track and enough of double track to raise this figure to 293,000 miles of main track. In addition there were 102,000 miles of sidings. Employees of railroads numbered 1,654,000 and were paid $1,403,968,000 as their compensation for the year 1916. Obviously, among so large a number of employees operating so varied an equipment are found many different trades and occupations.

Safety on Railroads

Railroading is attended with personal risk for many of the employees, but only in a small number of cases is a man who is disabled in the service of a railroad rendered unfit for further service. Many of the older railroad men have suffered injuries of some sort, since the use of safety devices is relatively recent. Quite a number of injured men have in the past been given office, clerical, or watchmen’s work, since there is a vast amount of such work to be done, and it involves comparatively little personal risk.

Factors Controlling Promotion

For the man who lacks a technical or college education there is almost a dead line to promotion into the higher offices. For instance, the wide-awake section hand can become a section foreman, then a construction gang foreman, a supervisor, and perhaps a roadmaster. But he can hardly ever hope to become an engineer of maintenance of way unless he acquires in the meanwhile an extended knowledge of civil engineering especially as applied to railroading. The disabled soldier or sailor, if unfitted to pursue his old occupation, can secure this very desirable training through the Federal Board for Vocational Education. He can thus secure an advancement that he might not otherwise have obtained.

There have been three conflicting forces governing promotions in railroading—favoritism, seniority, and efficiency. At one time favoritism was so strong that graft and toadyism gave inexperienced men promotion over men with long experience. The seniority rule was introduced by the labor organizations to offset the old evil, and for two men of equal intelligence and native ability selection by seniority is a fair method of giving promotion. In such a case seniority coincides with efficiency. But seniority of itself does not necessarily in all cases give the higher position to the man best fitted for it, since long years in the service will not train the thoughtless, careless man as well as a few years will the alert man. Railroad employees in all branches of the service strongly contend as a group for their seniority rights. This means that an outsider usually has a long waiting period for advancement into the best positions. Efficiency is becoming more the rule, but the old influences still prevail in some departments, partly because standards of efficiency are rather indeterminate, largely because changes in a widespread system can not be wrought in a day. If favoritism could be abolished employees would not insist so strenuously upon their seniority rights.

Since the railroads have been subjected to public regulation they have appreciated the value of courteous treatment of the public. Accordingly they reward the courteous employees by promotion, and no longer tolerate a grossly uncivil one as they did in the early days.

Loyalty to the railroad organization is regarded to-day by railroad officials as the foremost requisite for those wishing promotion—a loyalty that places the railroad organization first, whether it be a question of public regulation or of labor unionization. Fairfax Harrison, president of the Southern Railway Co., has thus stated the case:

“There are three requisites for advancement in railroad service—loyalty, efficiency in your present job, and preparedness for larger responsibilities. Efficiency and preparedness for higher place go together, for that man will be most efficient in his present job who is not content with mere mechanical performance of his duties, but who has an intelligent understanding of them in their relation to the service as a whole and who has qualified to take over the duties and responsibilities of his immediate superior on a moment’s notice.”

Why Take the Training?

It is however, a generally known fact among railroaders that few men in the lower positions have the chance to learn efficiently all the duties required of them in the next higher position. For example, a track workman rarely has the opportunity to make out reports and payrolls, or even to do alignment sighting, unless he is favored by his foreman. By taking the training provided by the Federal Board he can learn to do this and other highly skilled work, and thus have an unusual opportunity for advancement. He could study civil engineering and become an engineer-maintenance-of-way.

Classes of Railroad Occupations

There are various ways of classifying railroad employees, but we shall use here a grouping suited to our purposes, based largely on physical and mental requirements and the training involved. We are not so much concerned with the several administrative departments—accounting, operating, traffic, etc.—as with the work done in different occupations. There is obviously a marked difference between the physical requirements for an office position and those for a position as railroad brakeman. On a basis of the requirements made upon the employee, railroad occupations may be grouped as follows:

1. Office or clerical work.

2. Shop work—repairing equipment.

3. Track work—repairing track and structures.

4. Train work—operating the trains.

5. Work conducing directly to train operation.

Plan No. 963. Office and Clerical Work

In railroad office and clerical work the requirements upon the employee are mainly mental. In this group we find the general and divisional officers—financial, legal, surgical, engineering, managing—telegraphers, train dispatchers and train directors, telephone operators, station agents, passengers and freight agents, station masters, and all sorts of clerks—accountants, rate clerks, traffic clerks, etc. For these positions a man may qualify although he may have suffered from considerable physical disabilities, providing he is mentally alert and has some knowledge of railroading. The knowledge that a man should acquire or the training that he should take will, of course, depend upon the particular position he wishes to fill.

Let us consider some of the principal office and clerical occupations, so that you may be able to select the one that appeals to you. We may well begin with the telegraph operator.

Plan No. 964. Telegraphy as an Occupation for the Disabled

Few physical disabilities will debar an intelligent man from becoming a telegraph operator. Poor hearing, the loss of both arms or of both eyes are handicaps that can not be overcome, but nearly any other disability can be overcome. The occupation rarely subjects a man to exposure to bad weather. Telegrapher’s cramp and electric shocks are the chief occupational hazards to be guarded against.

The position of the operator is stimulating, even at a small station on a through line, since much of the important news of the day goes over the wires. Of course, he is bound to keep secret all such news, and there are through wires on which he can not listen in.

Telegraphic Apparatus

The instruments used consist of a key for sending messages and a relay or sounder for receiving messages. To install an outfit is a simple matter for anyone who is at all familiar with the action of an electric current, for the principle of operation is merely that of breaking up the flow of current into dots and dashes in various combinations.

Training for Telegraphy

However, facility in transferring letters into dots and dashes and translating dots and dashes into letters is not so easily acquired. Only after much practice does the beginner form the habit of doing this readily. He must of course memorize the Morse alphabet, but, further than that, he must become so familiar with the dots and dashes that when he hears them in combination he thinks that he is actually hearing a word, not a certain number of dots and dashes. He must form the habit of thinking words in dots and dashes without thinking of the clicks, just as one reads a page without thinking of the separate printed letters that go to make up the words.

The operator needs further to acquire a rapid legible handwriting, so that he can write down rapidly the message as he receives it and never get very far behind the sender. Since, however, it is difficult for one to write as fast as an experienced sender can send, the operator must learn to retain in mind a number of words and phrases, so that when he is receiving messages sent rapidly he can copy behind the sender and catch up at breaks for new sentences and paragraphs, or at the end. Some operators have learned to receive messages, writing them out on the typewriter as they come over the wire. This is an accomplishment worth striving to attain, especially if one can not write legibly and at the same time rapidly.

The Telegrapher Must Learn More Than Mere Telegraphy

There are a number of other things that the telegraph operator needs to learn, especially if he holds a position at a small station. He must learn a large number of abbreviations, so that he knows immediately what they mean. Some of these abbreviations are made up of the main consonants in the word, while others are simply arbitrary numbers. Sometimes these numbers refer to a printed form which he must use repeatedly. A knowledge of switchboards and cut-outs, of installation and renewal of batteries, and of care and adjustment of instruments is highly desirable and usually necessary. All operators must know the rules and regulations of the company and govern themselves accordingly, and they must be fully acquainted with signaling systems and appliances.

If the operator is located at a small station, he probably has part or all the work of the station agent to perform at some time. If he is located at a large station, there are emergencies when he may be called upon to do such work, so that he should become familiar with the work of the station agent. This, of course, means that he must become familiar with rates, both freight and passenger, must sell tickets, make out freight bills, and do railroad bookkeeping. The complaint most frequently made against schools teaching telegraphy is that the student is taught telegraphy and nothing else, so that when he takes employment he has to learn at once nearly everything connected with station work.

Hours and Wages of Telegraphers

Hours are generally eight per day, and wages are good, averaging around $1,100 or $1,200 per year for all operators, which means that the efficient employee who works regularly gets much more than $1,200. Employment is regular throughout the year. Rarely does an operator send or receive for a long period of time without a break to rest. Most messages are ten-word ones, which means the transmission of probably not over twenty words, including names, addresses, and office data.

Will Telegraphers Be Needed?

As to the permanency of the occupation, there is only the telephone that in any way threatens to make the telegrapher unnecessary. The limitations of the telephone are such, however, as to make that instrument supplemental to the telegraph. The telephone is, for example, more liable to get out of order, because the apparatus is more complicated, and when out of order it can not easily be put in commission again by the average operator. The telegraph lends itself readily to codes and a written record is usually made of messages sent by telegraph, while the telephone lends itself readily to conversation. Thus each has its own proper uses. The wireless seems to be better adapted to telegraph instruments than to the telephone, especially for long distances. There has been no practical device invented for relaying messages mechanically with the telephone, as can be done with the telegraph. Although the telephone has proved to be satisfactory in the direction of trains, and is being installed on the railroads rather generally, it is hardly probable that it will entirely displace the telegraph. However, it is to be noted that there is some possibility that the service may be flooded with telegraphers only partially qualified to do their work. Radio operators trained in the war can readily become telegraph operators and during the war many women have learned telegraphy. A disabled soldier or sailor entering this occupation should take supplementary training for the position of station agent, so that he may in some measure avoid the competition of radio and women operators.

Disabled Soldiers Who Have Learned Telegraphy

By way of illustration a few cases may be cited of disabled Canadian soldiers who have taken training as telegraphers and entered successfully into this work. Returned soldiers whose former occupations had been that of farmer or farm hand have taken the training courses offered them by their Government, and have thus fitted themselves for this, to them, entirely new line of work. One farm hand, for example, disabled by stiffness of the left elbow, studied telegraphy and secured a position as assistant agent on the Grand Trunk Railway. Another disabled soldier, a former farmer, suffering from leg trouble, studied telegraphy and now holds a position as a railroad telegrapher at a salary of $95 per month. (Salaries paid telegraphers in the United States are considerably higher than in Canada.) Another farmer so disabled in the army that he had but little use of his left leg took a course in telegraphy and now holds a position as an operator paying $82.50 per month, with house, light, and heat free. Still another farmer, who lost his left arm in the army, after studying telegraphy secured a position as a wireless operator at $85 per month and board. If you have not lost your mental equipment and ambition, you can do as well as or better than these disabled Canadians have done.

Other disabled soldiers have taken training for telegraphy to enable them to get into an employment paying more than their former occupation and giving more regular employment. A waiter afflicted with heart trouble, for example, a bricklayer who lost three fingers on his left hand and had wrist injured, a rubber-shoe maker afflicted with stiffness of the left elbow joint, each studied telegraphy, and each has secured a position on Canadian railways.

Old railroad men whose disabilities prevented them from returning to their former occupations have taken training for telegraphy, in which branch of railroading working conditions were better than in their old jobs. A locomotive fireman who had sustained a gunshot wound and lost the vision of his right eye and a finger from his left hand studied telegraphy and secured a position as a station agent. A lineman whose legs were too weak for his old position took both the commercial and telegraphy courses and now has a position as an operator at $88 per month. If you have had practical experience as a railroad man, the courses offered you by your Government will give you the training necessary to enable you to secure that higher position which you have often hoped you could get. Why do you not make your disability your opportunity for advancement? Now is the time to take the training and secure that promotion.

Line of Promotion for Telegraphers

An operator may be promoted to a position as train dispatcher, or as station agent, depending upon his interest and abilities and upon the available opportunities. Opportunities to become station agents are more frequent, because the number of station agents employed is much larger, and promotion in this line may be continued by transfer from a small to a larger station. Before passing to a consideration of the occupation of the station agent, we shall note briefly the position of the train dispatcher.

Plan No. 965. The Train Dispatcher

The train dispatcher must be an expert operator and must have other qualifications which he may have acquired while working as an operator. He must understand the workings of the operating department; he must know the location of sidings and telegraph offices, the distances, grades, and track conditions between sidings and offices, and something of engineers, engines, and train loads. He must have a clear head and must not get confused nor trust to memory or guess as to location of trains. He must keep a record of the progress of all trains and refer to it constantly. He must have the ability to direct men in person or at a distance, since the operators are subject to his orders. It is absolutely necessary that he know thoroughly all the operating rules and regulations of the road. The position is one of great responsibility, especially on roads with heavy traffic on a single-track system. Since he must direct all trains on his division, the mental strain at times is considerable. But the hours are usually short, and the wages paid are high—the annual average being nearly twice that for operators.

The train dispatcher may advance to the position of chief dispatcher, whose duties include supervision of train dispatchers, and general operation of all trains. In emergencies his duties and responsibilities are especially exacting.

Plan No. 966. The Station Agent

In no one other position probably are working conditions so varied as in that of the station agent. He may be located at a small village on a branch line where he meets perhaps two trains a day and performs all the work around the office from telegraphing to caring for the United States mail. Or he may be located in a large city, where his work is that of supervising a small army of employees. But whether he is in the smallest position or in the largest, he must understand the railroad’s business as it relates to his work. He must understand rates, both passenger and freight; must know how to keep records and accounts correctly; how to make out freight bills and coupon tickets, even although he himself may not have to do this work; and he must know how to handle men. It is through him that the public comes most closely in contact with the railroad, and he can make or lose traffic for the railroad by the manner in which he meets customers or would-be customers. Courtesy in station agents is being prized more and more by railroad administrators. A popular agent is an asset, an uncivil one, a liability. The agent at a small station can obtain much business for the company through a knowledge of through rates and routes, although he must allow the shipper to choose the route. All station agents must be experienced operators on lines where the telephone is not used. They must be thoroughly familiar with railroad signals and with traffic rules and regulations. Even in a small place, the agent comes more in contact with the outside world than most of the other inhabitants of the village. His position is one of financial responsibility, since he handles large sums of money. Upon him devolves largely responsibility also for the safety of travelers and freight, since he plays a part in the directing of trains. He can save the railroad from losses in claims for lost and damaged goods, by seeing that names and addresses are marked clearly on packages, that goods are packed properly for shipment, and that packages are handled carefully.

Plan No. 967. Station Clerks, Baggagemen, and Other Workers

At the larger stations, the work of the station agent is that of supervising a large number of clerks, baggagemen, and other workers.

Among these clerks are ticket sellers whose duties are to calculate rates and fill out coupon tickets with correct routings, and to sell local and excursion tickets. They must be very careful to make correct charge for the tickets sold. They make out detailed reports of the tickets sold and money received.

The head baggageman and his assistants receive and forward all baggage left with them, determine if there is any excess and collect the charges for excess. They issue duplicate checks for baggage left with them when the passenger presents his ticket and asks for the checks. They also give out baggage arriving at the station on presentation of the duplicate check issued at another office. The head baggageman must be able to handle men and direct them so as to avoid making mistakes, but he must usually be physically able himself to handle baggage.

In the freight department are rate clerks, who give information as to rates and classifications; billing clerks, who bill freight, enter weights, etc.; and other clerks, who attend to accounts, records, correspondence, and claims.

Disabled soldiers or sailors with good common-school education could, after short periods of training, fill any of these positions. Salaries average slightly less than $1,000 per year. For ticket sellers comparatively few disabilities are serious handicaps, except such as may be repellant to the traveling public, which does not usually like to be reminded of accidents. Freight clerks have not even this condition to meet, and if they are not called upon to handle freight they will not be seriously handicapped by physical disabilities which would bar them from many occupations.

At important freight centers a considerable number of employees are directly engaged in handling freight, under the supervision of a freight-house foreman. This foreman has charge of the freight house, directs the placing of cars at the warehouse and the loading and unloading of freight, and is responsible for keeping records so that freight may be readily found. He must be able to handle men, and must know how freight should be packed and stored, both in the freight house and in the cars. He must be able to classify freight and to file properly all records relating to freight. He has usually been promoted from a position as checker, warehouseman, or trucker. Any disabled man who has held such jobs, if he is intelligent and can handle men, could with some training become a freight-house foreman. Poor sight or hearing would, however, usually be serious handicaps.

The freight checker has a position that pays better than that of the trucker—who is rated as an unskilled laborer. The freight checker checks the freight into and out of the freight house, warehouse, or car. He must be able to check consignments accurately, and should know the classes of freight.

At transfer points, a transfer agent performs duties similar to those performed in the positions just considered. He sees that shipments are properly transferred. He makes the necessary notations on waybills, and keeps a complete record of the transfer and of the cost incurred. He must understand loading and unloading freight and must be able to handle laborers. Not infrequently he has been promoted from a position as agent at a small station. A disabled man with good sight and hearing, who can write, might be trained for this position.

Plan No. 968. Division Supervisors

At division points on the railroads, there are a number of station and yard employees whose duties are supervisory. Among these employees are the station master with his assistant, the supervising agent, the yardmaster, with his assistant, and the train director.

Plan No. 969. The Station Master and His Assistant

The station master directs the making up and dispatching of local passenger trains, receives and dispatches through passenger trains, and looks after the necessary shifting of cars in such trains. He sees that all these trains are provided with crews ready to take prompt charge of the train. He has general supervision over all employees about the station, and reports on neglect of duty by any of these.

The assistant station master has the same general duties as the station master and must have the same qualifications. The assistant works when the station master is off duty, or in the larger stations relieves the station master of part of his work.

These men must be courteous to the traveling public, and must have had experience in the operation of trains in the yards, so as to be able to direct train movements efficiently. They must have the ability to handle men and to make sound decisions quickly. The physical requirements are good health, sight, and hearing. Disabilities which would not prevent quick movement from place to place would not be serious handicaps to well qualified men.

Plan No. 970. The Supervising Agent

The supervising agent has general charge of passenger, baggage, freight, and scale agents. He employs and supervises the employees who take care of the station grounds and buildings. He must possess executive ability, and must have had experience in the positions he supervises, to enable him to select properly qualified men, and to direct their work intelligently.

Plan No. 971. The Yardmaster and His Assistant

The yardmaster has immediate supervision over yard employees and yard operation. On some railroads he has also supervision over the calling of train crews and the train seniority list. He is aided in his work by assistant yardmasters and by yard clerks. The assistant yardmasters’ duties and qualifications are of the same general character as those of the yardmaster.

These men must see that cars are not unnecessarily delayed in passing through their yard. They must receive the waybills for cars arriving, and deliver these to the conductors taking charge of the cars when they depart. They must make records of all the transactions and fill out reports. They must be thoroughly familiar with the rules governing train operation and defining the duties of employees connected with train service. The yardmaster must see that all orders are properly given and executed. He must have good color eyesight and hearing, and be able to stand exposure to weather. He would not be seriously handicapped by the loss of limbs, provided he could write out reports and make records and move quickly from place to place. A disabled trainman could take training for the position of assistant yardmaster and thus be in line for promotion to the position of yardmaster, although the seniority rule might prevent him from getting this promotion quickly.

Plan No. 972. The Train Director

The duties of the train director are to receive and transmit train orders for the movement of trains, from the train dispatcher to the train crews. Accordingly he must be an expert telegrapher or telephoner, have good color eyesight and good hearing, and be thoroughly familiar with the rules and regulations relating to the movement and signaling of trains.

Plan No. 973. Other Station and Yard Workers

Under the station masters, yardmasters, and supervisors are a number of minor clerks, attendants, and laborers. But little skill is required of the laborers, whose work is largely physical and the wages paid them are the usual wages for unskilled labor. The duties of minor clerks vary so from station to station and so overlap that any detailed account of their services would be confusing. Some of these clerical positions might be suitable for some disabled men, and the training necessary is usually short. It must in fact generally be taken in the position itself for the special duties assigned in the given case.

Plan No. 974. Train Callers and Ticket Examiners

A disabled man with a good voice and memory might become a train caller at a large station. A disabled passenger conductor might become a ticket examiner, since his knowledge of tickets and of the various stations would be the sort of information required for this position; but the pay would probably be lower than that of conductors.

Plan No. 975. Office Work

In the divisional or general offices the reports, accounts, and similar matters that come in from station agents are handled. There is the accounting division concerned with receipts and expenditures, most of which are for small amounts, and all of which must be totaled in various ways—a considerable task of itself. Expenditures must frequently be analyzed according to different regulations, and reports must be compiled for State and Federal commissions. Because of these requirements the railroad accountant must learn many things about railroad systems and the public regulation of railroads that another accountant does not need to know.

In the divisional and general offices a great deal of statistical work must be done. A number of clerks are employed in preparing exhibits for the rate or wage hearings, of which there are usually one or more in progress in some part of the country. Much of this statistical work is done in the traffic department.

Plan No. 976. The Traffic Department

The traffic department is the rate-making and traffic-getting department of the railroad. In this department much correspondence is carried on; many letters are received, answered, and filed, especially in obtaining traffic. The answering of inquiries of all sorts is in itself a big task. The traffic department considers the revision of old rates and classifications and the issue of new rates or special rates. Here is where individual rates, rate structures, and classifications are first formulated. The change of a rate structure is usually made only after an extended study of traffic conditions and of the probable effect of the proposed rate structure. The traffic department presents such matters to the various classification committees for action, and jointly with the traffic departments of other railroads in the territory covered it forms the traffic association and classification committees. It thus operates to affect rates on other railroads and it presents new rates and classifications to the Interstate Commerce Commission or to State commissions for approval. It must frequently prepare for hearings upon changes in rates and classifications. It draws upon the auditing and operating departments for much of the information upon which new rates are formulated.

There are two divisions to the traffic department, namely, the freight and the passenger divisions. The freight division makes studies of the commodities to be moved, of the competition the railroad has to meet, and of the charges that the traffic will bear without being diverted to other lines or routes. It adjusts claims for lost or damaged freight. It solicits business by keeping in touch with the shipping interests along its line or those who could be induced to use its line in connection with another road. For this purpose traveling freight agents are employed. These men must know rates, routes, commodities, and men. Their employment depends upon their knowledge of their business and their ability to meet and convince, for instance, the manufacturer that he should ship over their line. In other words, they are salesmen of railroad service.

Who Are Eligible for Traffic Department Service

Former railroad conductors or brakemen of a high degree of intelligence, who have been disabled in the war, may in some cases wisely elect to take training for service in the traffic department. Much of the information that a conductor or brakeman has learned in his old position will be of value to him. In the traffic department both officers and clerks must know how properly to bill freight, how to calculate both local and through freight rates, and how to route through freight over connecting lines. They must know the junctions where cars can be transferred and where they can not, and where less-than-car load shipments can be transferred without drayage. They must be familiar with the seasonal movement of freight and must know what commodities come from certain districts and with what regularity, in order to anticipate heavy freight movements, and have cars at points where they are most needed. The intelligent conductor or brakeman has already acquired much of this information. Freight conductors are well qualified for training as traffic men, traveling freight agents, terminal traffic men, assistant traffic managers, or even traffic managers. Former clerks in the traffic department also could take training and qualify for better positions.

The passenger division of the traffic department attempts to obtain extensive travel over its lines. Conventions, circuses, and all such attractions for crowds are noted and excursions provided whenever they seem to promise to be profitable. Such excursions must be advertised, and this demands an advertising man in the department.

In large cities where many competing railroads center, city ticket offices are maintained from which solicitors are sent out to induce persons known to be planning a trip to travel on their respective lines. A disabled passenger conductor might qualify by training for a position in this division, and find that his past experience would be very helpful in the new position.

Those formerly in purely clerical positions, who have been disabled, may advantageously take courses in rates and rate making, and thus qualify for higher positions.

Previous Experience of Value for Other Office and Clerical Work

In other departments of railroad service, there are a large number of positions that former train, station, or track men who have been disabled could advantageously fill, utilizing their railroading experience, and taking training for the new positions. These disabled men would have to be men of intelligence and not too old to take up a somewhat different line of work.

Such men could, for example, learn accounting and would find their knowledge of train matters, track affairs, and station duties of value in helping them to understanding certain accounts. Auditors could do their work more efficiently if they understood more of the work in the various branches of railroad service.

Again, top-heavy engines would not be placed on tracks made up largely of curves, in the hope that the high drivers would give greater speed than could be developed from lower-wheeled engines, had the responsible officials or their advisers understood more of track maintenance, especially in cuts in rainy weather. In one instance when high-wheeled engines were placed in service on a road the track men complained immediately, but it took a series of wrecks on curves to induce a change to safer engines.

The claim department could utilize men who have been “out on the road.” Actual railroad experience would be of value to a young man about to enter the legal department of a railroad. A young railroad man inclined to legal affairs could take the training provided by the Federal Board, and thus make his disability a means of advancement to one of the highest paid positions on railroads.

The purchasing agent and his assistants could undoubtedly gain in efficiency by having in their offices men who have had actual experience in handling the materials that these agents must purchase. When to insist upon strict compliance with all specifications, and when in the case of certain specifications to make concessions, are matters that may involve large sums of money and in such matters the advice of men with actual experience in using the materials would be very helpful.

Plan No. 977. An Estimate of a Railroad General Manager

Percy R. Todd, Assistant to District Director and General Manager, Bangor & Aroostook Railroad, Bangor, Me., says:

“There always has been, and, in my judgment, always will be a demand in excess of the supply for the following classes of employees, particularly relating to office work, viz.:

“Stenographers.

“Tariff clerks (trained in the framing and publication of freight and passenger tariffs in accordance with Interstate Commerce Commission rules).

“Freight claim clerks (trained in the handling of both overcharge and loss and damage freight claims).

“Waybill clerks (there has always been great difficulty in obtaining trained men to make waybills at stations).

“Telegraph operators.

“Expert railroad accountants.

“Clerks trained in valuation of railroads.

“In all of the above-mentioned lines, so far as my personal experience goes, there has always been a shortage and probably always will be.

“As to stenography, I consider it the very best medium through which any young man can make progress on a railroad, as it lifts him at once above the mass of clerks and gives him an individuality and a touch with executive officers which almost invariably leads to his promotion.

“In this connection I might add that the traffic manager of the New York Central Railroad, * * *, was at one time my stenographer when I was connected with the New York Central System, and rose from that position to be traffic manager of all their lines; the president of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad, who died three or four years ago, started as a stenographer with the Michigan Central Railroad at Chicago.

“The general manager to-day of one of the New England railroads started as a stenographer with the same company, and I could give a great many more instances of what stenography has done for men who had the brains to back it up.”

Plan No. 978. Shopwork

For the second group of employments designated, shopwork, the physical requirements are higher than for office and clerical work, since shopwork generally calls for at least ordinary strength and eyesight. Shopworkers include general foremen, gang and other foremen, machinists, boiler makers, blacksmiths, carpenters, painters, upholsterers, electricians, air brake men, car inspectors, car repairmen, mechanics helpers, and apprentices. A number of men now employed in these occupations have suffered injuries to hands or feet, or have defective hearing. Foremen can perform their duties under disabilities that would be serious handicaps for workmen, but a foreman needs good eyesight.

Skill Required for Shopwork

Practically all of these occupations require considerable skill and general knowledge of railroad equipment. While the workmen have machines with which to perform many operations in the shop, still much handwork must be done. This is the case because repair work is varied, and the work must usually be done partly on the car or engine, sometimes out on the road. The machinist’s work is generally heavy and greasy. Some of the carpentering and paint work is rough, as is that on box cars, while some, such as the cabinet making and varnishing of passenger coaches, is highly skilled.

Training

A skilled machinist or mechanic can learn to do railroad work very quickly after he gets on the job. Others must spend a period of apprenticeship to learn the trade. Quite a number of railroads have regular apprenticeship courses. Wood-working and metal-trade schools also give much of the training required for railroad shop work. We give below a description of the occupations to suggest to the disabled soldier the training he will probably need, and to enable him to decide whether the occupations are suited to his disabilities.

Great Demand for Shopworkers

For the disabled soldier or sailor who is mechanically inclined, the railroad shop offers an opportunity for good wages and advancement. The depreciation of the great amount of mechanical equipment of a modern railroad is very large and railroads have not had in the shops for a number of years sufficient men to keep the rolling stock in good condition. The number of bad-order cars and locomotives has been large, and they have not moved out of the shops as rapidly as they should. The automobile industry has undoubtedly been a strong competitor for the mechanics who otherwise might have gone into railroad shops. Some railroads have attempted to provide themselves with sufficient machinists by training apprentices in considerable numbers.

Plan No. 979. The Heads of the Two Departments

The master mechanic has charge of the machine shop and the employees therein. Under him, are usually, shop foremen, roundhouse foremen, road foremen, and sometimes other supervisors. He may himself be under a superintendent of motive power, or directly under the division superintendent.

Usually on a par with the master mechanic is the superintendent of the car department, sometimes called a master carpenter, who has charge of car builders and painters, repairmen and inspectors, cleaners and oilers.

The work of the two departments is not clearly differentiated to-day, since the introduction of the steel car has required mechanics for its upkeep rather than carpenters. Previously, the line was drawn at the wood and metal parts. The two departments attempt to keep the railroad equipment in running order.

Plan No. 980. Clerical Positions

In these departments are found also clerks who keep records and help in making reports and in correspondence. The storekeeper and his assistants are usually under the supervision of the master mechanic. Since none of the positions are essentially manual ones, they could be filled by disabled men having the necessary ability, training and experience. Experience in the lower positions is required to fit for any of the higher ones. For executive positions ability to handle men as well as the other qualifications are essential. For clerical positions the qualifications are chiefly educational.

In the railroad shops we find generally the following skilled workmen: Machinists, blacksmiths, boilermakers, sheet metal mechanics, pipe fitters, electricians, molders, and inspectors.

Plan No. 981. Machinists

Railroad machinists in small shops do all sorts of repair work, but in large shops they are frequently assigned to special work. A machinist may, for instance, work only at a large lathe truing up “flat” wheels or journals. Since power cranes are now used to set the work in place in the lathe, no heavy lifting is required. A disabled man can do the work if he knows how to adjust the lathe so that the wheels or journals are machined properly. If he has good eyesight in one eye, one good hand, and can stand at the machine during working hours, his disabilities will not seriously handicap him. Another machinist may work on engine parts—for example, on cylinders, pistons, or cut-off valves. Use of power cranes for placing most of this work has reduced greatly the need for great physical strength on the part of the railroad machinist. However, those who are sent out on the road to help clear up wrecks must occasionally do heavy lifting.

Plan No. 982. Air-Brake Mechanics

The air-brake man is a mechanic who installs and repairs the air-brake equipment of locomotives and cars. Much of his work consists in removing defective parts and replacing them with new properly fitted parts. As he must frequently work under cars and do a certain amount of rather heavy lifting, he needs both arms, good eyesight, and good hearing. He must also have good health. The loss of a leg would be a considerable handicap for installation work. A disabled air-brake man could easily train himself to become an air-brake test-room inspector. In such a position his knowledge and skill would count more than his physical condition. For this position he must be thoroughly familiar with all the parts and functions of the air brake; and be able to adjust valves and other parts quickly.

Plan No. 983. The Blacksmith

The railroad blacksmith must forge or weld light and heavy pieces for all sorts of railroad equipment. He may forge a steeple bolt for a hand car, cut and fit the parts for a crossing frog, set the steel tires on the drive wheels of a locomotive, or straighten a bent driving rod. He must be able to read blue prints, and to take old, worn, and broken pieces as a guide to construct a new piece. He must be able also to do all sorts of welding and to heat large pieces properly. He must understand how to temper steel for the use to which it is to be put. His work thus requires technical knowledge and manipulative skill. But since power hammers and cranes are used on heavy pieces his work is not so heavy as formerly. The loss of one or two fingers, or of a leg, or of the sight of one eye, would not handicap a well-trained man. Poor hearing would not ordinarily be a serious handicap.

Plan No. 984. The Boilermaker

The boilermaker keeps in repair the locomotive and stationary boilers of the railroad. He must be able to retube, patch, overhaul, and construct boilers. Ordinarily his heaviest duties are to remove old leaky tubes from boilers and place in new ones, and to patch up or even renew the fireboxes. However, wrecks frequently cause him to take boilers apart and put in new pieces, so that he almost reconstructs the boiler. He must be able to read blue prints and use templates in laying off plates and angles. He must know how to punch, shear, and rivet the parts, and calk the boilers, and how to weld or cut pieces with an oxy-acetylene torch. The work is heavy and dirty, but good hearing is not essential and the loss of an eye is not a serious handicap. The boilermaker must, however, have strength and the use of both hands, although he may have lost a finger or two from either hand.

The work and qualifications of the steel-car repairer are not radically different from those of the boiler maker. The metal-car repair man also must be able to drill or punch holes, to cut out broken parts of metal, replace them with new ones, and rivet them in, but his work is not so technical as that of the boiler-maker.

Plan No. 985. The Electrician

With the installation of electric headlights and electrically lighted passenger cars the electrician’s duties in repair shops have increased greatly in recent years. He must keep in repair the dynamos on locomotives and the dynamos and storage batteries on passenger cars. The growing use of the electric locomotive means that the demand for railway electricians is sure to increase. Repair of motors for these as well as for electric cranes used in a number of shops calls for armature winders in increasing numbers. Both technical knowledge and manipulative skill are required, but ordinarily the work is not heavy. Disabled men with good eyesight in one eye, with two arms and one good hand, who are able to move about easily, could do the work.

Plan No. 986. Inspectors

Inspectors of boilers and of other parts of locomotives, and of the metal parts of cars, must know thoroughly the parts to be inspected. Usually they have had considerable experience in the repair of these parts. Frequently they must help to make the repair or must supervise the work when they find a minor defect in railway equipment at a location not convenient to the shop.

Plan No. 987. Car Repairmen

Repairing or rebuilding of wooden cars is done by car builders or repairmen and painters. It is largely carpenter work. These men must be able to remove any broken or damaged piece of a car, replace it with a new piece, and paint or varnish it. The builders or repairmen must be thoroughly skilled in the use of all hand carpentry tools and be able to use readily any of the woodworking machinery necessary to produce car parts. On passenger-car work, the repaired part must be finished nicely, and the whole painted or varnished so that the repair is not obvious. No such care is required for work on freight cars.

In addition to the men who work regularly in the shop, there are a number of men who must travel over the road and keep mechanical or electrical equipment in working order. These men must all have mechanical ability. Ordinarily, they must be physically sound, since they are exposed to weather and to danger from trains. Among these men are signal and interlocking maintainers, and signal inspectors. They must have both mechanical and electrical knowledge.

Plan No. 988. Track Work

In the third group of employments, included under the heading track work, a man needs physical strength and agility, good health, good eyesight, and good hearing. Without these, he is constantly in danger himself and may endanger the lives of others. Only the foremen may have physical disabilities, such as the loss of a hand or arm. All must have good health, since they are exposed regularly to all sorts of weather. All must have good eyesight, in order that they may do their work properly and avoid danger. Poor hearing would continually subject the man to danger from passing trains, from falling objects, or other sources of danger, since one who has poor hearing would not generally hear or would misunderstand warnings of danger. A man on the track must be agile in order to avoid danger.

Work Requires Skill

Men in this group are frequently classed as unskilled, largely because railroads have employed for the work unskilled foreign laborers, but to do the work properly considerable skill is nevertheless required. Poorly tamped ties, “goosenecks,” maul dents on the rails, and similar defects are evidences that may be found on many roads of unskilled work. Ability to drive a spike properly, so that the rail is held securely to the ties, is not quickly acquired.

Fence work, bridge work, cement work, and similar work, often performed by special gangs, require skill to be done rapidly and well.

Occupations

The main occupations in this group are track laborers, foremen and supervisors, bridge carpenters and foremen, fence-gang men and foremen, and other extra gang men and foremen, linemen and repairers, painters of sign posts and structures, structural iron workers and foremen, and concrete workers and foremen.

Conditions of Employment Unsuited to Disabled Men

In track work, only the positions of foremen or supervisors pay good wages, and only these could be suitably undertaken by disabled men.

The track laborer in the eastern and northern section of the country has to compete with the immigrant from Europe, in the South with the Negro, in the West with the Mexican, and in the far West with the Oriental. Only a few workers on construction gangs do not have to meet this competition directly, because their work requires a skill that the foreigner does not acquire easily. But such work is very seasonal, being done for the most part during the summer and early fall. Wages are not high and working conditions usually are poor if not bad. Extra gang work, in this respect, is very little different. Section work, while allowing the men to have home life and thus have better living conditions, usually is seasonal and pays lower wages than is paid to other gangs upon track construction work. Bridge construction or repair work requires some skill and the wages are good, but the danger is considerable for even a physically strong and sound man. The painters of structures receive good wages, but their work requires climbing into dangerous positions. The lineman must frequently do climbing to repair wires, or to cut away limbs of trees thrown upon the wires by storms. Evidently, these positions are not suitable for the disabled soldier from three standpoints, namely, the seasonal character of the work, the danger to which it subjects him, and the relatively low wages paid on the average for the year. The position of timekeeper for large extra gangs is, of course, mainly clerical, but is undesirable since it is very seasonal. All track occupations are hazardous and accidents are frequent.

Plan No. 989. The Track Foreman

The duties of the track foreman are to supervise workmen, to teach green hands how to do the various sorts of work, and to make out reports on various matters ranging from the pay roll to a report of live stock killed by a train. He must be familiar with the time of all trains at various points on his section, with the signals, with the degree of curves and the needed elevation, and with the use of the various appliances and tools used on a modern railroad. The section gang uses a large number of tools, and these must be kept in proper condition. Railway appliances are numerous, and the section foreman has supervision over these. Introduction of the motor car to take the place of the old hand car, has called for more mechanical skill on the part of the foreman. A disabled man could perform the usual duties of a foreman, if his disabilities did not affect his eyesight, hearing or health, but loss of an arm or a leg might increase the accident hazard, as, for example, in case an extra train caught the gang in a cut or out on a high dump with the hand or motor car.

Plan No. 990. The Track Supervisor

The track supervisor usually supervises a number of section foremen. He must be an able trackman, so that he can recognize immediately the nature of a defect in the track as he rides over it on a train. He issues orders to track foremen for changes in location or character of work, handles reports from foremen on certain subjects, and himself makes out various reports. He portions out supplies and materials for the track under his supervision, and is held responsible for the condition of this track by the engineer of the maintenance of way. A disabled section foreman could with training qualify himself for a position as supervisor, but the vacancies in this position are not numerous, and railroads usually give preference to the physically sound men.

Plan No. 991. Train Work

The occupations in group four—train work—are engineers, firemen, baggagemen, porters, brakemen, conductors, hostlers, switchmen, and motormen. For this fourth group there are many limitations upon disabilities which a man may have suffered and undertake work without endangering himself and others. In none of these jobs can a man’s hearing or eyesight, or nerves, or heart be defective, and no one who is color blind can hold any of them. The loss of an arm would usually debar a man—even passenger conductors who have lost an arm are now infrequent. There are a few firemen and engineers successfully holding their jobs who have lost a leg, but a freight brakeman could hardly do his work if he were thus disabled. The loss of a hand generally unfits a man to be brakeman, fireman, or engineer.

The Occupations

There are three classes of engineers, firemen, brakemen, and conductors namely, those working in the yards, those on freight trains, and those on passenger trains. A yard engineer, fireman, or conductor may have suffered disabilities that the men in the freight and passenger service can not have without being handicapped in competition with normal men. In none of the positions do the duties permit of a large number of disabilities, or of very serious ones. All must pass rigid physical examinations—eyes are tested for color blindness as well as for other defects, and hearing must be excellent. All must pass a rigid examination in the rules and regulations, signals, schedules, and the road conditions.

Plan No. 992. The Engineer

The duties of an engineer are exacting. He drives his engine over the track where there are curves, crossings, switches, and signals that he must constantly watch. He must recognize instantly the color of the numerous signals displayed at various points along the line. He must sound the whistle as he approaches crossings and other points. He must also note the running condition of his engine—for instance, whether the bearings are becoming too hot. When the engine stops for water he usually oils certain bearings. He must learn to apply the steam and adjust the reverse lever so as to give the maximum pulling power to the engine at one time, and to attain considerable speed at another time, in either case with due regard to the load he is pulling and the track he is running upon. He must, accordingly, learn where the track is good and he can make speed and where it is bad, so that he must slow down. In emergencies he must be able to close the throttle and apply the air almost instantly, or to reverse the engine. For this he needs both hands. His eyesight must be excellent and his arms, heart, and nerves good. Wages paid to engineers are high, averaging $2,000 a year, but the position is one of great responsibility, and it is one that few disabled men would be allowed to undertake.

Plan No. 993. The Fireman

The fireman must be physically strong. He must shovel coal into the firebox so that the steam pressure will be sufficient at all times for the pulling power of the engine, and yet not be “blowing off” frequently. He must watch the water level in the boiler and see that it does not get low. He must climb back over the tender when the engine takes water. He takes on coal at the coal chutes. On occasions he has to go forward to flag to protect the train from in front. Where automatic bell ringers are not installed he usually keeps the bell ringing when the engine is doing work in yards near a crossing or where other men may be endangered by the engine. When the engine is running and he is not busy shoveling coal he is watching the track along with the engineer, but on the other side of the cab. He must especially watch when his side of the cab is on the inside of a curve. Since the fireman may in an emergency be called upon to perform the duties of an engineer, he is under the same limitations as regards disabilities as the engineer. The accident rate among firemen is high.

Plan No. 994. The Brakeman on Passenger Trains

The brakeman has various duties, somewhat depending upon the sort of a train on which he works. On a passenger train he calls stations, helps passengers on and off the trains, regulates the heating and lighting of cars, and sets switches. Sometimes this work is done by a porter. As a crippled brakeman would tend to give timid passengers a concrete example of what might result from a wreck or an accident upon the road, railroads have not wished to have disabled men fill this position. How they might deal with the disabled soldier is uncertain.

Plan No. 995. The Through-Freight Brakeman

The through-freight brakeman sets switches when his train goes on a siding for another train, or his train picks up a car at a junction point, or sets out one. In such a case, he uncouples the train, air brakes, etc., throws the switches, and after the car has been picked up or set out, couples up the train, makes the air brake connections, and tests them. He watches the train for hot boxes, and transmits signals from the conductor to the engineer. He must climb on and over freight cars, cross bridges, tracks, and switches. He needs to be sound physically.

Plan No. 996. The Brakeman on Local-Freight Trains

The brakeman on a local-freight train has no end of switching to do, or loading and unloading less-than-carload freight at small stations along the entire run. The physical demands made upon him are even greater than those made upon a through-freight brakeman. Disabled men should not undertake this job.

Plan No. 997. The Conductor on Freight Trains

The duties of the freight conductor, while lighter from the physical standpoint than those of the freight brakemen, are nevertheless so heavy that a disabled man is not usually wanted by railroads. At certain times he must do the same work as the brakeman does. He must walk over trains or tracks to get orders, or confer with the engineer. He must direct the picking up and the setting out of cars. He must keep a record of the cars in his train, of the ones set out, and of those picked up. He carries the way bills for the freight in his train. He must read and sign for all orders received for his train. His duties, while requiring more mental work than those of the brakeman, are still so heavy and dangerous that any physical disability would be a handicap to him.

Plan No. 998. The Passenger Conductor

The passenger conductor collects fares and supervises the passengers and train. He is responsible for the train orders as is the freight conductor. The physical requirements made upon him are normally light, but in emergencies, he needs to be physically sound. Formerly, passenger conductors who had lost fingers or even an arm or leg were frequent, but in recent years railroads have not wanted disabled men for this service, since they remind passengers of accidents. The passenger conductor needs to have a knowledge of trains and their time at meeting or crossing points, of the various sorts of tickets and script. He must make out various reports. If the railroads would place disabled men in this position, providing they were old railroad men who had been wounded in the war, this would be the best of all the positions in train work for an intelligent disabled soldier.

Plan No. 999. Yard Occupations

The train work in the yards consists of switching. The work of the yard fireman or engineer is perhaps somewhat less exacting than that of a fireman or engineer out on the line, but for the brakeman it is more exacting. The hostler is usually what might well be called an apprentice fireman, and so he must be as physically sound as the fireman or engineer. Yard conditions are so dangerous that disabled men would usually find their disabilities a handicap.

Plan No. 1000. The Baggageman

The baggageman on trains needs to be physically strong, since he has to handle heavy trunks. He could sustain the loss of a leg or have too poor eyesight or hearing to qualify for other train work, if in emergencies he were not called upon to do the other train work. Since he is so called upon he must be physically as sound as a brakeman. He has some clerical work to do. Sometimes he is a mail clerk, express messenger, and extra brakeman. Little knowledge or training is required to fill this position—a strong man of ordinary intelligence could learn to fill the position in a few days. He must know the stations and transfer points. Wages are about the same as for brakeman.

Work Conducing to Train Operation

In the fifth group of employments, including those conducing directly to train operation, are found the pumpman, the men on the coal chutes, the freight handlers, the crossing guardmen, and similar workmen. In this group, the requirements are good health, a fair degree of strength, and knowledge of the occupation.

Plan No. 1001. The Pumpman

The pumpman may have defective hearing, but must then have excellent eyesight, since he should notice engine trouble quickly if he can not hear it well. If his eyesight is poor, he should have good hearing. The pumpman needs to have some knowledge of boilers and steam pumps, but ordinarily his work is not heavy, even when he has to shovel all the coal for the boiler.

Plan No. 1002. Other Occupations

For men on the coal chutes, either poor eyesight or poor hearing, one or the other singly, is not a serious handicap, but good health is necessary as well as ability to climb over the sides of cars. The freight handlers need strong backs and good eyesight to read names of boxes, etc. When motor trucks are used, the truckman ought to have some mechanical ability. The crossing guardman needs both good eyesight and hearing, but may have suffered the loss of an arm or a leg, even of both an arm and a leg. On the whole, the range of permissible disabilities for men in this group is greater than for those in groups three and four.

Training Required

Of all the jobs in this field practically the only one requiring any considerable knowledge or skill is that of the pumpman, and even for this position an ordinary man can learn all that he usually needs to know in a month on the job.

Plan No. 1003. Jobs Frequently Filled by Disabled Men

With exception of freight handling, work in these employments has been given largely to men disabled in railroad service. For instance, a disabled brakeman is offered the job of switchman or crossing watchman; a fireman, that of stationary fireman, or engine watchman; conductors, that of flagman; and so on. Crew callers and lamp-room attendants are frequently disabled men. So generally has this policy been followed that the crossing watchmen, flagmen, and engine watchmen are commonly men who have been disabled. The positions are, however, not such as will appeal to the intelligent ambitious disabled soldier or sailor.

Plan No. 1004. Part II. Urban Transportation — Electric Railways

Street railway operation furnishes rather regular employment to men on the regular force. From this standpoint it is desirable for the disabled soldier or sailor. It is not seasonal to any marked degree, nor is it greatly affected by industrial depressions; and bad weather only increases the need for employees instead of lessening it as in many out-of-doors occupations. Few of the street railway employees are exposed to bad weather conditions, although the work is not so protected as in an indoor occupation. They are, however, exposed to dust from the streets and contagious diseases. All of the positions on street railways carry with them a high degree of responsibility, but the position of motorman is probably the one of greatest responsibility.

Plan No. 1005. The Motorman

The occupation of the street car motorman is one that can be taken up by disabled soldiers and sailors. Those who have suffered merely the loss of part of the fingers on one or both hands, or of a leg, can operate a street car. A car can be operated by those who are physically unfit for heavy work, especially if the car is equipped with air brakes and the working hours are not too long. But those who have defective eyesight, poor hearing, or are subject to nervous trouble should not undertake this work. Those who have suffered from shell shock should not attempt to operate a car until they have fully recovered.

The work is light, but requires constant attention, especially under conditions of heavy traffic. The motorman must constantly watch the track to prevent collisions with automobiles or other vehicles whose drivers take hazardous chances in crossing the track. Men, women and children must likewise be watched and warned. The motorman must acquire skill in operating the controller so that he can start the car off rapidly without causing the circuit breaker to break the current. He must learn to apply the air gradually so the car will not stop with a jerk or the wheels slide on the track. He must learn to estimate distances so that he can stop his car at the proper point. He must form the habit of never starting without a signal from the conductor.

The working conditions are suitable for disabled men. Stools are usually provided for the motorman, which he can use outside the congested district. Most of the cars have closed vestibules for bad weather. The working hours are irregular, but usually not over 10 in 24. Usually there are two work periods in a day, with a rest period of two or three hours between—the work periods come with the morning and evening rush of people to and from their work.

Plan No. 1006. The Conductor

The conductor’s position makes fewer physical requirements upon him than that of the motorman. His position is, however, one of responsibility, and honesty is a prime essential. His duty is to collect fares, give proper change to passengers, and issue transfers. All his receipts must be turned over to the company. He must see that passengers are not endangered in any way, especially by the car starting too soon or the passenger attempting to alight before the car has stopped. Accordingly the conductor must have good eyesight and hearing. He may, however, have suffered some dismemberments, and he need not be physically strong. Courteous conductors are much in demand by street railways.

Training

The training for the position either of motorman or conductor is generally conducted on the job. New men are placed on a car with an experienced motorman and operate the car under his direction until they are able to operate a car independently. The period of training is usually short—a week to two weeks. Men so learning rarely receive pay. A number of companies make charges for the training, but refund amounts paid if the employee remains with the company a certain length of time.

Wages

Wages for motormen and conductors are approximately the same, and in 1917 ranged from 15 to 45 cents per hour, with average between 25 and 30 cents for the entire country.20 Advances in the past year have probably raised this average to 30 cents or above.

Promotion

Men are usually promoted from the ranks of motormen and conductors to be inspectors or supervisors. They must have a thorough knowledge of operating conditions in the city, a knowledge that can be acquired only by considerable experience on the job as motorman or conductor making all routes in the city.

Plan No. 1007. Other Occupations

In electric street-railway operation, there are various other occupations, some of which require skilled workmen. The skilled workers include machinists, electrical workers, armature winders, carpenters, car repairers, linemen, track foremen, and inspectors. Since the other occupations are filled with men who are unskilled, or who are taught on the job, we are not concerned with them, as the training is not such as the Federal Board could easily give. With exception of inspectors, the work of these men does not differ materially from that of the shop men and track men on steam railroads. These have already been described above. In the shop work there is opportunity for the disabled soldier or sailor who has defective hearing, as well as for those who have lost a hand or leg. The work is usually lighter than on steam railroads, but wages are generally somewhat lower; the greater number of employees receive from 24 to 29 cents an hour.

Plan No. 1008. Part III. Road and Street Transportation

In road and street transportation the main occupations are those of chauffeurs; proprietors and managers of taxicab concerns, livery stables, and transfer companies; foremen of livery and transfer companies; draymen; teamsters and expressmen; carriage and hack drivers; hostlers; and stable hands. The automobile is rapidly supplanting the horse and to such a degree as to affect the demand for labor in these several occupations, the demand declining in those dealing with the horse and increasing in those concerned with the automobile. Work in these occupations is not markedly seasonal, but is affected adversely by industrial depressions.

Equipment

If a person is in business for himself, his outlay for equipment ranges from $500 upward, but if he is an employee the equipment is furnished by the employer.

Plan No. 1009. Chauffeurs

A chauffeur may drive a taxicab, a truck, or a car for a private family. He needs good eyesight and hearing, and must not have nervous troubles. Loss of fingers or of a foot might not handicap a man for this work. It does not usually require much physical strength. Men who have suffered from chest trouble are frequently auto drivers in the Rocky Mountain States. This occupation gives them out-of-doors work that is light, and in a good climate in fair weather is highly beneficial and desirable for such persons.

Training

Auto drivers should have some mechanical training and aptitude so that they may be able to make adjustments and repair minor defects in their machines. They should learn the roads and routes in their territory and allow a good margin of safety either in loads or speed. No great amount of training is required, and the work is largely manipulative. There are a number of schools in which this occupation is taught. Hours, wages, and working conditions are far from being standardized the country over. If you are interested in this work, you should find out what conditions prevail in the locality in which you wish to work.

Plan No. 1010. Managers and Proprietors

Managers of taxicab companies must know the automobile thoroughly as well as the neighborhood from which they draw their trade. Only in a small concern does the keeper or manager need to be able to drive a car. It will, however, be advantageous at times if he can drive or repair a car. The greatest qualifications for success in this undertaking are ability and skill in handling men and money. Although the rate of profit is usually large in the business, there are many “leaks” to guard against. The manager must know how to keep accounts accurately, or at least understand them and be able to see that they are properly kept. The work requires business ability rather than physical activity, and so can be done by disabled soldiers or sailors who have this ability. Courtesy is a valuable asset, since the manager must come in contact with the public. It is this contact that makes deafness a handicap, particularly where much business is done over the telephone.

Practically the same thing may be said of proprietors and managers of livery and transfer companies. The proprietors and managers must have business ability and know how to manage men. Disabled men with these qualifications can undertake this business if none of their disabilities will interfere with business dealings. The field for auto delivery is developing rapidly, and will give a permanent occupation to the man who has the necessary qualifications for success.

Plan No. 1011. Foreman

Foremen of livery and transfer companies must have ability to handle men under conditions where immediate supervision is possible only a small part of the time. Accordingly, they must be able to judge what allowances should be made for loads, roads, horses, and equipment, or automobile in supervising drivers. Since the foremen must occasionally do the work of drivers, they must usually not be seriously disabled by loss of limbs, and since they must sometimes do the work of the manager they must not suffer from deafness.

Wages and hours are good on the average, but vary greatly in the different localities.

Plan No. 1012. Draymen

Draymen or expressmen may be either teamsters or auto drivers. In either case, ordinarily they have a considerable amount of heavy lifting to do. The loss of an eye, or of fingers, or of a foot need not prevent anyone from doing this work if he is otherwise physically strong. Very little training is required for the teamster. He must learn the streets and business houses, and how to manage horses that are usually well broken. All of this is best learned on the job. Wages are a little above those of unskilled labor. For the auto driver training may be acquired largely in a school. Wages are higher than those paid to teamsters.

Carriage and hack drivers must have good eyesight and hearing. The work is rather unskilled, although the handling of spirited horses does require some special skill. Courtesy is a distinct asset. It should be noted that the demand for carriage and hack drivers is declining rapidly, and accordingly the disabled soldier should not elect this occupation unless he has the assurance of permanent employment from some responsible employer.

Hostlers and stable hands are usually classed and paid as unskilled laborers, and for most disabled men the work is unsuitable. A disabled man should not work around vicious horses, and in large stables there are always some vicious horses.

Part IV. Water Transportation21

Water transportation may be considered from two standpoints, terminal and interterminal. Terminal transportation does not differ materially from transportation upon the rivers and canals. Interterminal transportation, whether on the Great Lakes or on the sea, is practically the same. In this place we shall, accordingly, deal with only terminal and ocean transportation.

Plan No. 1013. Terminal Transportation

Terminal transportation has to do with the loading and unloading of cargoes, and is usually heavy work that requires men with strong backs and little training. The men who supervise the laborers on the boats must have executive ability and a knowledge of boats, equipment, and harbors. The chief qualification of a captain of a barge, a scow, a lighter, or a covered barge, is ability to direct other men at the work of loading and unloading the vessel, of handling lines, and of shifting the boat, and ability to make minor repairs. On lighters and covered barges the captain tallies and signs up for the cargo received. The master steers the boat, gives orders to the crew, and signals the engineer for movement of the boat. He is responsible for the safety of the passengers and the crew. He must have keen eyesight and the ability to act quickly and efficiently in an emergency. He must be thoroughly familiar with the harbor and with harbor conditions. He supervises the pilot, if one is carried on the boat. On smaller boats, the pilot acts as master, and then his duties are the same as the master’s. The wheelsman is an assistant to the master, and performs part of the latter’s duties. Deckhands sometimes act as wheelsmen, and may advance to that position, or higher—to pilot, captain, or master. The engineer is usually a man of considerable skill and experience and possesses a thorough knowledge of the machinery of the boat. He sees that the engine is properly cared for, oiled and kept in good working condition. He directs the work of his assistant, of the oiler who oils the machinery, and of the firemen. He receives his orders for the movement of the boat from the master.

Disabilities

Of these men, only those who supervise other men could have sustained serious injuries. None of them may have either defective eyesight or hearing. The loss of an arm would usually be a serious handicap, and also the loss of a leg would be such an inconvenience for most men in climbing on and about the boat as to be a serious handicap. In these occupations good opportunities for men seriously disabled are comparatively few.

Ocean Transportation

On board a large ocean liner is to be found a complete organization of officers, supervisors, clerks, and skilled and unskilled laborers. As a general rule, all of these men must be physically sound, and about the only disabilities allowable are the loss of fingers, of a foot, and perhaps of one eye if the remaining eye is very good. For men so disabled there is some slight opportunity for advancement. Only the clerical positions such as the purser, assistant purser, or freight clerk, can be filled by men who have lost a hand or leg, or who are otherwise physically unfit for climbing about on slippery decks in a rolling sea. Wages paid during the war have been abnormally high.

Ocean Vessels Vary Greatly

There are two general classes of ocean vessels—sail and steam, steam vessels being in many instances equipped for sailing. In these two general classes there are, however, all sorts and types of boats and ships.

Plan No. 1014. Crew and Duties Likewise Vary

The crew of a steam vessel has three departments—deck, engineer’s, and steward’s.22

The deck crew of a steamer depends upon the size and type of the vessel, and ranges from as low as nine on a small steamer to 972 on the Olympic, officers included. The average number of able seamen is about seven for ocean-carrying vessels. The others are officers, ordinary seamen, deck boys, etc. It has been charged that boats frequently ship without any able seamen, and depend upon ordinary seamen and deck boys in emergencies.

Deck duty is varied and crowded with emergencies. “The sailor’s daily work in all kinds of vessels and weather, at the wheel, on the lookout, and on deck, teaches him to know the sea and how to work with it. His work with tackles, lines, and cables, in hoisting and lowering, trains his judgment of strains and distances.”23 “The amount of gear and equipment used in the deck department on different classes of steamships varies greatly, but the difference is one of degree rather than of the kind.”24

Plan No. 1015. Naval Versus Merchant Marine Crews

The crew and the work done on a merchant vessel are so different from those on a naval vessel that the disabled sailor would have much to learn in going from a naval vessel to a merchant vessel. One fundamental difference is this: The merchant vessel carries generally only about one-third the crew—ton for ton—that the naval vessel does. On a naval vessel the men work in groups; on a merchant vessel the man works as an individual and not in a group.

The crew of a large merchant vessel consists more or less of the following officers, seamen, and attendants: Master, chief mate, second mate, third officer, fourth officer, senior quartermaster, quartermaster, master-at-arms, chief steward, chief second-class steward, chief third-class steward, chief engineer, first assistant engineer, second assistant engineer, third assistant engineer, junior engineer, deck engineer, leading fireman, oiler, electrician, carpenter, boatswain, able seamen, ordinary seamen, deck boy, water tender, lookout, purser, assistant purser, freight clerk, and bakers, chefs, cooks, buglers, butchers, cadets, storekeeper, and watchman.

Plan No. 1016. The Master or Captain

The master has general supervision over the vessel, crew, and passengers. He has complete charge of the vessel at all times, but during a severe storm or other emergency he stands on the watch continuously day and night and issues the necessary orders. He is responsible for the safe navigation of his vessel. His responsibility extends to the management of the various departments as well as to the vessel and its care as a whole—for the safety of the lives of passengers and crew, and for the safe storage, carriage, and unloading of cargo. He must have a thorough knowledge of navigation, which subject he must have studied thoroughly, and in which he must have passed a rigid examination before he received his license as a master. He must likewise possess a legal knowledge of the laws governing right upon the sea and determining his duties as regards the ship and its passengers, crew, and cargo. Among his other duties are to keep the log properly and to inspect the ship regularly as to ventilation, warmth, and cleanliness. He must be the last man to leave the ship in case of disaster, and must do everything within his power for the safety of the passengers and crew. He must have received much of his training in lower positions upon the sea, but he must also have studied navigation in some school or under some able master. He must have executive ability of a high order and be able to act efficiently in an emergency.

Plan No. 1017. The Chief Mate

Next to the master in authority and responsibility comes the chief mate. He shares with the master responsibility for safe and proper navigation of the ship. He is the chief executive officer and must organize and supervise the routine work of keeping order throughout the ship. He is held responsible for discipline. Under him is the master-at-arms, the ship’s policeman, who keeps order among the crew and steerage passengers. His knowledge of the vessel, its equipment, stores, and complement of men must be thorough. He supervises the preparation and care of the holds, and the loading, stowing, and unloading of cargo. This is done under his personal direction or under another officer to whom he has delegated the duty. He sees that the cargo-handling gear is kept in proper working condition. It is his duty to inspect the lifeboats and have them kept properly equipped and in working order, and to hold regular lifeboat drills. The firefighting equipment is likewise in his care, and he must also hold fire drills regularly. His training and knowledge is very similar to that required of the master. Ordinarily he takes his turn with the third and fourth officers at a watch on the bridge.

Plan No. 1018. The Second Mate

The second mate stands his watch on the bridge, takes various observations, and gives orders to the quartermasters. On large liners he has complete charge of the navigating equipment, and is known as the navigating officer. When the vessel docks he supervises matters at the after end of the boat. In general, he has charge of the after holds, the after cargo, and the after gears. Only in experience and degree of training do his qualifications differ from those of the chief mate.

Plan No. 1019. Watch Officers

The third and fourth officers are watch officers. The fourth officer is frequently left in charge of the bridge in fair weather and under good conditions, and like the third officer takes observations, and gives orders to the quartermaster. The third officer has general charge of the forward holds, under the supervision of the chief mate. On some vessels, he is the signal officer and has charge of the care and use of the signal flag and other signaling equipment. Frequently he supervises the placing of the gangway and the embarkation of the passengers when the vessel docks. Both of these officers must have had instruction in navigation, and must be alert and attentive to duty.

Plan No. 1020. The Chief Engineer and His Assistants

The chief engineer, the assistant engineers, the junior engineers, the deck engineers, the firemen, oilers, and electricians care for all machinery of the ship. The chief engineer stands no watch, but the assistant engineers do, and are responsible for all that takes place in the engine room and fireroom during their watch at sea. Under these assistant engineers are the junior engineers, one of whom is in direct charge during each watch of each of the firerooms, the engine room, and the auxiliaries. In port the junior engineers help the other engineers, the firemen, and the oilers in the repair, packing and overhauling of the machinery. The chief engineer is held responsible for the proper functioning of the engines and boilers, the deck machinery, the electrical, refrigerating and sanitary equipment, and for all steam connections on the ship. He must see that the regulations of his department are carried out, that the engine and fireroom crews are qualified and conduct themselves with sobriety. At the end of each voyage he reports on these matters, and on the working of the machinery—its breakdowns and repairs, especially any exceptional one made away from port—the miles traveled, temperatures, and consumption of fuel. It is his duty to have the steamer properly coaled, both as to quality and quantity of coal. He must possess executive ability, and must have studied engineering in a nautical school or under a competent engineer for a period of years. The first assistant engineer has as his special duty the general charge of all boilers and machinery in the engine department. The second assistant engineer usually employs the fireroom crew and reports to the chief engineer on their qualifications and conduct. He has charge of the repairs and overhauling of the main engines and auxiliaries on the starboard side. The deck engineer supervises and keeps in repair the deck machinery, the steering gear, windlass engine, capstans, and the sanitary systems. The leading fireman has supervision over the firing of the boilers, the keeping of water in the boilers, and over the firemen, coal passers and water tenders. He personally tends a set of fires. On some boats he acts as interpreter of the orders of superior officers to the firemen who are foreigners and can not understand the orders in English. The oiler must keep all the engines clean and well oiled, and see that they are running smoothly and without undue heat. The electrician supervises and keeps in repair the dynamo engines, the electric motors, and other electrical apparatus on the ship. The work of keeping the ship in working condition is usually done by the engineering department. There is, however, some work of repairing that is done by the carpenter, whose duties depend greatly upon the character of the ship. He is generally charged with the upkeep of masts and booms, the repair of wooden decks, and the opening and covering of the hatches.

Plan No. 1021. The Boatswain

The boatswain, under the supervision of the chief mate, has active charge of the deck crew, and works the seamen at washing, repairing, and painting decks.

Plan No. 1022. Able Seamen

Since all officers must have served as able seamen, the required duties of the able seamen are worth noting in detail. “While on board ship in port, the able seaman is occupied with cleaning, painting, repairing, and overhauling. When the vessel is at sea, the able seaman washes decks and the outside of deckhouses, slacks off exposed gear when shrinking too tight in damp weather, and tightens it again when it becomes too lose in dry weather. When a storm comes on the able seaman closes all open hatches, ports, etc., and lashes down all movables on deck or stows them away.” The ordinary seaman does the same work as the able seaman, so far as his training and ability will permit. The deck boy is simply an apprentice seaman.

“The man who expects to be known as an able seaman on a steamship must know the use of rigging screws, fids, marlinspikes, serving mallets, the palm and needle, calking tools, and most of the carpenter tools; the mixing of paints and colors; how to obtain strong leverages with bars, ropes, tackles; how to brace with wedges and shores; besides knowing the various knots and splices; and to worm, parcel, serve, and seize, with rope and wire; and must be able to hold up his end of a job when it comes to climbing and working in places where both armhold and foothold is difficult. He must know the lead line, not only its marks but how to use it to get correct sounding when the ship is in close quarters, the night dark, and the sea heavy, whether he stands in a smother of sea on a low freighter or far up the side of an immense liner. The compass, of course, is a familiar object to him, but he must know how to use it, how to steer the ship under all conditions, what to expect and how to meet it when he is steering across a current as well as with it or against it, through the swift rush of a narrows, passing at close quarters in and out of the suction of another heavy ship under speed, with the wind light or strong from any direction, heading into a heavy sea, taking it on either bow or quarter or abeam, under check or full speed, rolling and pitching heavily, or running before it, when a blunder may mean total loss of ship with lives and cargo. The man at the wheel must know his work, what to expect and how to meet it instantly, in calm or storm, daylight or dark, in clear weather or in fog. The man who learns to be a reasonably good helmsman in even three years is an exception, because, regardless of the aptitude of the individual, the personal knowledge of varying conditions, different ships and how they act under differing circumstances, familiarity with the various steering gears, can only be gained through experience necessarily covering a good deal of time. The steam steering gear, rendering less physical strength necessary and making possible the handling of larger ships, requires greater skill than the old hand method, which permitted the man at the wheel to feel the increasing or decreasing rudder pressure and thus warned him of just how the ship was acting.

“Prepared paint is seldom brought on board ship. The raw material is put on board and is mixed according to needs by the able seaman. Graining, filling, varnishing, and lettering is done as well as ordinary flat painting. Sailors become sufficiently skilled at this work to qualify as journeymen painters on shore. The deck crew cleans all outside parts of the ship, except the funnel, from the masts and booms to the deck houses, decks, and sides of the ship.”25

Hours of Labor

The hours of labor for workmen are: On deck, two shifts (watch and watch) 12 hours each; in the engine room three shifts of 8 hours each. In emergencies the hours are greatly lengthened.

Wages

Following is the wage scale which has been established during the war. In 1915 wages were about half the amounts here given:

Sailors and firemen, $60 per month; coal passers, $50 per month; oilers and water tenders, $65 per month; boatswain, $70 per month; carpenters, $75 per month; overtime pay for cargo work 50 cents per hour, and for ship work 40 cents per hour. The bonus for going into the war zone was 50 per cent of the wages, the wages and bonus to continue until crew arrive back in the United States; $100 compensation was paid for loss of effects caused by war conditions. Board and quarters are of course provided in addition to the wages.26

Training

Seamen are required to have three years’ experience at sea to receive able seamen’s certificates. Vessels differ greatly to-day and conditions and duties abroad are so radically different, while the voyages to various parts of the globe subject seamen to so many varied emergencies, that a long training at sea is necessary to make an able seamen. It is the rule for seaman to change from ship to ship.

There are training schools for seamen. During the war the school at Boston gave intensified training for six to eight weeks, then placed the learner on a boat at sea, and after about six weeks he qualified as an ordinary seaman. For a man to get his “sea legs” requires this long a period. “It takes some time for a man to get himself so accustomed to the sea he can walk along the deck without holding himself fast to something when the vessel is rolling and pitching.”

Safety

The seaman is exposed to bad weather conditions, accidents, and disease. The mortality rate among seamen is very high—much higher than among some occupations commonly thought to be extra hazardous to life and health. English mortality statistics show that the death rate among seamen is far greater than among miners and railroad trainmen. Since it is a dangerous calling for men sound in limb and body, it is, accordingly, very undesirable in general for disabled men.

Plan No. 1023. The Lookout

The lookout has a position of responsibility. Stationed in the crow’s nest or on the forecastle, he watches for everything that comes in sight, and especially for things that might damage the ship, such as derelicts, icebergs, submarines, and on-coming steamships. When he sights anything, he reports it immediately to the bridge, either by shouting, speaking tube, telephone, or telegraph. He must have keen eyesight and attend strictly to duty. A disabled soldier or sailor with these qualifications, and whose disabilities do not prevent his climbing readily, or holding himself in position in stormy weather might qualify for this position.

Plan No. 1024. The Purser — A Position for Disabled Soldiers

A far better position for the disabled man is that of the purser, or assistant purser. The purser is a treasurer, accountant, and chief clerk on the ship. Money and valuables may be deposited with him by the passengers for safety. He acts as a sort of cashier for the passengers and crew in changing money and cashing traveler’s checks, etc. He keeps the wages account of the crew, and is present when the crew is paid off. He collects or supervises the collection of all tickets, and checks these against the passenger list as soon as practicable after the vessel has sailed. He is responsible for the manifests, bills of health, clearance papers, and cargo. He should know everything about the passengers and cargo. Although the master must record in his log any death aboard, the purser must get the details for his own report and for the master’s log. He supplies information and encourages entertainments among the passengers. He should be able to speak the languages of the countries at which his ship comes to port. He should possess tact and be courteous to the passengers.

The freight clerk has a position, that for the freight is somewhat similar to that of the assistant purser for the passengers.

Plan No. 1025. Chief Stewards

Chief stewards have positions corresponding closely to those of a large hotel, sanitarium or similar institution. They must have business and executive ability, and are held responsible for the comfort and service of passengers in matters of sleeping quarters, food, heat, and ventilation. Under them are the chef, cooks, and numerous other attendants. Each of these occupations has the characteristics of the same occupation as followed on the land. Upon chief stewards devolves the further duty of purchasing in advance of a voyage in proper quantities the supplies needed.

It should be added that if a disabled soldier or sailor is qualified for any of these positions, he will generally find work on land preferable to work on board a ship.

Other Positions in Water Transportation

A large number of office positions corresponding to those in railway service exist at the leading ports. Disabled sailors could qualify for these and find their former experience of value.

Notes

20 Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics No. 204.

21 In the preparation of this part the following publications have been utilized extensively: “United States Department of Labor Description of Occupations—Water Transportation,” Reisenberg’s “The Men on Deck,” and “United Spates Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation Hearings before the Committee on Commerce, United States Senate, 1918.”

22 The United States Shipping Board has made the following announcement of free training for deck officers and engineers: “The United States Shipping Board is creating a new national fleet of merchantmen, controlled by the United States Government. The Shipping Board needs for these ships 4,000 new watch officers and 4,000 new engineers. Men of proper experience will be trained free of charge to take examinations for licenses in either branch of the service to fill these positions.” The experience required ranges from two to three years at certain maritime occupations. You can learn more about this opportunity to get training by conferring with representatives of the Federal Board for Vocational Education.

23 International Conference on Safety at Sea, p. 119.

24 International Conference on Safety at Sea, p. 121.

25 International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea, pp. 124-125.

26 United States Emergency Fleet Corporation Hearing before the Committee on Commerce, United States Senate, pp. 854-857.