The Waters of the Earth
THE WATERS UNDER THE EARTH
The underground lake in its magnificent setting of dazzling stone columns and stalactites in the Cheddar Caves, England. All these wonderful natural halls, chasms and snowy incrustations were formed by the age-long action of the water on the limestone rocks through which it filtered.
Water is found in Nature in three states or conditions—as ice, vapor or steam, and as simple water. These three forms have the same chemical composition—the substance being a compound of oxygen and hydrogen, represented by the formula H2O; but the physical condition depends entirely on its temperature. Under ordinary atmospheric conditions water is a solid below 32 degrees Fahrenheit; a gas above 212 degrees Fahrenheit, and a liquid between these temperatures.
The purest form of water which exists in nature is rain water, though this always contains a little oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolved from the air. To obtain pure water artificially, any ordinary water is distilled, when all the solids dissolved in it are left behind. River water and spring water always contain a small quantity of solid matter, the amount and nature of the dissolved solids depending on the nature of the rocks over which the water has flowed.
Geographically it may be considered under the four heads of springs, rivers, lakes, and the ocean, which taken together forms the hydrosphere of the earth.
Where Springs Have Their Source
Springs, or the natural fountains of water, take their rise from reservoirs stored under ground. Water maintains a level, and hence the height to which a spring will rise depends on that of the level from which it is supplied. If the internal reservoir be on a hill, and the spring should gush out in a valley, the water may rise to a considerable height and form a natural fountain; but, on the other hand, if the reservoir be at some depth below the surface, the water may never reach the surface, and mechanical aid may be required to obtain it.
These internal reservoirs are in a great measure supplied by moisture derived from rain, snow, mist, and dew. The atmospheric water enters the earth through porous rocks, or by means of fissures, and continues to sink until arrested in its progress by rocks, such as clay, which will not permit the water to pass, or by faults which check it from spreading. The waters will then gush forth as a spring, of greater or less size, according to the supplies it may have received.
How Mineral Springs Are Formed
All springs contain a certain portion of air and gas, and also some solid matter, usually in the form of salts. When these salts are abundant, mineral springs are the result, which may be classified according to the character of their several properties, as acidulous, chalybeate, sulphurous, saline, calcareous, and silicious.
Acidulous or acid springs are those surcharged with carbonic acid gas.
Chalybeate springs are those in which iron, in the form of carbonate or sulphate, is held in solution.
Sulphur, in the form of sulphureted hydrogen or sulphate of lime, is the distinguishing ingredient in Sulphurous springs.
Saline springs are of two kinds—brine and medicinal; brine when containing a greater or less amount of chloride of sodium or common salt, and medicinal when containing other salts, as sulphate of soda, etc.
Calcareous springs are those highly charged with the salts of lime, and which have the property of petrifying substances placed within their reach, and also of depositing their contents, forming the stalactites and stalagmites of caverns, etc.
Silicious springs are so called from holding silica or flint in solution. The last-named are all hot or thermal as well as mineral springs, deriving their heat either from the natural heat of the earth at great depths, or from volcanic action. When occurring near volcanoes, they are frequently charged with bitumen, petroleum, naptha, asphaltum, etc.
Why Water Flows from Artesian Wells
An important class of artificial springs or wells is known as Artesian Wells. Where bent pervious beds of rock lie between two bent impervious beds, so as to make a basin-shaped depression, lower in the middle than at the edges, the rain which sinks into the pervious rock where it reaches the surface will begin to gather in the central part of the porous rock as in a reservoir.
If a hole be now bored in the hollow of the upper impervious bed till it reaches the water-bearing stratum, the water will flow out at the top. The water thus obtained may have fallen a distance of many miles several months previously, and if the gathering-ground be high the issue at the well may be forced by the pressure of the water behind to a considerable height.
Formation, Characteristics and Peculiarities of Rivers
Rivers have their sources from springs or from the melting of accumulations of snow. They do not, however, receive their largest supplies from the actual summits of mountains, for copious springs are rarely met with in such situations, nor are glaciers formed on the highest points of mountains, but more usually on slopes of the upper mountain valleys. It is, accordingly, in the latter localities that many of the largest rivers take their rise.
Watershed. It not unfrequently happens that several rivers take their rise in one mountain ridge, some flowing in one direction, and others taking an opposite course. Such a ridge is termed a watershed. Thus the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Danube all take their rise in the Alps, the first discharging itself into the North Sea, the second into the Mediterranean Sea, and the last into the Black Sea.
Basin. The portion of country drained by a river and its tributary streams is called its basin, from its catching the rains which fall within its circuit, and which the river carries to the sea. The largest river-basin in Europe is that of the Volga, in Asia, that of the Ganges, in Africa that of the Nile, in North America that of the Mississippi, and in South America that of the Amazon.
THE GREAT RIVERS OF THE WORLD
| RIVER | Length in Miles | Emptying Into | Area of Drainage in Square Miles, etc. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mississippi-Missouri (United States) | 4,330 | Gulf of Mexico | 1,245,000 |
| Nile (Egypt) | 3,500 | Mediterranean | 1,050,000 |
| Amazon (Brazil): the only large river with direct latitudinal course | 3,300 | At Ocean on the Equator | 2,700,000 |
| Yangtze-Kiang (China) | 3,000 | Yellow Sea | 548,000 |
| Congo (Central Africa) | 2,900 | Atlantic Ocean | 1,430,000 |
| Lena (Russia in Asia) | 2,800 | Arctic Ocean | 856,000 |
| Amur (Russia in Asia) | 2,800 | Gulf of Saghalin | 772,000 |
| Mekong (Indo-China)[71] | 2,800 | China Sea | Nav. 200 miles |
| Yenisei (Russia in Asia) | 2,700 | Bay of Yenisei | 1,000,000 |
| Niger (West Africa) | 2,600 | Atlantic Ocean | 808,000 |
| Hoangho (China) | 2,500 | Gulf of Pe-Chi-Li | 376,400 |
| Obi (Russia in Asia) | 2,300 | Gulf of Obi | 1,125,000 |
| Plata-Parana (Argentina and Brazil) | 2,300 | Atlantic Ocean | 2,300,000 |
| Mackenzie (Canada) | 2,300 | Arctic Ocean | 676,000 |
| Volga (Russia in Europe) | 2,200 | Caspian Sea | 560,000 |
| St. Lawrence (United States and Canada) | 2,200 | Gulf of St. Lawrence | 500,000 |
| Yukon (Alaska) | 2,200 | Behring Sea | 500,000 |
| Indus (India) | 2,000 | Arabian Sea | 373,000 |
| Sao Francisco (Brazil) | 1,800 | Atlantic Ocean | 249,000 |
| Sir Daria (Turkestan) | 1,800 | Sea of Aral | 175,000 |
| Brahmaputra or Burrampooter (India) | 1,800 | Bay of Bengal | Nav. 800 miles |
| Rio Grande del Norte (U. S. and Mexico) | 1,800 | Gulf of Mexico | 240,000 |
| Danube (Austria-Hungary) | 1,780 | Black Sea | 311,000 |
| Saskatchewan-Nelson (Canada) | 1,732 | Hudson Bay | 730,000 |
| Euphrates (Turkey in Asia) | 1,700 | Persian Gulf | 260,000 |
| Zambesi (East Africa) | 1,600 | Indian Ocean | 800,000 |
| Ural (Russia in Europe) | 1,500 | Caspian Sea | 85,000 |
| Arkansas (United States) | 1,500 | Mississippi River | 181,000 |
| Orinoco (Colombia and Venezuela) | 1,500 | Atlantic Ocean | 364,000 |
| Ganges (India) | 1,500 | Bay of Bengal | 409,000 |
| Amu (Turkestan) | 1,400 | Sea of Aral | 174,000 |
| Columbia (United States) | 1,400 | Pacific Ocean | 260,000 |
| Dnieper (Russia in Europe) | 1,400 | Black Sea | 203,000 |
| Murray (Australia) | 1,400 | Indian Ocean | 351,000 |
| Don (Russia in Europe) | 1,300 | Sea of Azov | 166,000 |
| Orange (S. W. Africa) | 1,200 | Atlantic Ocean | 370,000 |
| Irawaddy (East India) | 1,200 | Indian Ocean | Nav. 800 miles |
| Colorado (United States) | 1,100 | Gulf of California | 250,000 |
| Senegal (West Africa) | 1,100 | Atlantic Ocean | 270,000 |
| Tigris (Turkey in Asia) | 1,000 | Euphrates and Persian Gulf | Nav. generally for small boats |
| Ohio (United States) | 970 | Mississippi River | 201,000 |
| Churchill (Canada) | 900 | Hudson Bay | Nav. by canoes |
| Magdalena (Colombia) | 840 | Caribbean Sea | Nav. 600 miles |
| Rhine (Germany) | 800 | North Sea | 76,000 |
| Cambia (West Africa) | 750 | Atlantic Ocean | Nav. 300 miles |
| Elbe (Germany) | 720 | North Sea | 57,000 |
| Fraser (British Columbia) | 650 | Gulf of Georgia | Nav. generally for small boats |
| Vistula (Germany, Poland) | 600 | Baltic Sea | 120,000 |
| Sacramento (United States) | 600 | Pacific Ocean | Nav. 300 miles |
| Tagus (Portugal) | 570 | Atlantic Ocean | 32,000 |
| Paranahiba (Brazil) | 530 | Atlantic Ocean | Nav. 400 miles |
| Guadiana (Spain) | 510 | Mediterranean Sea | 32,000 |
| Rhone (France) | 500 | Gulf of Lyons | 38,000 |
| Seine (France) | 480 | English Channel | 30,000 |
| Ebro (Spain) | 470 | Mediterranean Sea | 32,000 |
| Susquehanna (United States) | 450 | Chesapeake Bay | Not navigable |
| Potomac (United States) | 450 | Chesapeake Bay | Nav. to Washington, D. C. |
| Oder (Germany) | 440 | Baltic Sea | 43,000 |
| Po (Italy) | 420 | Adriatic Sea | 29,000 |
| Garonne (France) | 380 | Bay of Biscay | 33,000 |
| Hudson (United States) | 350 | New York Bay | Nav. to Troy; 150 miles |
| Loire (France) | 200 | Bay of Biscay | 25,000 |
| Thames (England) | 200 | North Sea | 5,250 |
Deltas and Estuaries. Owing to local peculiarities at the mouths of rivers, accumulations of sedimentary matter take place in the middle of the stream, dividing it into two or more branches. By these depositions deltas (so called from the Greek letter (Δ) delta) are formed—many of them, as those of the Mississippi and Orinoco and of the Rhine and the Ganges, being of great extent. Some rivers fall into the ocean through estuaries or wide channels, and are subject to a great swell or sudden rise of the waters when the tide enters.
PICTURE DIAGRAM GIVING A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF
THE WORLD’S FAMOUS RIVERS AND MOUNTAINS
FIRST: Showing the comparative length of the rivers; where and how they take their rise; where and how they empty; their chief branches and connected lakes; and the principal cities located on their banks.
SECOND: Comparative height of mountains, arranged in groups by continents, showing the relative height of both mountains and continents. See next page for LOCATION and HEIGHT IN FEET of the various mountain peaks.
Large illustrations:
Rivers (left-hand side) (480 kB)
Rivers (right-hand side) (137 kB)
Moutains (left-hand side) (187 kB)
Moutains (right-hand side) (554 kB)
Most rivers are subject to an occasional, and in some instances to a periodical increase of volume. These seasons of flood are by no means regular, being partly dependent on the melting of the snows, and partly on occasional heavy falls of rain; and hence depend on the climatic variations of the country in which rivers originate.
FAMOUS MOUNTAIN AND OTHER ELEVATIONS OF THE WORLD
Note: The numbers refer back to the Picture Diagrams on the preceding page.
| Ref. No. | Name and Location | Height in Feet | |
|---|---|---|---|
| NORTH AMERICA | |||
| A. | * | Mount McKinley, Coast Range, Alaska | 20,300 |
| 1. | Orizaba, Cordillera, Mexico | 18,310 | |
| 2. | Mount St. Elias, Coast Range, Alaska | 18,024 | |
| 3. | Popocatapetl, Cordillera, Mexico | 17,748 | |
| 4. | Mount Brown, Rocky Mountains, Canada | 15,990 | |
| 5. | Mount Hooker, Rocky Mountains, Canada | 15,700 | |
| 6. | Mount Fairweather, Coast Range, Alaska | 14,750 | |
| 7. | * | Mount Rainier, Coast Range, Washington | 14,408 |
| 8. | * | Mount Whitney, Coast Range, California | 14,501 |
| 9. | Mount Elbert, Rocky Mountains, Colorado | 14,402 | |
| 10. | Pike’s Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado | 14,108 | |
| 11. | * | Gannett Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming | 13,785 |
| 12. | Fremont’s Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming | 13,570 | |
| 13. | * | Kings Peak, Utah | 13,498 |
| 14. | * | N. Truchas Peak, Rocky Mountains, New Mexico | 13,306 |
| 15. | * | E. Peak, White Mountains, Nevada | 13,145 |
| 16. | * | Granite Peak, Rocky Mountains, Montana | 12,850 |
| 17. | * | San Francisco Peak, Arizona | 12,611 |
| 18. | Mount Assiniboine, Rocky Mts., Canada | 11,860 | |
| 19. | * | Mount Hood, Coast Range, Oregon | 11,225 |
| 20. | * | El Capitan, Texas | 9,020 |
| 21. | Mount Potrillo, Cuba | 9,000 | |
| 22. | Cibao Mountains, Hayti, West Indies | 8,970 | |
| 23. | * | Harvey Peak, South Dakota | 7,242 |
| 24. | Sierra del Cobre, Cuba | 7,200 | |
| 25. | * | Mount Mitchell, Allegheny Mts., N. C. | 6,711 |
| 26. | * | Mount Guyot, Allegheny Mts., Tennessee | 6,636 |
| 27. | Black Mountain, Allegheny Mts., N. C. | 6,476 | |
| 28. | * | Mount Washington, White Mts., N. H. | 6,293 |
| 29. | Roan Mountain, Allegheny Mts., N. C. | 6,038 | |
| 30. | Mount Adams, White Mts., N. H. | 5,963 | |
| 31. | Mount Jefferson, White Mts., N. H. | 5,725 | |
| 32. | * | Mount Rogers, Blue Ridge, Virginia | 5,719 |
| 33. | Mount Monroe, White Mts., N. H. | 5,390 | |
| 34. | * | Banner Peak, Nebraska | 5,350 |
| 35. | * | Mount Marcy, Adirondacks, New York | 5,344 |
| 36. | * | Mount Katahdin, Maine | 5,273 |
| 37. | Mount McIntyre, Adirondacks, New York | 5,112 | |
| 38. | Mount Hecla, Iceland | 5,110 | |
| 39. | Mount Franklin, White Mts., N. H. | 5,050 | |
| 40. | Skylight, Adirondacks, New York | 4,920 | |
| 41. | Haystack, Adirondacks, New York | 4,918 | |
| 42. | Morne Garon, St. Vincent, West Indies | 4,800 | |
| 43. | * | Spruce Knob, West Virginia | 4,860 |
| 44. | * | Brasstown Bald, Georgia | 4,768 |
| 45. | * | Cimarron Peak, Oklahoma | 4,750 |
| 46. | Mount Lafayette, White Mts., N. H. | 4,723 | |
| 47. | Mount Morris, Adirondacks, New York | 4,576 | |
| 48. | Mount Pelée, Martinique | 4,300 | |
| 49. | * | Mount Mansfield, Green Mts., Vermont | 4,364 |
| 50. | Otter Peak, Allegheny Mountains, Virginia | 4,260 | |
| 51. | * | Highlands (West Boundary), Kansas | 4,135 |
| 52. | * | Big Black Mountain, Kentucky | 4,100 |
| 53. | Killington, Green Mountains, Vermont | 4,100 | |
| 54. | Mount Seward, Adirondacks, New York | 4,000 | |
| 55. | Table Mountain, Allegheny Mts., Virginia | 4,000 | |
| 56. | * | Bald Mountain, Allegheny Mts., Virginia | 4,000 |
| 57. | Mount Parnassus, Spitzbergen | 3,951 | |
| 58. | Round Top, Catskills, New York | 3,804 | |
| 59. | High Peak, Catskills, New York | 3,718 | |
| 60. | Mount Misery, St. Christopher, West Indies | 3,712 | |
| 61. | Sierra de Luquillo, Porto Rico | 3,678 | |
| 62. | Mount Greylock, Taconic Mts., Mass. | 3,505 | |
| 63. | * | Monadnock, White Mts., New Hampshire | 3,450 |
| 64. | * | Bowman Summit | 3,500 |
| 65. | Backbone Mountain, Maryland | 3,340 | |
| 66. | * | Blue Knob, Allegheny Mts., Pennsylvania | 3,136 |
| 67. | Central Peak, Nevis, West Indies | 3,000 | |
| 68. | * | Blue Mountain, Arkansas | 2,800 |
| 69. | Kearsarge, White Mts., New Hampshire | 2,460 | |
| 70. | * | Cheaha Mountain, Alabama | 2,407 |
| 71. | * | Bear Mountain, Connecticut | 2,355 |
| 72. | * | Rib Hill, Wisconsin | 1,940 |
| 73. | * | Mesabi Range Minnesota | 1,920 |
| 74. | High Point, New Jersey | 1,809 | |
| 75. | Pringhar, Iowa | 1,800 | |
| 76. | Taun Sauk Mountain, Ozarks, Missouri | 1,750 | |
| 77. | * | Logan Summit, Ohio | 1,550 |
| 78. | West Point, Highlands, New York | 1,500 | |
| 79. | Storm King, Highlands, New York | 1,389 | |
| 80. | * | Charles Mound, Illinois | 1,241 |
| 81. | Carlos Summit, Indiana | 1,210 | |
| 82. | Mount Tom, Massachusetts | 1,200 | |
| 83. | Berkshire Hills, Massachusetts | 1,200 | |
| 84. | Anthony’s Nose, Highlands, New York | 1,048 | |
| 85. | Mount Holyoke, Massachusetts | 830 | |
| 86. | Palisades of Hudson, New York and N. J. | 500 | |
| 87. | Mount Hope, Rhode Island | 300 | |
| 88. | Bunker Hill, Massachusetts | 62 | |
| * Greatest altitude in the state or territory. | |||
| EUROPE | |||
| 1. | Monte Blanc, France | 15,782 | |
| 2. | Monte Rosa, Italy | 15,217 | |
| 3. | Weisshorn, Switzerland | 14,808 | |
| 4. | Matterhorn, or Cervin, Switzerland | 14,780 | |
| 5. | Finsteraarhorn, Switzerland | 14,026 | |
| 6. | Breithorn, Switzerland | 13,685 | |
| 7. | Jungfrau, Switzerland | 13,671 | |
| 8. | Mönch, Switzerland | 13,465 | |
| 9. | Pic des Ecrins, France | 13,462 | |
| 10. | Shreckhorn, Switzerland | 13,385 | |
| 11. | Mount Paradis, France | 13,300 | |
| 12. | Otherspitze, Austria | 12,800 | |
| 13. | Gross Glockner, Austria | 12,776 | |
| 14. | Aiguille du Midi, France | 12,743 | |
| 15. | Monte Viso, France | 12,582 | |
| 16. | The Gallonstock, Switzerland | 12,481 | |
| 17. | Aiguille de Sassire, Sardinia | 12,346 | |
| 18. | Wetterhorn, Switzerland | 12,150 | |
| 19. | Mont Genevre, Sardinia | 11,785 | |
| 20. | Monto Gavio, Austria | 11,754 | |
| 21. | Cerro de Mulhacen, Spain | 11,605 | |
| 22. | Simplon, Switzerland | 11,541 | |
| 23. | Wisbach Horn, Austria | 11,518 | |
| 24. | La Mormelata, Austria | 11,508 | |
| 25. | Mont Cenis, France | 11,457 | |
| 26. | Mont Nethou, Spain | 11,427 | |
| 27. | Pic Blanc, France | 11,190 | |
| 28. | Great St. Bernard, Switzerland | 11,080 | |
| 29. | Vignemale, France and Spain | 10,980 | |
| 30. | St. Gothard, Switzerland | 10,595 | |
| 31. | Mount Calm, France and Spain | 10,500 | |
| 32. | Pic Blanc, France and Spain | 10,205 | |
| 33. | Splugen, Switzerland and Austria | 9,981 | |
| 34. | Peak of Oo, France and Spain | 9,730 | |
| 35. | Pic du Midi, France | 9,650 | |
| 36. | Mount Etna, Island of Sicily | 9,652 | |
| 37. | The Thorstein, Austria | 9,630 | |
| 38. | Little St. Bernard, France | 9,591 | |
| 39. | Monte Corno, Italy | 9,523 | |
| 40. | Canigon, France | 9,137 | |
| 41. | Monte Rotondo, Island of Corsica | 9,065 | |
| 42. | Guiona, Greece | 8,620 | |
| 43. | Lomnitzer Spitze, Austria | 8,779 | |
| 44. | Rilo Dagh, Bulgaria | 8,300 | |
| 45. | Mount Parnassus, Greece | 8,000 | |
| 46. | Mount St. Elias, Greece | 7,946 | |
| 47. | Mount Ida, Crete | 7,674 | |
| 48. | Col de Ferret, Switzerland | 7,641 | |
| 49. | Mount Dinara, Austria-Hungary | 7,458 | |
| 50. | Monte Cimone, Italy | 7,083 | |
| 51. | Mount Kleck, Austria-Hungary[75] | 6,926 | |
| 52. | Pisanino, Italy | 6,723 | |
| 53. | Pizzo di Casi, Sicily | 6,509 | |
| 54. | Oraefa Yokul, Iceland | 6,420 | |
| 55. | Kissovo, Bulgaria | 6,407 | |
| 56. | Genargentu Peak, Sardinia Island | 6,290 | |
| 57. | Mount D’or, France | 6,188 | |
| 58. | Mount Pierus, Bulgaria | 6,161 | |
| 59. | P. de Cantal, France | 6,093 | |
| 60. | Sulitelma, Sweden and Norway | 5,956 | |
| 61. | Monte Amiata, Tuscany | 5,792 | |
| 62. | Recullet de Toiry, Switzerland | 5,643 | |
| 63. | La Dole, Switzerland | 5,509 | |
| 64. | Black Mountain, Island of Cephalonia, Greece | 5,356 | |
| 65. | Zagora, Bulgaria | 5,310 | |
| 66. | St. Angelo, Lipari Island, Sicily | 5,260 | |
| 67. | Schneekoppe, Germany | 5,253 | |
| 68. | Feugari, Samothraki Island, Turkey | 5,248 | |
| 69. | Feldberg, Black Forest, Germany | 4,900 | |
| 70. | Puy de Dome, France | 4,846 | |
| 71. | Ballon de Alsace, France | 4,688 | |
| 72. | Monte Alto, Italy | 4,380 | |
| 73. | Hohenstein, Austria | 4,284 | |
| 74. | Brokfeld, Norway | 4,188 | |
| 75. | Mount Delphi, Island of Negropont, Greece | 4,156 | |
| 76. | Kielburg, Erz Gebirge, Germany | 4,074 | |
| 77. | Montserrat, Spain | 4,054 | |
| 78. | Vesuvius, Italy | 4,260 | |
| 79. | Brocken, Harz Mountains, Germany | 3,740 | |
| 80. | Ispario, Thasos Island, Greece | 3,428 | |
| 81. | Great Beerberg, Thuringerwald, Germany | 3,265 | |
| 82. | Summit, Norway | 3,200 | |
| 83. | Great Feldsberg, Germany | 2,886 | |
| 84. | Stromboli, Lipari Island, Sicily | 3,090 | |
| 85. | Mount Delphi, Skopela Island, Greece | 2,295 | |
| 86. | Tonnere, France | 2,225 | |
| 87. | Mount St. Oreste, Italy | 2,140 | |
| 88. | Peak, Island of Corfu, Greece | 1,900 | |
| 89. | Kastri, Island of Thasos, Greece | 1,565 | |
| 90. | Gibraltar, Spain | 1,437 | |
| 91. | Valdai Hills, Russia | 1,200 | |
| 92. | North Cape, Island of Mageroe, Norway | 1,161 | |
| 93. | Himmelsberg, Plateau of Denmark, Denmark | 928 | |
| 94. | Montmartre, Paris, France | 400 | |
| 95. | Observatory, Paris, France | 240 | |
| 96. | Heligoland Island, North Sea, Germany | 230 | |
| BRITISH ISLES | |||
| 1. | Greenwich Observatory, Kent, England | 214 | |
| 2. | Holyhead, Island of Anglesea, Wales | 709 | |
| 3. | Carraton, Cornwall, England | 1,208 | |
| 4. | Penmaen Maur, Wales | 1,540 | |
| 5. | Axedge, Derby, England | 1,750 | |
| 6. | Pendlehill, Lancashire, England | 1,803 | |
| 7. | Holmernoss, Derby, England | 1,859 | |
| 8. | Ingleborough, Yorkshire, England | 2,361 | |
| 9. | Whernside, Yorkshire, England | 2,384 | |
| 10. | Plinlimmon, Cardiganshire, Wales | 2,463 | |
| 11. | Cradle Mountain, Brecknockshire, Wales | 2,545 | |
| 12. | Coniston Fell, Westmoreland, England | 2,577 | |
| 13. | Caermarthen Vau, Caermarthenshire, Wales | 2,596 | |
| 14. | Cheviot, Northumberland, England | 2,684 | |
| 15. | Grassmere Fell, Cumberland, England | 2,756 | |
| 16. | Cross Fell, Cumberland, England | 2,909 | |
| 17. | Bow Fell, Cumberland, England | 2,911 | |
| 18. | Cader Idris, Merionethshire, Wales | 2,914 | |
| 19. | Arran Mowdwy, Merionethshire, Wales | 2,955 | |
| 20. | Skiddaw, Cumberland, England | 3,022 | |
| 21. | Helvellyn, Cumberland, England | 3,313 | |
| 22. | Carnedd Llewellyn, Caernarvon, Wales | 3,471 | |
| 23. | Snowdon, Caernarvon, Wales | 3,571 | |
| 24. | Cairn Gorm, Invernesshire, Scotland | 4,095 | |
| 25. | Ben Macdui, Aberdeenshire, Scotland | 4,305 | |
| 26. | Ben Nevis, Inverness, Scotland | 4,368 | |
| 27. | Cairntoul, Aberdeenshire, Scotland | 4,245 | |
| 28. | Ben Lawers, Perthshire, Scotland | 3,945 | |
| 29. | Ben More, Perthshire, Scotland | 2,944 | |
| 30. | Ben Gloe, Perthshire, Scotland | 3,690 | |
| 31. | Ben Cruachan, Argyleshire, Scotland | 3,669 | |
| 32. | Ben Deirg, Perthshire, Scotland | 3,550 | |
| 33. | Schehallien, Perthshire, Scotland | 3,514 | |
| 34. | Macgillicuddy Reeks, Kerry, Ireland | 3,404 | |
| 35. | Scarscoch, Aberdeenshire, Scotland | 3,402 | |
| 36. | Ben Gurdy, Perthshire, Scotland | 3,364 | |
| 37. | Ben More, Sutherlandshire, Scotland | 3,231 | |
| 38. | Ben Lomond, Stirlingshire, Scotland | 3,180 | |
| 39. | Ben Voirlich, Perthshire, Scotland | 3,055 | |
| 40. | Lunaquilla, Wicklow, Ireland | 3,039 | |
| 41. | Galtee Mountains, Tipperary, Ireland | 3,008 | |
| 42. | Slatterwind, Stromoe, Faroe Islands | 2,998 | |
| 43. | Black Larg, Ayrshire, Scotland | 2,890 | |
| 44. | Goat Fell, Island of Arran, Scotland | 2,865 | |
| 45. | Ben Ledi, Perthshire, Scotland | 2,863 | |
| 46. | The Cobbler, Argyleshire, Scotland | 2,863 | |
| 47. | Slievedonard, Ulster, Ireland | 2,796 | |
| 48. | Broad Law, Peeblesshire, Scotland | 2,741 | |
| 49. | Ben Wyvis, Rosshire, Scotland | 2,720 | |
| 50. | Hart Fell, Dunfriesshire, Scotland | 2,635 | |
| 51. | Mount Battock, Kincardineshire, Scotland | 2,600 | |
| 52. | Lowther Hill, Lanarkshire, Scotland | 2,522 | |
| 53. | Kippure, Leinster, Ireland | 2,473 | |
| 54. | Paps of Jura, Argyleshire, Scotland | 2,470 | |
| 55. | Slievenaman, Tipperary, Ireland | 2,362 | |
| 56. | The Paps, Kerry, Ireland | 2,280 | |
| 57. | Snaefell, Isle of Man, Great Britain | 2,004 | |
| 58. | Campsie Hills, Stirlingshire, Scotland | 1,850 | |
| 59. | Achil Head, Mayo, Ireland | 1,800 | |
| 60. | Pentland Hills, Scotland | 1,700 | |
| 61. | Peak, Hoy Island, Orkney Group | 1,569 | |
| 62. | Eildon Hills, Roxburgshire, Scotland | 1,364 | |
| 63. | Ailsa Craig, Firth of Clyde, Scotland | 1,139 | |
| 64. | Dunnose, Isle of Wight, England | 792 | |
| 65. | Salisbury Craigs, Mid Lothian, Scotland | 550 | |
| 66. | Hill of Howth, Dublin, Ireland | 549 | |
| 67. | Edinburg Castle, Mid Lothian, Scotland | 434 | |
| 68. | Bass Rock, Firth of Forth, Scotland | 400 | |
| 69. | St. Paul’s, London, England | 404 | |
| ASIA AND PACIFIC ISLANDS | |||
| A. | Mount Everest, India-China | 29,002 | |
| 1. | Godwin-Austin, India-China | 28,278 | |
| 2. | Dapsang, Tibet | 28,273 | |
| 3. | Kanchanjanga, India-China | 28,156 | |
| 4. | Nanga-Parbat, India | 26,629 | |
| 5. | Dhawalaghiri, India | 26,286 | |
| 6. | Nanda-Devi, India | 25,661 | |
| 7. | Bride Peak, India | 25,100 | |
| 8. | Chumolhari, India | 23,933 | |
| 9. | Kaufmann, Turkestan | 23,000 | |
| 10. | Cantas, India-China | 22,500 | |
| 11. | St. Patrick, India-China | 22,385 | |
| 12. | St. George, India-China | 22,240 | |
| 13. | Gemini, India-China | 21,600 | |
| 14. | Bunderpooch, India-China | 21,155 | |
| 15. | Pyramid, India-China | 20,966 | |
| 16. | Peak, Hindu Kush, Afghanistan | 20,230 | |
| 17. | Bunderpooch 2d, India | 20,122 | |
| 18. | Mount Elburz, Russian Empire | 18,526 | |
| 19. | Mount Ararat, Asia Minor | 17,160 | |
| 20. | Mount Kasbeck, Russian Empire | 16,592 | |
| 21. | Kliontsheoskoi, Kamtschatka | 16,512 | |
| 22. | Kassoumba, Sumatra, Malaysia | 15,000 | |
| 23. | Australian Alps, Australia | 15,000 | |
| 24. | Demavend, Persia | 18,500 | |
| 25. | Mouna Kea, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands | 13,953 | |
| 26. | Mount Ophir, Sumatra, Malaysia | 13,842 | |
| 27. | Mouna Loa, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands | 13,600 | |
| 28. | Arjish Dagh, Asia Minor | 13,100 | |
| 29. | Sevellan, Persia | 13,000 | |
| 30. | Gunong Dempu, Sumatra, Malaysia | 12,465 | |
| A. | Mount Erebus, Victoria Land, Antarctic Continent | 12,400 | |
| 31. | Peak, Formosa, Japan | 12,000 | |
| B. | Mount Terror, Victoria Land, Antarctic Continent | 11,500 | |
| 32. | Koriatskaia, Kamtschatka | 11,215 | |
| 33. | Mount Lebanon, Syria | 11,050 | |
| 34. | Mount Bielucha, Russian Empire | 11,063 | |
| 35. | Peak, Otaheite, Polynesia | 10,895 | |
| 36. | Italitskui, Russian Empire | 10,735 | |
| 37. | Kriontskaia, Kamtschatka | 10,625 | |
| 38. | Shivelutsh, Kamtschatka | 10,591 | |
| 39. | Haleakala, Maui, Hawaiian Islands | 10,200 | |
| 40. | Murtchurti Bet, India | 10,070 | |
| 41. | Mount Olympus, Asia Minor | 9,100 | |
| 42. | Mount Egmont, New Zealand | 8,839 | |
| 43. | Arvatskaa, Kamtschatka | 8,760 | |
| 44. | Dodabetta, India | 8,760 | |
| 45. | Mount St. Catherine, Arabia | 8,593 | |
| 46. | Mount Sinai, Arabia | 8,300 | |
| 47. | Pedro-talla-galla, Ceylon[76] | 8,326 | |
| 48. | Melin, China | 8,200 | |
| 49. | Kirrigal Pota, Ceylon | 7,810 | |
| 50. | Totta Rella, Ceylon | 7,720 | |
| 51. | Peak of Yeddo, Japan | 7,680 | |
| 52. | Adams’ Peak, Ceylon | 7,420 | |
| 53. | Mount Serbal, Arabia | 6,760 | |
| 54. | Quelpaert, Quelpaert Island | 6,400 | |
| 55. | Sea View Hill, Australia | 6,300 | |
| 56. | Taddiamdamala, India | 6,055 | |
| 57. | Subramain, India | 5,560 | |
| 58. | Jebel, Akral, Arabia | 5,318 | |
| 59. | Abu, India | 5,100 | |
| 60. | Mount Ida, Asia Minor | 4,960 | |
| 61. | Peak of Teneriffe, Tasmania | 4,500 | |
| 62. | Mount Williams, Australia | 4,500 | |
| 63. | Corean Mountains, Japan | 4,480 | |
| 64. | Baskirian Urals, Russian Empire | 4,400 | |
| 65. | Ben Lomond, Tasmania | 4,200 | |
| 66. | Mount Wellington, Tasmania | 3,795 | |
| 67. | Forest Hill Peak, Australia | 3,776 | |
| 68. | Quamby’s Bluff, Tasmania | 3,500 | |
| 69. | Karnalighur, India | 3,203 | |
| 70. | Mount York, Australia | 3,192 | |
| 71. | Mount Exmouth, Australia | 3,000 | |
| 72. | Mount Cole, Australia | 3,000 | |
| 73. | Mount Field, Tasmania | 3,000 | |
| 74. | Peak, St. Paul’s Island, Indian Ocean | 2,760 | |
| 75. | Sugar Loaf, Peak, Australia | 2,527 | |
| 76. | St. Paul’s Dome, Tasmania | 2,500 | |
| 77. | Mount Carmel, Palestine, Syria | 2,250 | |
| 78. | Mount Tabor, Palestine, Syria | 2,053 | |
| 79. | Bathurst Heights, Australia | 1,970 | |
| AFRICA | |||
| 1. | Kilimanjaro, East Africa | 19,780 | |
| 2. | Kibo Peak, German East Africa | 19,320 | |
| 3. | Mount Kenia, British Africa | 17,200 | |
| 4. | Mount Stanley, Central Africa | 16,800 | |
| 5. | Abba Yared, Abyssinia | 15,200 | |
| 6. | Bushad, Abyssinia, Central Africa | 14,364 | |
| 7. | Mongo-ma-Lobah, Central Africa | 13,760 | |
| 8. | Peak of Teneriffe, Canary Islands | 12,000 | |
| 9. | Mount Miltsen, North Africa | 11,400 | |
| 10. | Clarence Peak, Fernando Po Island, Gulf of Guinea | 10,655 | |
| 11. | Pic Nieges, Bourbon Island, Indian Ocean | 10,355 | |
| 12. | Spitz-Kop, South Africa | 10,240 | |
| 13. | Mount Alantika, Central Africa | 9,000 | |
| 14. | Tarami, Abyssinia | 8,643 | |
| 15. | Peak, Tristan de’Acunha Island, Atlantic Ocean | 8,236 | |
| 16. | Peak of Pico, Azores, Atlantic Ocean | 7,013 | |
| 17. | Volcano Fogo, Cape de Verd Islands, Atlantic Ocean | 7,884 | |
| 18. | El Cumbre, Canary Islands, Atlantic Ocean | 6,648 | |
| 19. | Jebel Akhal, East Africa | 6,500 | |
| 20. | Pico Ruivo, Madeira Island, Atlantic Ocean | 6,056 | |
| 21. | Mount Dogen, Central Africa | 5,000 | |
| 22. | Table Mountain, South Africa | 3,582 | |
| 23. | Devil’s Peak, South Africa | 3,315 | |
| 24. | Green Mountain, Ascension Island, Atlantic Ocean | 2,868 | |
| 25. | Mount Tekut, North Africa | 2,800 | |
| 26. | Diana’s Peak, St. Helena, Atlantic Ocean | 2,692 | |
| 27. | Lion’s Head, South Africa | 2,166 | |
| 28. | Cape, Cape Colony, South Africa | 1,000 | |
| 29. | Pyramid of Cheops, Egypt | 479 | |
| 30. | Pyramid of Chephren, Egypt | 456 | |
| SOUTH AMERICA | |||
| 1. | Aconcagua, Chile | 23,080 | |
| 2. | Sorata or Illampu, Bolivia | 23,000 | |
| 3. | Mercedario, Argentina | 22,312 | |
| 4. | Illimani, Bolivia | 22,200 | |
| 5. | Tupungato, Chile | 21,550 | |
| 6. | Condor, Argentina | 21,128 | |
| 7. | Famatina, Argentina | 20,680 | |
| 8. | Salcantay, Peru | 20,540 | |
| 9. | Chimborazo, Ecuador | 20,475 | |
| 10. | Antisana, Ecuador | 19,184 | |
| 11. | Santa Morta, Colombia | 19,030 | |
| 12. | Tacora, Bolivia | 19,000 | |
| 13. | Cotopaxi, Ecuador | 18,880 | |
| 14. | Arequipa, Peru | 18,370 | |
| 15. | Tolima, Colombia | 18,069 | |
| 16. | Maispo, Chile | 17,670 | |
| 17. | Peak of Cuzco, Peru | 17,525 | |
| 18. | Sangai, Ecuador | 17,460 | |
| 19. | Ruiz, Colombia | 17,388 | |
| 20. | Tunguraqua, Ecuador | 16,690 | |
| 21. | Cotocachi, Ecuador | 16,300 | |
| 22. | Cerro de Potosi, Bolivia | 16,037 | |
| 23. | Pichincha, Ecuador | 15,918 | |
| 24. | Roraima, Venezuela | 8,740 | |
| 25. | Silla de Caracas, Venezuela | 8,632 | |
| 26. | Duida, Venezuela | 8,467 | |
| 27. | Corcorada, Argentina | 7,510 | |
| 28. | Minchinmadiva, Argentina | 7,046 | |
| 29. | Mount Sarmiento, Tierra del Fuego | 7,000 | |
| 30. | Mount Darwin, Tierra del Fuego | 6,800 | |
| 31. | Guadarrama, Colombia | 6,400 | |
| 32. | Itambe, Brazil | 5,960 | |
| 33. | Piedade, Brazil | 5,820 | |
| 34. | Itacolumi, Brazil | 5,750 | |
| 35. | Morro dos Canudos, Brazil | 4,476 | |
| 36. | Macarapan, Guayana | 3,500 | |
| 37. | Cape Horn, Argentina | 1,870 | |
Freshwater and Salt Lakes
Lakes are of different kinds. Some are mere tanks which receive the first outpourings of springs, others consist of basins or reservoirs which occur in the line of a river’s course; some consist of basins or cavities, into which rivers flow, but which, on account of their depression or their mountainous cincture have no outlets; lakes are also formed in the craters of extinct volcanoes; and some lakes are periodic, or subject to have their basins alternately empty and full of water.
Mountain Lakes, which are valleys or chasms filled by streams, are long and narrow, rarely of extensive area, but often of great depth. Examples of this class are found in Lakes Champlain and George, among the Appalachian Mountains; Lakes Constance and Geneva, on the northern side of the Alps; and Lake Maggiore and Lake Como, on the south side; all of which are renowned for the loveliness of their shores, or the grandeur of the surrounding mountain scenery.
Lake Maggiore, which is hardly three miles wide, is, according to Italian engineers, 2,623 feet deep—more than double the depth of Lake Superior—its basin reaching 1,936 feet below the sea level.
The forms of mountain lakes are very irregular, for the water often covers several contiguous and connected valleys. This is the case in Lake Como, which has two long arms; and Lakes Lucerne and Lugano, each of which fills four distinct valleys, meeting one another nearly at right angles.
Lakes in Plains. The lake basins in plains and plateaus are, usually, simple depressions in a comparatively uniform surface. The lakes are, therefore, often of great size, broad in proportion to their length, but of little depth compared with their area.
The largest lakes of the globe—the Caspian and Aral seas, and the great North American and African lakes—and the largest in Europe and South America, all belong to this class. Their vast expanse, together with the tameness of their shores, deprives them of the picturesque beauty of mountain lakes.
Characteristics of Salt Lakes. Numerous lakes in the interior of the continents, though receiving affluents, have no outlet. Their waters are chiefly lost by evaporation, though some portion may be absorbed by the sandy soil.
The surfaces of the continents having been the beds of the primeval oceans, the presence of salt in the soil is a natural consequence.
Famous Salt Lakes. The Great Salt Lake of Utah, in the Great American Basin, is one of the finest examples of its class. The Caspian and Aral seas, at the bottom of the vast depression between Europe and Asia, are the most extensive salt lakes. The former has about four times the area of Lake Superior; and the latter is a little larger than Lake Michigan.
The Caspian, though receiving the Volga, the largest river of Europe, evaporates so much water that its surface is about 83 feet lower than that of the Mediterranean, varying with the seasons. Many lakes in its neighborhood disappear entirely in the heat and drought of summer, leaving their beds covered with a crust of pure white crystalline salt.
The Remarkable Dead Sea, in Syria, is a lake in which the salt has accumulated until the water is converted into a heavy brine. It may be the remnant of an ancient sea of much greater extent, which has been gradually reduced in size by the excess of evaporation over the supply of water in its basin.
This celebrated body of water lies in the deepest part of a long chasm or valley, which is sunk not less than 4,000 feet below the level of the surrounding country. The surface of the lake is 1,286 feet, and its bottom 2,500 feet, below the level of the Mediterranean.
Its feeder, the river Jordan, flows almost throughout its entire course below the level of the sea, the only known instance of the kind. The beautiful lake of Tiberias, the scene of so many of the miracles of Jesus, which is but an expansion of the Jordan in its upper course, is about 650 feet below the surface of the Mediterranean.
How the Lakes Are Distributed over the Globe
Lakes are most numerous in the central and northern portions of Asia, Europe and North America. The southern continents, except Africa, have comparatively few.
Asia is pre-eminently the continent of salt lakes. They occur in countless numbers, both in the steppes north of the Caspian and Aral, and in all the interior plateaus. Lakes of fresh water are also found among the Altai Mountains and adjacent chains. Lake Baikal, one of these, is the largest mountain lake known, being nearly 500 miles long.
Europe. The most characteristic and celebrated lakes are those which adorn the Alps of Switzerland and Scandinavia, and the less lofty mountain chains of the British Isles. But the largest lakes are found in the low lands and slight swells which surround the Baltic Sea, in western Russia and Sweden. Lakes Ladoga and Onega in Russia, and Wener and Wetter in Sweden, are the largest in Europe.
North America is peculiarly rich in great lakes. No continent presents a more remarkable series than that which stretches from northwest to southeast, through the central plains, along the line of contact of the oldest geological formations of the continent. This series includes Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, Athabasca and Winnipeg, and the five great lakes of the St. Lawrence, with many of less area.
Innumerable small lakes are scattered throughout the middle portions of the central plain, and the northern and less regular part of the Appalachian mountain region; but south of the parallel of Lake Erie there is an almost entire absence of lakes, whether large or small.
Relative Size of Lakes of the Western Hemisphere
Large illustration (397 kB)
PRINCIPAL SALT-WATER LAKES OF THE WORLD
| NAME | Location | Area in Square Miles | Mean Elevation in Feet | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Black Sea | Asia and Europe | 170,000 | Sea-level | |
| Caspian Sea | Asia | 170,000 | 90 | below sea-level |
| Sea of Aral | Asia | 26,160 | 157 | above sea-level |
| Balkash | Asia | 7,135 | 779 | above sea-level |
| Maracaibo | South America | 6,315 | 0 | above sea-level |
| Eyre | Australia | 3,600 | 70 | above sea-level |
| Titicaca (slightly saline) | South America | 3,200 | 12,506 | above sea-level |
| Issik-kul | Asia | 2,250 | 5,300 | above sea-level |
| Great Salt Lake | North America | 2,177 | 4,218 | above sea-level |
| Koko-nor | Asia | 2,040 | 9,970 | above sea-level |
| Urumiah | Asia | 1,795 | 4,100 | above sea-level |
| Van | Asia | 1,400 | 5,200 | above sea-level |
| Dead Sea | Asia | 444 | 1,290 | below sea-level |
| Ngami (nearly dried up) | Africa | 297 | 2,919 | above sea-level |
Relative Size of Lakes of the Eastern Hemisphere
Large illustration (371 kB)
PRINCIPAL FRESH-WATER LAKES OF THE WORLD
| NAME | Location | Area in Square Miles | Mean Elevation in Feet | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Superior | North America | 31,200 | 601 | above sea-level | |
| Victoria Nyanza | Africa | 26,500 | 3,300 | above sea-level | |
| Huron | North America | 23,800 | 581 | above sea-level | |
| Michigan | North America | 22,450 | 581 | above sea-level | |
| Baikal | Asia | 13,200 | 1,542 | above sea-level | |
| Tanganyika | Africa | 12,000 | 2,756 | above sea-level | |
| Great Bear | North America | 11,200 | 391 | above sea-level | |
| Nyassa | Africa | 10,230 | 1,706 | above sea-level | |
| Great Slave | North America | 10,200 | 520 | above sea-level | |
| Erie | North America | 9,960 | 573 | above sea-level | |
| Winnipeg | North America | 9,400 | 710 | above sea-level | |
| Lake of the Woods | North America | 7,650 | 1,060 | above sea-level | |
| Ontario | North America | 7,240 | 247 | above sea-level | |
| Ladoga | Europe | 6,998 | 49 | above sea-level | |
| Tchad | Africa | 6,000 to 40,000 | 1,150 | above sea-level | |
| Athabasca | North America | 4,400 | 690 | above sea-level | |
| Onega | Europe | 3,760 | 237 | above sea-level | |
| Nicaragua | Central America | 2,972 | 131 | above sea-level | |
| Wener | Europe | 2,400 | 147 | above sea-level | |
| Albert Nyanza | Africa | 1,730 | 2,230 | above sea-level | |
| Dembea | Africa | 1,000 | 6,100 | above sea-level | |
| Wetter | Europe | 936 | 288 | above sea-level | |
| Champlain | North America | 750 | 96 | above sea-level | |
| Managua | North America | 560 | 154 | above sea-level | |
| Bangweolo[80] | Africa | 400 to 5,800 | 3,690 | above sea-level | |
| St. Clair | North America | 396 | 576 | above sea-level | |
| Balaton (Platten See) | Europe | 266 | 426 | above sea-level | |
| Geneva (or Leman) | Europe | 214 | 1,220 | above sea-level | |
| Constance (or Boden See) | Europe | 208 | 1,308 | above sea-level | |
| Garda | Europe | 136 | 213 | above sea-level | |
| Neuchatel | Europe | 90 | 1,424 | above sea-level | |
| Maggiore | Europe | 78 | 646 | above sea-level | |
| Cayuga | North America | 76 | 381 | above sea-level | |
| George | North America | 61 | 323 | above sea-level | |
| Como | Europe | 56 | 649 | above sea-level | |
| Lucerne | Europe | 40 | 1,435 | above sea-level | |
| Zurich | Europe | 37 | 1⁄2 | 1,340 | above sea-level |
Africa. The great plateau lakes are typical of the continent. The Victoria Nyanza and Albert Nyanza, feeding the White Nile; Tanganyika, whose outlet is unknown; Tzana, at the head of the Blue Nile; and Lake Nyassa, in the Zambezi basin, all rest on the high plateaus of Central Africa. Lake Tchad alone, among large African lakes, is surrounded by low plains.
Waterfalls and Rapids. The variations in the slope of a river-bed, arising from unequal erosion, or from the original irregularities in the surface, give rise to rapids and falls.
The first occur where an increased slope causes the stream to flow with more than its average velocity. The second are caused by nearly perpendicular rocky walls, down which the foaming water descends in picturesque cascades, or imposing cataracts.
The famous “Cataracts of the Nile” are merely rapids which impede but do not entirely obstruct, the navigation as cataracts must. The so-called Falls of St. Anthony, in the upper Mississippi, and the rapids of the St. Lawrence, above Montreal, are among the finest rapids in American rivers.
The highest falls are in the upper course of rivers, in mountainous regions; the greatest and most imposing, in their middle course.
The Niagara Falls exhibit a most important industrial utilization of water power. The Falls of St. Anthony in the Mississippi, the Falls of Foyers in Scotland, the Rhine falls, the Rhone falls of Bellegarde, and the innumerable waterfalls of Scandinavia, Switzerland, and similar mountainous lands, are all utilized in this way. It has been proposed to convey power generated at the Victoria falls of the Zambezi to the Rand goldfield of the Transvaal, and a scheme for this is now being prepared.
FAMOUS WATERFALLS OF THE WORLD
| Name | Location | Height (feet) |
|---|---|---|
| Bridal Veil | California | 900 |
| Foyers | Great Britain | 205 |
| Gastein Falls | Austria | 469 |
| Gavarnie | Pyrenees | 1,400 |
| Genesee | New York | 95 |
| Grand Falls | Labrador | 2,000 |
| Great Falls | Montana | 500 |
| Hay River | Alaska | 200 |
| Kaieteur Falls | Guiana | 740 |
| Krimmler Falls | Austria | 1,300 |
| Kukenam Fall | Guiana | 1,500 |
| Maanelvan | Norway | 940 |
| Minnehaha | Minnesota | 50 |
| Missouri | Montana | 90 |
| Montmorenci | Quebec | 265 |
| Multnomah | Oregon | 850 |
| Murchison | Africa | 120 |
| Nevada Falls | California | 600 |
| Niagara | New York | 165 |
| Oroco Falls | Monte Rosa | 2,400 |
| Rjukanfos | Norway | 804 |
| Roraima Fall | Guiana | 2,000 |
| Rukaufos | Norway | 513 |
| St. Anthony | Minnesota | 80 |
| Schaffhausen | Switzerland | 100 |
| Seven Falls | Colorado | 266 |
| Shoshone | Idaho | 210 |
| Skykjefos | Norway | 700 |
| Snoqualmie | Washington | 268 |
| Staubbach | Switzerland | 1,000 |
| Stirling | New Zealand | 500 |
| Sutherland | New Zealand | 1,904 |
| Takkakaw | British Columbia | 1,200 |
| Tequendama | Colombia | 475 |
| Tessa Falls | Austria | 541 |
| Twin | Idaho | 180 |
| Velino Falls | Italy | 591 |
| Vermafos | Norway | 984 |
| Vettisfos | Norway | 950 |
| Victoria Falls | Zambezi | 400 |
| Voringsfos | Norway | 600 |
| Yellowstone (upper) | Montana | 110 |
| Yellowstone (lower) | Montana | 310 |
| Yguazu or Iguazu | Brazil | 210 |
| Yosemite (upper) | California | 1,436 |
| Yosemite (middle) | California | 626 |
| Yosemite (lower) | California | 400 |
FAMOUS WATER PICTURES OF THE NEW AND OLD WORLD
Niagara in winter presents a picture of frozen grandeur equaled nowhere else in the world.
The Rhine at Schaffhausen, Switzerland, rushes over rugged rocks on its way down from the highlands into the lovely and historic valley it has carved for itself on its way to the sea.
Waterfalls
Waterfalls
Waterfalls
Waterfalls
FAR-FAMED WATERFALLS THAT HAVE INSPIRED TRAVELERS AND WRITERS
1. The Niagara Falls and rapids form one of the most impressive spectacles in the world. The Niagara River, which is the sole outlet of the great lakes, pours itself in two vast sheets over a precipice about 160 feet high. Goat Island, which is situated on the lip of the falls, divides the cataract into two sections—the Horseshoe, or Canadian fall, which is by far the more majestic, and the America fall. It has a descent of 158 feet and the American fall of 167 feet. The volume of water which sweeps over this immense chasm is about 15,000,000 cubic feet per minute. The limestone edge of both falls is wearing away in the center, the Canadian fall now being V-shaped, and the American fall showing the same tendency, although its process of recession has begun more recently. For some distance below the falls there is smooth current, the mass of water which pours over the precipice sinking and only coming to the surface two miles below, where the rapids, more magnificent and wilder than those above the falls, begin, and culminate in the rapids of the Upper Whirlpool. Lower down the river is the whirlpool itself, where a sharp turn sends the waters hurling against the Canadian side; they then sweep round in a gigantic circle before they find a vent at right angle with their former course. The sight of the falls is equally awe-inspiring from the bridge on the lip of the fall, from the boat which plies from shore to shore below the cataract, or from the Cave of the Winds, reached from Goat Island. Although in summer the magnificence of the sight is extraordinary, it is in winter, when the wizardry of the frost is upon it, that it is superlatively beautiful. The falls were first discovered by Father Hennepin in 1678.
2. The Falls of Juanacatlan (hoo-ă-nă-kwt-lăn), Mexico, are located near the island city of Guadalajara (guă-dă-lă-hă´ră) on the Rio Grande de Santiago. Though only 70 feet in height they are more than 600 feet wide, and as known as the “Niagara” of Mexico.
3. The Cataracts of Iguazu (e-gwă´soo) on the frontiers of Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay. These falls, situated in a remote wilderness, far from civilization, are a veritable fortress in protecting the peace-loving peoples on their borders. They constitute a series of falls extending over three miles, and more than 200 feet in height, and of magnificent scenic beauty. Their energy is estimated to be about 14,000,000 horse-power, or almost three times that of Niagara.
4. The Yosemite (yo-sem´i-tee) Falls of California, are highest and probably the most remarkable of their class. They descend on almost perpendicular ledge of rocks 2,600 feet high to the bottom of the Yosemite valley, forming three separate cataracts. The first fall is 1,600 feet sheer descent. Then comes a series of cascades, partly hidden, 600 feet downward, and a final leap of 400 feet. Seen from afar, the Yosemite Falls seem insignificant; but they are, in fact, 35 feet wide, and the shock of their descent is observed a mile away.
5. The Staubbach (stoub´băk) Falls, in the Swiss Alps near Lauterbrunnen, descends a precipice of 980 feet, and is reduced to spray like a misty veil before reaching the bottom. It is the highest unbroken fall in Switzerland, and the most noted.
6. The Great Falls of the Yellowstone, though not so high, vie with the Yosemite in striking beauty. These famous falls plunge from a height of 360 feet into the abyss of a mighty chasm. At the point of descent, the waters of the Yellowstone suddenly contract from a width of 250 feet to 75 feet.
7. The Bridal Veil Falls of California, belong to the famous Yosemite Valley. Its waters, over 30 feet wide, leap from the granite rocks on the south wall of the Yosemite in two vertical descents aggregating over 900 feet. The first fall covers a distance of 600 feet, then the waters rushing over a sloping pile of jagged rocks drops a perpendicular distance of 300 feet more. From the chief points of view it seems to make but one plunge, in an unbroken descent similar to the Staubbach, but carrying a much greater volume of water. Frequently the wind swings the great plume of water from the face of the cliff and waves it like a scarf or veil. At sunset rainbows with an indescribable radiance bejewel its foam and the glistening leaves surrounding it.
8. The Reichenbach (ri´ken-băk) Falls near Meiningen, Switzerland, comprise five fine cascades in the Reichenbach River. The most gorgeous of these, known as the Upper Fall, makes a huge leap of 300 feet into a deep rocky basin, which then continues in several foaming and plunging cascades in general aspect not unlike the Niagara gorge.
The Oceans of the World and Their Mysteries
THE LAND AND WATER HEMISPHERES
The Oceans consist of one great fluid mass, and in extent covers three times the area of the dry land. There is also about three times as much land to the north of the equator as there is to the south of it. Though the waters of the ocean surround the land on every side, yet they are broken up into certain areas by the arrangement of the land portions, and to these various parts we give particular names.
The Atlantic Ocean, lying between the western shores of Europe and Africa and the east coast of America.
The Pacific Ocean, lying between the west coast of America and the east coast of Asia.
The Indian Ocean, lying between the south of Asia and the Antarctic circle.
The Arctic Ocean, lying within the Arctic circle.
The Antarctic Ocean, lying within the Antarctic circle.
Vast Extent of the Oceans
The Atlantic is the most branching of the oceans, and is especially distinguished by the number and great size of its inland seas. Two of these, the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, lie in the warm regions; and two, Hudson Bay and the Baltic Sea, in colder latitudes.
The broader seas are represented by the Caribbean Sea, within the tropics and the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the North Sea in temperate latitudes. The Gulf of Guinea, and the Bay of Biscay, are examples of the more shallow coast waters.
The Pacific is particularly rich in vast border seas, a continuous series of which lines the Asiatic and Australian coasts. Among these are the Behring Sea, enclosed by the peninsula of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands; Okhotsk Sea, enclosed by Kamchatka and the Kurile Islands; the Sea of Japan, and the North and South China seas; and the Arafura, Coral, and New Zealand seas, on the Australian Coast.
Only two inland seas of considerable size—the Gulf of California in North America, and the Yellow Sea in Asia—mark this entire basin.
The Indian Ocean is characterized by gulfs, two of which form the entire extension of the basin; namely, the Gulf of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea. It has also two inland seas of considerable extent, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, isolating the peninsula of Arabia from the adjacent continents; but border seas are wholly wanting in the Indian Ocean.
The Arctic Ocean is a partially enclosed sea, which a comparatively inconsiderable rise of the sea-bottom would convert into a true Mediterranean. Three openings connect it with the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, namely, Behring Straight (narrow and shallow), Davis Straight, and the broad expanse of water lying between Norway and Greenland. Of these, the last is by far the most important, for through it the warm waters of the Gulf Stream find access to the Polar basin, and keep the sea free from ice throughout the year. This current is supposed to flow feebly along the coast of Siberia, until, deflected by the land, it becomes merged in the cold counter-currents which, passing along the eastern coasts of Greenland and Labrador, carry immense masses of ice into the Atlantic.
PICTORIAL DIAGRAM OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH IF THE WATERS WERE REMOVED
Map Section
Ridges, mountains, plateaus, which may represent submerged continents of the past, and many an abyss that exceeds in depth the height of the highest mountains, are shown above. The shallow coasts, marked by the lightest shade, are part of the present Continental Shelf, and do not exceed six hundred feet in depth. Beyond this shelf, as a rule, the oceans rapidly attain great depths. Our knowledge of the ocean bed has been obtained from the extensive soundings.
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The Antarctic Ocean is situated about or within the antarctic circle. The great Southern Ocean is that part of the ocean which surrounds the world between the latitude of 40 degrees south and the antarctic circle. The northern portions of this band are often called the South Atlantic, South Indian and South Pacific, while the southern portions are usually called the Antarctic Ocean. The average depth of the continuous ocean which surrounds south polar land is about two miles; it gradually shoals toward antarctic land, which in some places is met with a short distance within the antarctic circle. Life is abundant in the surface waters, and at the bottom of the ocean.
How the Floor of the Ocean Appears
As a rule the sea is shallowest near the land, though in a few cases there is a sudden descent to a great depth at a very short distance from the coast. Lowlands have usually shallow seas near the coast, and highlands deep water.
Along the American shores, in the latitude of New York, the depth, for a distance of more than 100 miles, is less than 600 feet; then suddenly the bed descends, by a steep slope, to the depth of 6,000 or 9,000 feet. After a comparatively narrow interval, a second terrace descends to the main basin, from 15,000 to 18,000 feet deep.
The bottom of the trough of the ocean, in general, is equally varied with that of the land surface of the globe, forming mountains, hills, valleys, tablelands, etc. In many parts these marine mountains reach above the surface and form islands. On the table land extending across the Atlantic between Newfoundland and Ireland is laid the submarine-telegraph cable which connects the two hemispheres.
The Depth of the Oceans. The average depth of the Pacific Ocean has been estimated at between 15,000 and 18,000 feet, which is slightly greater than that of the Atlantic. The deeper portions may be learned on reference to the map. The western portion of the North Pacific in particular shows some very deep depressions. To the east of Japan lies a long deep trough which in one part has furnished the sounding of nearly five and one-half miles. This abyss is often called the Tuscarora Deep. South of the Ladrone Islands, in the Caroline Archipelago, there is also a deep abyss where an English ship, the Challenger, obtained a sounding of nearly 27,000 feet. In the Pacific soundings of over 30,000 feet have been made.
The Indian Ocean has an average depth of about 12,000 feet, and the deepest soundings have been taken on the eastern side. It is interesting to observe that the deepest sounding, about five and three-quarter miles, in the South Pacific somewhat exceeds the height of the highest mountain. Mount Everest has a height of 29,000 feet above the sea level. And it must also be noted that the mean height of the land, 1,000 feet, is only about one-twelfth the mean depth of the whole ocean, 12,000 feet. (See colored map showing comparative surfaces of land areas and ocean depths.)
Inland and Border Waters. These enclosed basins belong to the structure of the continents, rather than to the oceans. All are shallow in comparison with the great basins with which they are connected, as is apparent from the depths given below.
The Gulf of Mexico is from 5,000 to 7,000 feet in depth. The deepest part of the Caribbean Sea, on a line connecting Porto Rico and Costa Rica, averages 7,000 feet, and near the latter it reaches a depth of 14,000; but the ocean, immediately outside of the Lesser Antilles, is more than 18,000 feet deep.
The Mediterranean is divided into two basins, by a rocky isthmus, from 50 to 500 feet below the surface, lying between Sicily and Cape Bon, in Africa. The western basin is over 9,000 feet in depth, and comparatively uniform; while the eastern is more irregular, varying from 6,000 near the center, to 13,000 feet, south of the Ionian Islands. The Red Sea has an irregular bottom, with an average depth of 3,000 feet, but in some places it reaches 6,000.
The Baltic Sea, being a simple depression in the great European plain, is but a few hundred feet deep. In the North Sea, the depth averages 300 feet, and rarely exceeds 600. The continent is here prolonged in the form of a submarine plain, whose highest portions form the British Isles.
The Border Seas of Asia, lying within the chain of continental islands, are only a few hundred feet in depth, while immediately without those islands, abrupt slopes descend to the great depths of the Pacific basin.
Smaller inlets are also of frequent occurrence, especially in districts where mountain ranges approach the borders of the ocean. Such are the lochs of Scotland, the voes of the Shetland Islands, and the fiords of Norway and Greenland. The term lagoon is usually applied to lake-like inlets.
Salt and Other Ingredients of Sea-water. The waters of the ocean are salt, holding in solution various saline matters. The saline ingredients amount to rather more than thirty-five grains in a thousand grains of sea-water. The most abundant of these is chloride of sodium or common salt, which in general forms about a third of the whole. Besides this, sea-water contains some magnesia, lime, potash, and traces of iodine and bromine.
The following table exhibits the exact percentage composition of sea-water.
One hundred parts by weight of sea-water contain:
| Water | 96.470 |
| Sodium Chloride | 2.700 |
| Magnesium Chloride | .360 |
| Potassium Chloride | .070 |
| Magnesium Sulphate | .230 |
| Calcium Sulphate | .140 |
| Calcium Carbonate | .003 |
| Magnesium Bromide | .002 |
| Traces of Iodides, Silica, etc., estimated | .025 |
| 100.000 |
How the Sea gets its Color. The color of sea-water is due to the character of the skies and clouds above, and to vegetable and animal objects growing and living in it. The luminosity or phosphorescence of the ocean is due to the decay of animal and vegetable substances, but in some cases it arises from the presence of myriads of living animals, which, like the glow-worm and fire-fly of the land and air, have the power of emitting light.
Ocean Temperature. The water of the ocean appears generally to agree with that of the climate in which it is situated. In warm latitudes the temperature of the deep sea diminishes with the depth below the surface until a certain depth is reached, below which it appears to retain an equable temperature, this being about 40 degrees Fahrenheit. In the Polar Seas, where the temperature of the surface is lower than 40 degrees the heat increases downward until it reaches that point. In latitude 70° the temperature of the ocean is considered to be the same at all depths.
HOW TIDES ARE FORMED BY ACTION OF THE MOON
The moon pulls the waters of the earth into a great double wave heaping it up on the side nearest to the moon and on the opposite side. As the earth rotates, this double wave moves round the earth, and the crests and troughs alternately produce high and low tide. Thus there are two high and two low tides daily, at intervals of about twelve hours, or half a Sun or day.
Cause of the Tides, Waves and Currents of the Oceans
The waters of the ocean are retained in their bed by the attraction of gravitation. This power is great in proportion to the mass; and as the earth is of much greater mass than the particles of water on its surface, it attracts them and keeps them in their assigned places. But the sun and moon also possess this power of attraction, and notwithstanding their distance, attract and draw them up to a certain elevation. The vast mass of the waters being drawn up by the moon into a mountain or curve of water forms what is called the “great primary or tidal wave.”
VAST OCEAN CAVERN AT CAPRI, WIDELY KNOWN AS THE “BLUE GROTTO”
This remarkable cavern, on the shore of the island of Capri, at the entrance of the Bay of Naples, is entered from the sea, and is one hundred and eighteen feet long and forty feet high, with a breadth of ninety-eight feet at its widest part. It derives its name from the wonderful blue reflection of the sun’s rays through the water, which gives the interior its marvelous beauty and majesty. The cavern has been created by the ceaseless action of the tide.
Ebb-tide and Flood-tide. This drawing up of the waters of mid-ocean causes a recession from the shores, thus giving rise to ebb-tide, or low water. But when the temporary attraction ceases the waters flow back to their natural level, returning to shore and forming flood-tide, or high water. This culmination or rising of the waters in the great tidal wave takes place twice in twenty-four hours and fifty minutes. The combined influence of the sun and moon at new and full moon augments the size of this wave, and causes the “spring-tides” at those periods.
Height of Tides. High water at the various points along the coast is dependent on the return of this great wave, though some variations are caused by local peculiarities; and the height of the tide also varies greatly in different parts of the earth.
On the eastern coast of North America, the average rise of the tide is from nine to twelve feet. At the entrance to the Bay of Fundy, however, it rises eighteen feet, while at the head of that bay it reaches sixty, and in the highest spring tides, even seventy feet. At Bristol, in England, the spring tides rise to forty feet; and at St. Malo, on the south coast of the English Channel, they reach fifty feet.
The Maelstrom, Charybdis and Hell Gate
Differences in level, produced by high tides, cause currents which vary in force and direction with the condition of the tide, producing, in some cases, dangerous whirlpools. The famous Maelstrom, off the coast of Norway, is but a tidal current, which rushes with great violence between two of the Lofoden Islands, causing a whirling motion in the water which is reversed at each ebb and flow of the tide.
Such is, also, the famous whirlpool of Charybdis, in the Straight of Messina, and many others of less note. The powerful currents of Hell Gate, in the passage from Long Island Sound to New York Bay, are due to a similar cause, high water occurring at different hours in the bay and in the west end of the sound.
What Causes the Waves of the Ocean
The waves of the ocean, which are caused by the action of the wind, and which are called secondary or wind waves are of a totally different character from the tidal wave. The influence of the wind is supposed not to extend to a greater depth than forty or fifty feet, the deep sea, though raised in a great mass by the grand tidal movement, being free from agitation. Wind waves at a distance from the shore are comparatively low and long, but in shoal water they assume a greater curvature, and fall on the beach either in gentle ripples or in mighty breakers, according to the depth of the water and the force of the wind. The heavy swell which occasionally takes place, called the “ground sea,” is supposed to originate in distant storms of wind.
The Rivers in the Sea
Currents in the ocean arise from various causes. They may be produced by long-continued gales of wind, by the melting of polar ice, or by any cause that may give rise to onward movements of limited portions of the great mass of waters. Other currents, and of these only is it necessary to speak in this connection, are permanent. The most remarkable of these are the polar currents and the equatorial currents.
Polar Currents are produced by the perpetual movement of the waters from the poles to the equator. In accordance with the laws of mechanics, an accumulation of the waters takes place on that part of the globe which has the greatest velocity of motion; and as the earth in turning on its axis moves with far greater velocity at the equator, the waters continually flow toward that line from the poles.
Equatorial Currents. This accumulation of the waters at the equator tends to produce the equatorial currents, which consist of the continuous progression of the tropical seas in a westerly direction. When the wave brought by the polar currents arrives—coming as it does from regions where it naturally has less velocity—it does not at once acquire the velocity of the earth’s motion at the equator; and since the rotation of the earth is from west to east, this portion of the water lagging behind forms a stream or current which has an apparent motion from east to west, that is to say, apparent as regards the earth, but real in relation to the adjacent land and water. The trade winds, which in this zone blow constantly in the same direction, lend their aid in maintaining the equatorial current.
The Great Systems of Ocean Currents
An extensive system of currents appears to arise in the Antarctic Ocean. A current of cold water flowing northward joins the equatorial current in the Pacific. Entering the Indian Ocean, it maintains its westerly course until it approaches the shores of Africa; then bending southward it rushes through the Mozambique Channel, and doubling the Cape of Good Hope travels northward until it arrives at the Bight of Benin. This current then joins the equatorial current, and crossing the Atlantic from the coast of Guinea to that of Brazil, it is divided into two branches by the projecting headland of Cape San Roque, one flowing southward and the other northward.
The Gulf Stream. After passing the Island of Trinidad, this great oceanic current enters the Gulf of Mexico, and there acquires a high temperature, and sweeping round that sea it again pours forth into the Atlantic, forming the most powerful of known currents, called the Gulf Stream. Issuing from the Gulf of Mexico, this current of warm water rushes with considerable force through the Bahama Channel; then taking a northerly course it travels along the eastern shores of North America, and at Newfoundland is turned to the eastward by an opposing cold current which sets in from Baffin’s Bay. It now maintains an easterly direction, and crossing the Atlantic arrives at the Azores in about twenty-eight days, and divides its waters on the coast of France and Spain: one portion goes southward and at length joins the grand current which sets from the coast of Guinea; and another portion travels northward and skirts the western coasts of Europe. These currents are seldom more than 500 feet deep.