The Great Foreign Wars of Universal History
In the various wars the victorious contestants are indicated in bold face type, as are also the victorious leaders and the battles won by them. The figures prefixed show with which of the warring parties the leaders are identified, and who were the victors in the battles named. Naval battles are shown in italics. Consult the Table of Foreign Battles for details concerning the more important military actions.
TROJAN WAR (Partly mythical).—1193-1184 B. C.
(1) Greeks vs. (2) Trojans.
Cause: Greeks avenge the abduction of Helen of Troy by Paris.
Leaders: (1) Agamemnon, Achilles, Ulysses; (2) Hector.
Chief Action: (1) Siege of Troy.
Results: Capture and destruction of Troy, or Ilium.
FIRST MESSENIAN WAR.—743-724 B. C.
(1) Spartans vs. (2) Messenians.
Cause: Spartans covet Messenian land.
Leader: (2) Aristodemus.
Chief Action: (1) Siege of Mount Ithome.
Results: Messenians become tributary of Sparta and their land is, in part, confiscated.
SECOND MESSENIAN WAR.—645-628 B. C.
(1) Spartans vs. (2) Messenians.
Cause: Spartan oppression causes Messenian revolt.
Leaders: (1) Tyrtaeus (poet); (2) Aristomenes.
Chief Action: (1) Eira.
Results: Greater part of Messenians flee to Sicily. Those remaining become helots (Spartan serfs).
FIRST SACRED WAR.—600-590 B. C.
(1) Amphictyonic League vs. (2) Crisæans.
Cause: People of the city of Crisa (port of Delphi) oppress pilgrims to the oracle.
Leader: (1) Cleisthenes of Sicyon.
Chief Action: (1) Siege of Crisa.
Results: For the first time Greek cities join in an effective league. Crisa destroyed.
PERSIAN WARS.—500-479 B. C.
(1) Persians vs. (2) Greeks.
Cause: Aid given by Athens and Eretria to revolting Ionic Greek cities, leading to burning of Sardis, 497 B. C.
a. First Persian Expedition—493 B. C.
Leader: (1) Mardonius.
Chief Action: (1) Three hundred ships lost by storm off Mt. Athos.
Results: Partial success against Macedonians and Thracians. Continued plans of Darius for subjugating Greece.
b. Second Persian Expedition—490 B. C.
Leaders: Datis, (1) Artaphernes; (2) Miltiades.
Chief Actions: (1) Naxos, Eretria; (2) Marathon (490 B. C.)
Results: The Athenians are victorious and the Persians retreat to Asia Minor.
c. Third Persian Expedition—481-480 B. C.
Xerxes desires to avenge his father’s defeat.
Leaders: (1) Xerxes; (2) Leonidas, Eurybiades, Themistocles.
Chief Actions: (1) Thermopylæ, Salamis, Artemisium, Athens burned.
Results: Xerxes retreats to Persia after his defeat at Salamis.
d. Fourth Persian Expedition—479 B. C.
War continued by troops which Xerxes left behind.
Leaders: (1) Mardonius; (2) Pausanias, Aristides.
Chief Actions: (1) Athens laid waste; (2) Platæa, Mycale.
Results: All Persian invasions and attempts to subjugate Greece cease.
THIRD MESSENIAN WAR.—464-456 B. C.
(1) Helots of Messenian descent vs. (2) Spartans.
Cause: Confusion following earthquake gives Helots courage to revolt.
Chief Action: (2) Mt. Ithome besieged. Sparta sent home her Athenian allies.
Results: Messenians capitulate and are allowed to leave the Peloponnesus never to return. Athens retaliates by settling them at Naupactus.
PELOPONNESIAN WAR.—431-404 B. C.
(1) Sparta and Allies vs. (2) Athens and Allies.
a. First Period—431-421 B. C.
Cause: Envy of Sparta and her allies at Athens’ growing power and influence. Discontent among some of the Athenian subject states.
Leaders: (1) Archidamus, Agis, Brasidas; (2) Demosthenes, Cleon, Nicias.
Chief Actions: (1) Invasion of Attica, Plague in Attica, Siege of Platæa, Delium, Amphipolis. (2) Mitylene, Sphacteria.
Results: By the peace of Nicias (421 B. C.) both sides are to restore conquests and prisoners but terms are imperfectly carried out.
b. Second Period or Decelean War—413-404 B. C.
Cause: Sparta takes advantage of Athens’ weakness, resulting from the failure of the expedition to Syracuse, to renew the war.
Leaders: Alcibiades serves Athens, Sparta and Athens in turn. (1) Lysander; (2) Conon.
Chief Actions: (1) Decelea occupied. Attica ravaged. Many subject states of Athens revolt. Notium, Ægospotami, Surrender of Athens; (2) Abydos, Cyzicus, Arginusæ.
Results: The Spartans tear down the walls of Piræus and Athens. Athens loses her foreign possessions and fleet but becomes an independent ally of Sparta. Sparta is now supreme in Greece.
GAULS’ INVASION OF ITALY.—390 B. C.
(1) Gauls vs. (2) Romans.
Cause: Roman people refuse to surrender Roman ambassadors who had aided the Etruscans against the Gauls.
Leaders: (2) M. Manlius, Capitolinus, Camillus.
Chief Actions: (1) Battle of the Allia. Sack of Rome.
Results: Gauls retire on payment of ransom. The overthrow of Rome had no permanent effect on her fortunes.
SECOND SACRED WAR.—c. 355-346 B. C.
(1) Phocians vs. (2) Amphictyons.
Cause: Phocians seize and plunder Delphi because of fine imposed by Amphictyonic Council.
Leaders: (1) Onomarchus; (2) Philip of Macedon.
Results: Thebans and Thessalians invite aid of Philip against Phocians and he takes their place in the Amphictyonic Council.
THIRD SACRED WAR.—339-338 B. C.
(1) Macedonians vs. (2) Athenians, Thebans.
Cause: Amphictyons call in Philip to punish Amphissa, whereupon he seizes Elatea, thereby threatening Athens. Athenians aroused by Demosthenes.
Leaders: (1) Philip of Macedon.
Chief Actions: Chæronea.
Results: Philip gains leadership of Greece. Henceforth Greece is under the control of Macedonia.
SAMNITE WARS.—343-290 B. C.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Samnites.
a. First Samnite War—343-341 B. C.
Cause: A duel between two rival races for supremacy in Italy. Campanians implore aid of Romans against Samnites who are laying waste their territories in revenge for aid given the Sidicini of Teanum.
Leaders: (1) Marcus Valerius Corvus, P. Decius Mus.
Results: Capua is retained by the Romans and Teanum surrendered to Samnites.
b. Second or Great Samnite War—326-304 B. C.
Cause: The occupation of Palaeopolis by the Samnites. In 311 B. C. the Etruscan cities joined in the war against Rome.
Leaders: (1) Papirius Cursor; (2) Fabius Rullianus Gavius Pontius.
Chief Actions: (1) Fregellæ, Sutrium, Lake Vadimonis, Bovianum; (2) Caudine Forks.
Results: Samnites sue for peace. They resign all their conquests but retain their independence within their native mountains.
c. Third Samnite War—298-290 B. C.
Cause: While Romans are engaged with the Gauls the Samnites enter Lucania and refuse to withdraw.
Leaders: (1) Q. Fabius Rullianus, P. Decius Mus (son); (2) Gellius Egnatius, Gavius Pontius.
Chief Action: (1) Sentinum.
Result: Samnites defeated but not crushed.
WARS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN ASIA—334-328 B. C.
(1) Greeks vs. (2) Persians, Egyptians, Bactrians, Indians (Hindus).
Cause: A war of conquest, a scientific expedition and a journey of discovery.
Leaders: (1) Alexander the Great, Nearchus; (2) Darius III., Memnon.
Chief Actions: (1) Granicus, Issus, Siege of Tyre, Arbela.
Results: Alexander conquers Asia from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River and from the Arabian Sea to the Jaxartes River and begins the Hellenizing of the East. Founds Alexandria in Egypt. The empire breaks up after Alexander’s death 323 B. C.
ROMAN WAR WITH TARENTUM AND EPIRUS.—282-272 B. C.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Tarentum and King Pyrrhus.
Cause: The people of Tarentum capture Roman ships and insult Roman embassy. They call in King Pyrrhus of Epirus.
Leaders: (1) Manius Curius; (2) Pyrrhus.
Chief Actions: (1) Beneventum, Tarentum; (2) Heraclea, Asculum.
Results: Pyrrhus returns to Epirus and his allies one by one submit to Rome, which is left supreme from Straits of Messina to the River Arno and the headland of Ancona.
FIRST PUNIC WAR.—264-241 B. C.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.
Causes: A struggle for supremacy in Sicily. Pretext, Campanian mercenaries, having seized Messina, appeal to Rome for aid.
Leaders: (1) C. Duilius, M. Atilius Regulus, P. Claudius Pulcher, C. Lutatius Catulus; (2) Hamilcar Barca, Himilco, Hanno.
Chief Actions: (1) Agrigentum, Mylæ, Ecnomus, Panormus, Ægadian Islands; (2) Siege of Lilybæum, Drepana.
Results: Carthaginians surrender Sicily and pay a war indemnity. Carthage retains the Western Mediterranean and Rome is launched on her career of conquest.
SECOND PUNIC WAR.—218-201 B. C.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.
Causes: A duel to the death between East and West. Pretext, Hannibal’s attacks on Saguntum in Spain.
Leaders: (1) Q. Fabius Maximus, Publius Scipio, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus; (2) Hannibal, Hasdrubal.
Chief Actions: (1) Syracuse, Capua, Metaurus, Zama; (2) Ticinus, Trebia, Trasimene, Cannæ.
Results: Hannibal succumbs as a result of the loyalty of Italy. Carthage forced to give up Spain, to pay an annual tribute, to surrender her fleet, and to agree not to go to war without the permission of Rome.
FOUR MACEDONIAN WARS.—214-146 B. C.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Greeks.
Cause: Alliance of Philip, King of Macedon with Carthage.
Leaders: (1) T. Quinctius Flaminius, L. Aemilius Paulus; (2) Philip of Macedon, Perseus.
Chief Actions: (1) Cynoscephalæ, Pydna.
Result: Macedonia becomes a Roman province.
THIRD PUNIC WAR—149-146 B. C.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.
Cause: War of Carthage with Massinissa gives Rome the pretext for completing the destruction of Carthage.
Leaders: (1) Scipio, Æmilianus, Africanus.
Chief Actions: (1) Siege of Carthage.
Result: Carthage destroyed. Most of her territory becomes a Roman province of Africa.
JUGURTHINE WAR.—111-105 B. C.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Jugurtha of Numidia.
Cause: Jugurtha, disregarding intervention of Rome, captures Citra and massacres male population.
Leaders: (1) C. Marius; (2) Jugurtha.
Chief Actions: (1) Muthul, Citra.
Results: Numidia divided. The war reveals the corruption and incapacity of the Senatorial government of Rome.
MARSIAN OR SOCIAL WAR.—90-88 B. C.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Italian Allies.
Cause: Italian socii (allies) are denied the right of Roman citizenship.
Leader: (1) C. Marius, Sulla.
Chief Action: (1) Asculum.
Result: Italians form a Federal republic, Italia, with capital at Corfinium. Roman citizenship granted to all Italian residents.
FIRST ROMAN CIVIL WAR—88-82 B. C.
(1) Optimates vs. (2) Democrats.
Cause: Reform measures of Sulpicius are carried by means of violence. Command of army of Asia is transferred from Sulla to Marius.
Leaders: (1) Sulla, Pompey; (2) Marius, Cinna, Sertorius, Carbo.
Chief Actions: Sacriportis, Colline, Gate, Sulla’s proscriptions; (2) Marius’s Reign of Terror.
Result: Sulla is appointed dictator.
THREE MITHRIDATIC WARS—88-63 B. C.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Pontines and Armenians.
Causes: Ambition of Mithridates VI. and Roman interference.
Leaders: (1) Sulla, Lucullus, Pompey; (2) Mithridates (Pontus), Tigranus (Armenia).
Chief Actions: (1) Chæronea, Orchomenus, Cabira, Tigranocerta; (2) Massacre of Italians in Asia.
Results: Reorganization of the East; Pontus, Syria and Cilicia become Roman provinces.
GLADIATORIAL AND THIRD SERVILE WAR.—73-71 B. C.
(1) Romans vs. Revolted Gladiators and Slaves.
Cause: Uprising of a band of gladiators, escaped from Capua and joined by many slaves of southern Italy.
Leaders: (1) Crassus, Pompey; (2) Spartacus.
Chief Actions: (1) Silarus; (2) Mt. Vesuvius.
Results: Revolt put down with cruelty, six thousand crucified.
GALLIC WAR—58-51 B. C.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Tribes of Gaul.
Cause: Desire to extend the Roman empire.
Leaders: (1) Julius Cæsar; (2) Vercingetorix, Ariovistus.
Chief Action: (1) Siege of Alesia.
Results: Conquest and organization of Gaul by Cæsar. Gauls Romanized; boundaries of the old world enlarged (Cæsar’s expedition to Britain 55-54 B. C.); means acquired for changing Rome into a monarchy.
SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR.—49-31 B. C.
First period, 49-45 B. C.
(1) Followers of Cæsar (democrats) vs. (2) Followers of Pompey (republican aristocrats).
Cause: Struggle for mastery between Cæsar, conqueror of Gaul, and Pompey, conqueror of the East.
Leaders: (1) Cæsar; (2) Pompey and his sons.
Chief Actions: (1) “Crossing the Rubicon,” Pharsalus, Thapsus, Munda.
Result: Cæsar is appointed dictator for life. He is the founder of the new monarchy at Rome.
Second period—43-42 B. C.
(1) Friends of Cæsar (Second Triumvirate) vs. (2) Cæsar’s Assassins.
Cause: Assassination of Cæsar, 44 B. C.
Leaders: (1) Antony, Octavius, Lepidus; (2) Brutus, Cassius, Sextus Pompey.
Chief Actions: (1) New proscription (Murder of Cicero), Philippi.
Result: Brutus and Cassius, defeated, commit suicide.
Third period—31-30 B. C.
(1) Octavius vs. (2) Antony.
Cause: A continued struggle for supreme power.
Leaders: (1) Octavius; (2) Antony, Cleopatra.
Chief Actions: (1) Actium.
Results: Triumph of Octavius, grand nephew of Julius Cæsar. End of the republic and beginning of the empire.
JEWISH WAR—A. D. 66-70.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Jews.
Cause: Revolt of the Jews against Rome.
Leader: (1) Titus, son of Emperor Vespasian.
Chief Action: (1) Siege of Jerusalem.
Result: Destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.
DACIAN WARS.—86-90, 101-102, 105-107.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Dacians.
Cause: Rome desires to extend her conquests.
Leaders: (1) Domitian, Trajan; (2) Decebalus.
Results: Dacia is made a Roman province. Roman conquest and empire reaches its highest point.
CIVIL WARS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.—193-284.
Causes: Contests for the throne among rival generals (barrack emperors).
Result: Reorganization of empire by Diocletian (284-305).
WARS OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT FOR THE EMPIRE.—310-323.
(1) Constantine vs. (2) Others, Augusti.
Causes: Confusion following abdication of Diocletian.
Leaders: (1) Constantine; (2) Maxentius, Maximinus, Licinius.
Chief Action: (1) Turin.
Results: Constantine becomes sole ruler of Roman empire. He redistricts the empire, moves the capital to Constantinople and recognizes Christianity.
INVASION OF ROMAN EMPIRE BY NORTHERN BARBARIANS—375-493.
(1) Romans vs. (2) Teutons and (Huns), Teutonic Tribes; Visigoths, Vandals, Suevi, Franks, Burgundians, Ostrogoths, Alemanni, Jutes, Saxons, Angles, Lombards.
Causes: The Huns (Mongolians) press upon the Teutons, who are forced to seek new lands within the boundaries of the Roman empire.
Leaders: (1) Valens, Stilicho Ætius, Leo (bishop of Rome); (2) Alaric; Walja (Visigoth); Genseric (Vandal); Hengist and Horsa (Saxons); Attila (Hun); Theodoric the Great (Ostrogoth).
Chief Actions: (1) Battle near Chalons (451); (2) Adrianople, Sack of Rome.
Results: Visigothic kingdom of Tolosa (Toulouse) (415-507). Vandals settle in Africa (429-534). Carthage (439).
Burgundians occupy Rhone Valley (443).
Angles, Saxons and Jutes invade England (449), Huns and Ostrogoths ravage Gaul.
Huns destroy Aquileia and Venice founded (452).
Vandals plunder Rome (455).
Odoacer gains ascendency in Rome. The fall of the Roman empire (476).
Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy (493-555).
Overthrow of the Roman empire in the West, though it continued in the East until 1453. This blending of Roman and Teutonic elements under the influence of the Christian religion and what remained of classic civilization formed the civilization of the middle ages.
WARS OF JUSTINIAN—533-534.
(1) Eastern Empire vs. (2) Vandals in Africa and (3) Ostrogoths in Italy—535-555.
Cause: Desire to restore West to Eastern empire.
Leaders: (1) Belisarius, Narses; (3) Vitiges Totila.
Chief Action: (1) Battle of Taginae (552).
Results: Destruction of Vandal power in Africa and of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy. Exarchate established at Ravenna.
WARS OF THE FRANKS—486-814.
(1) Franks vs. (2) Neighboring Peoples.
Causes: Desire to extend the limits of Frankish territory and to ward off attacks from without.
Leaders: (1) Clovis (486-511), Charles Martel (814-741), Pepin the Short (751-768), Charlemagne (768-814).
Chief Actions: (1) Soissons (486), Clovis conquers Alemanni and becomes a Catholic Christian (496), Battle of Tours (732), Conquest of Burgundy (534), Charlemagne conquers Lombards (774-776), Saxons (772-804), Bavarians (788), Avars (791), Northern Spain (778).
Results: Franks become leading power in the West and revive the Western Empire. (Christmas day, 800).
HEPTARCHIC WARS IN ENGLAND—588-828.
Causes: Struggle for supremacy among the seven Teutonic kingdoms.
Leaders: Ethelbert (Kent), Edwin (Northumbria), Offa (Mercia), Egbert (Wessex).
Chief Events: The supremacy was successively held by kings of Kent, Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex, Maserfield (642), Ellandun (825).
Result: All England at last united under Egbert, king of Wessex (802-837).
SARACEN OR MOHAMMEDAN WARS—632-1492.
Cause: Saracens are ambitious to found a world wide Mohammedan empire.
Leaders: (1) Omar, Amru, Hassan, Mousa, Tarik, Abderrahman, Mohammed II., Abdallah; (2) Yezdegerd (Persia), Leo the Isaurian, Charles Martel, Constantine, Palæologus, Ferdinand of Aragon.
Chief Actions: (1) Yarmouk (Syria), Damascus Jerusalem Cadesia (Persia), Alexandria, Carthage (697), Xeres (Spain), Granada, Toledo; (2) Constantinople (716), Tours, Jerusalem, Las Navas de Tolosa (1212).
(1) Constantinople (1453).
(2) Granada (1492).
Results: The Saracens attempted to conquer and convert Europe at three different times between 710 and 1492. Their power began to wane from the latter date.
NORTHMEN INVASIONS—Ninth and Tenth Centuries.
(1) Northmen vs. (2) People of Western and Southern Europe.
Causes: Opportunity for plunder and conquest and later the driving out of adventurous spirits by the organization of settled kingdoms in the north.
Leaders: (1) Hastings, Rolf, Sweyn, Canute; (2) Alfred (England), Odo (France).
Chief Events: In England—Treaty of Wedmore, Massacre of Danes (1002).
In France: Siege of Paris. Grant of Normandy to Rolf (977).
Results: The Northmen are the last swarm of Teutonic conquerors. They readily assimilate civilization and infuse new energy into western Europe.
NORMAN CONQUEST—1066.
(1) Normans vs. (2) English.
Cause: William, duke of Normandy wishes to increase his territory and his power.
Leaders: (1) William the Conqueror; (2) Harold, king of England.
Chief Action: (1) Hastings.
Results: The king received added power and a modified feudalism introduced into England. Southern Italy and Sicily were also conquered by bands of Normans in the eleventh century and the kingdom of Naples founded.
CRUSADES—1096-1270.
(1) European Christians vs. (2) Turks and Moslems.
First Crusade—1096-1099.
Causes: The appeal of the eastern emperor for aid, the desire to recover the Holy Sepulcher from the infidels, the love of adventure, and hope of gain.
Leaders: (1) Peter the Hermit, Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemond of Tarentum, Robert of Normandy.
Chief Actions: (1) Nicæa, Antioch, Jerusalem.
Results: Jerusalem is subdued and a transient kingdom is founded at Jerusalem.
Second Crusade—1147-1149.
Cause: The conquest of Edessa by the Moslems threatens Jerusalem. Preaching of Saint Bernard.
Leaders: (1) Conrad III. of Germany, Louis VII. of France.
Chief Action: Unsuccessful attack on Damascus.
Results: Armies almost annihilated by hunger, disease and the enemy.
Third Crusade—1189-1192.
Cause: Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin.
Leaders: Richard I. of England, Philip Augustus of France, Frederick Barbarossa of Germany; (2) Saladin.
Chief Actions: (1) Acre.
Results: The Latin Christians secure by treaty the privilege of visiting the tomb of Christ for three years without molestation.
Fourth Crusade—1201-1204.
(1) Crusaders vs. (2) Eastern Empire.
Causes: Appeals of Innocent III. Through influence of the Venetians the Crusaders turn aside to attack Constantinople.
Leaders: (1) Dandolo, Doge of Venice, Baldwin of Flanders.
Chief Action: (1) Sack of Constantinople.
Results: Division of eastern empire. The Venetians get the monopoly of trade and most of the islands and coast lands of the Ægean and Ionian seas. The remainder is erected into a feudal state, the Latin empire.
Children’s Crusade (legendary)—1212.
Causes: Ignorant enthusiasm aroused by visions and miraculous tales.
Leader: A shepherd lad, Stephen of Vendome.
Chief Events: Thousands of children, women and peasants march from France and Germany to the Mediterranean.
Results: Only a small number return home; the others perish on the way or are sold into slavery by French merchants.
Fifth Crusade—1228-1229.
Cause: Vow of Frederick II. of Germany. He goes under pope’s excommunication.
Leader: (1) Frederick II.
Results: Frederick, by treaty with the sultan, secures a truce for ten years and the restoration of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Jerusalem to the Christians; Jerusalem is finally lost in 1244.
Sixth Crusade—1248-1254.
Cause: Louis IX. of France starts on a crusade via Egypt.
Leaders: (1) Louis IX., later St. Louis.
Chief Actions: (1) Damietta; (2) Expedition to Cairo.
Result: Louis is captured in battle and released on payment of heavy ransom and evacuation of Damietta.
Last, Seventh Crusade—1270-1291.
Causes: Louis IX. goes against Mohammedans of Tunis, Prince Edward of England to Syria.
Leader: (1) Louis IX., Prince Edward.
Chief Events: Death of Louis by the plague; (2) Acre, last Christian stronghold in Syria, falls (1291).
Results: The results of the crusades were development of commerce, introduction of new customs, products and manufactures, increase in freedom of lower classes, especially townsmen, and the power of the crown.
WAR OF THE EMPIRE—1158-1183.
(1) Empire vs. (2) Italian Communes.
Cause: Frederick Barbarossa’s attempt to restore imperial rights over the cities of northern Italy.
Leaders: (1) Frederick I. Barbarossa; (2) Pope Alexander III.
Chief Actions: (1) Milan (1162); (2) Legnano (1176).
Results: By treaty of Constance (1183) the cities of Lombardy are recognized as practically self-governing republics, the barest overlordship remaining to the emperor.
WARS OF THE BARONS IN ENGLAND—1215-1265.
(1) Barons vs. (2) Kings John and Henry III.
Causes: Misgovernment of John and Henry III.
Leaders: (1) Stephen Langton, Simon de Montfort;
(2) King John, Prince Edward, later Edward I.
Chief Events: (1) Signing of Magna Charta, Lewes, Simon de Montfort’s Parliament; (2) Evesham.
Results: The beginning of constitutional monarchy—henceforth the king is below the law, not above it.
HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR—1337-1453.
(1) English vs. (2) French.
Causes: The conflict of interests of the French and English kings in Guienne, Flanders and Scotland. Edward III. advances claim by descent to the throne of France.
Leaders: (1) Edward III., Edward the Black Prince, Prince Henry V., Duke of Bedford; (2) Du Guesclin, Charles V., Joan of Arc.
Chief Actions: (1) Crécy, Calais, Poitiers, Peace of Bretigny, Agincourt, Treaty of Troyes; (2) Orleans (1429), Castillon (1453).
Results: England loses all her land in France except Calais. During the earlier stage of this war about one-third of the population of western Europe perished from the Black Death.
AUSTRO-SWISS WAR—1315-1388.
(1) House of Hapsburg vs. (2) Swiss Confederation.
Causes: Hapsburgs assert feudal rights over the peasants of the Swiss cantons.
Leaders: (1) Leopold III. of Austria; (2) Arnold von Winkelried.
Chief Actions: (2) Morgarten, Sempach, Näfels.
Result: Independence of Swiss secured.
HUSSITE WAR—1419-1436.
(1) Bohemian Followers of John Huss vs. (2) Catholic Europe.
Causes: Execution of John Huss, the Bohemian religious reformer, by the council of Constance.
Leaders: (1) Ziska, Procopius the Great; (2) Emperor Sigismund, Cardinal Cesarini, Frederick of Brandenburg.
Chief Events: Revolt of Prague. Four crusades repulsed.
Results: After the overthrow of the radical Hussites (Taborites) by the conservative Hussites (Calixtines) in the battle of Lipan a Catholic reaction set in which culminated in 1462 with the revocation of the compacts made by the Council of Basel with the Hussites.
WARS OF THE ROSES—1455-1485.
(1) Yorkists (White Rose); vs (2) Lancastrians (Red Rose).
Causes: Misgovernment under Henry VI. encourages Richard, duke of York, representing the second line of descent from Edward III., to claim the throne against Henry VII. (third line).
Leaders: (1) Richard, duke of York, Edward IV., Richard III.; (2) Duke of Somerset, Queen Margaret, Earl of Warwick (“King-maker”), first a Yorkish and then a Lancastrian, Henry VII.
Chief Actions: (1) St. Albans, Northampton, Mortimer’s Cross, Towton, Barnet, Tewkesbury; (2) Wakefield, Bosworth Field.
Results: Henry Tudor (Lancastrian in the female line) secures throne as Henry VII. By his marriage with Elizabeth of York he unites the warring factions and establishes an almost despotic rule in England.
WARS FOR CONTROL OF ITALY—1494-1529.
(1) French vs. (2) Spanish.
Causes: Conflicting claims to the throne of Naples and to the duchy of Milan.
Leaders: (1) Charles VIII., Louis XII., Bayard, Francis I.; (2) Ferdinand of Aragon, Charles V., duke of Bourbon, Fürstenburg.
Chief Actions: Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. (1494), League Cambray (1508), Holy League (1511).
(1) Marignano; (2) Pavia.
Results: All the leading powers of western Europe were drawn into this struggle. By the peace of Cambraes (1529), France renounced her claims to Italy. One effect of these wars was to tie the hands of Charles V. so as to prevent his putting down Lutheranism in Germany.
SCHMALKALDIC WAR—1546-1547.
(1) Charles V. (2) League of Schmalkalden.
Causes: Charles V. attempts to crush Protestantism in Germany.
Leaders: (1) Emperor Charles V., Duke Maurice of Saxony; (2) John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse.
Chief Action: (1) Mühlberg.
Results: Protestantism temporarily crushed. Its recovery in 1552 was followed by the religious peace of Augsburg 1555.
RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE—1562-1598.
(1) Catholics vs. (2) Huguenots (Protestants).
Cause: Massacre of Huguenots at Vassy is a signal for uprising.
Leaders: (1) Duke of Guise, Henry III.; (2) Catherine de Medici, Conde, Coligny, Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.)
Chief Events: (1) Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572); (2) Siege of Paris, Ivry (1590), Henry of Navarre becomes a Catholic (1593). Riots of Image Breakers. Council of Blood.
Results: By the edict of Nantes (1598) the Huguenots are given equal political rights with Catholics, limited freedom of worship, the possession of La Rochelle and other strong places as cities of refuge.
WAR OF LIBERATION IN THE NETHERLANDS—1568-1648.
(1) Spain vs. (2) Revolted provinces in the Netherlands.
Causes: Political and religious tyranny of Spain. Duke of Alva enforces the Inquisition.
Leaders: (1) Duke of Alva, Alexander of Parma; (2) William of Orange, Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, Maurice of Nassau.
Chief Actions: (1) Mechlin, Haarlem; (2) Brill, Siege of Leyden, “Spanish Fury” at Antwerp, Pacification of Ghent (1576), Union of Utrecht (1579), Declaration of Independence (1581).
Results: By the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the independence of the seven northern provinces, the United Netherlands, is recognized. The ten southern provinces continue under Spanish rule until 1713.
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR—1618-1648.
(1) German Protestants and their Allies, England, Holland, Sweden and France vs. (2) Imperial German Catholics and their Allies, Spain, Italy.
Causes: Disputes over interpretation of peace of Augsburg (religious and political disputes leading to the revolt of Bohemia). The war passes through four phases: (1) Bohemian-Palatinate, (2) Danish, (3) Swedish, (4) Swedish-French.
Leaders: (1) Frederick, Elector Palatine, Mansfield, Gustavus Adolphus (Sweden), Turenne and Conde (France); (2) Emperor Ferdinand II., Maximilian of Bavaria, Tilly, Wallenstein.
Chief Actions: (1) Stralsund, Edict of Restitution, Breitenfeld, Lützen; (2) White Hill, Magdeburg, Nōrdlingen.
Results: This war is closed by the peace of Westphalia. Alsace thereby goes to France, Switzerland is separated from the empire and the Palatinate is divided. The secularized lands of northern Germany are secured to Protestantism, while leaving to Catholicism Austria, Bohemia and Bavaria. Germany is left desolate.
CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND—1642-1649.
(1) Royalists (Cavaliers) vs. (2) Parliamentarians (Roundheads) allied with Scots (to 1647).
Causes: Charles I. attempts to force a personal government on England. His disputes with Parliament covered (1) taxation, (2) privileges of Parliament, (3) religion, (4) control of the militia.
Leaders: (1) Charles I., Prince Rupert, Montrose; (2) Cromwell, Essex, Fairfax, Leslie.
Chief Actions: (2) Marston Moor, Naseby, Preston.
Results: The second civil war (1648) determines the army leaders to bring Charles I. to trial and execution (1649). A Commonwealth was then established without King or House of Lords but with Oliver Cromwell as Protector (1653 to 1659). The son of Charles I. restored in 1660 as Charles II.
FIRST THREE WARS OF LOUIS XIV.—1667-1697.
(1) France vs. a. Spanish Netherlands; b. Dutch republic; c. Grand Alliance (German States, England, Holland).
Causes: Louis XIV.’s passion for fame and desire to increase French territory in Europe.
Leaders: (1) Turenne, Conde, Luxembourg; (2) William III., De Ruyter.
Chief Actions: (1) Ravaging of Palatinate, Steenkirke, Neerwinden; (2) Sasbach, La Hogue, Namur.
Result: Extension of boundaries of France to the northeast.
SPANISH SUCCESSION (in America), QUEEN ANNE’S WAR—1701-1714.
(1) France, Spain and Bavaria vs. (2) Austria, England, Holland, Portugal, Savoy.
Causes: Acceptance by Louis XIV. of the bequest of the Spanish dominion to his grandson, Philip of Anjou, in violation of the partition treaty to which he had consented.
Leaders: (1) Vendome Villars, Leopold of Dessau; (2) Duke of Marlborough, Eugene of Savoy, Heinsius.
Chief Actions: (2) Gibraltar, Blenheim, Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde, Malplaquet.
Results: By the peace of Utrecht in 1713 and that of Rastadt in 1714 Spain and the Indies go to Philip of Anjou; Naples, Milan, Sardinia and former Spanish Netherlands to the Austrians. England receives Newfoundland, Acadia and Hudson Bay Territory from France and Gibraltar from Spain.
NORTHERN WAR—1700-1721.
(1) Sweden vs. (2) Russia, Poland, Denmark, Saxony.
Causes: Peter the Great joins Poland, Denmark and Saxony for the purpose of despoiling Sweden, the first power of the north, of her Baltic ports.
Leaders: (1) Charles XII.; (2) Peter the Great (Russia), Augustus II. of Saxony.
Chief Actions: (1) Invasion of Denmark, Narva, Invasion of Saxony; (2) Pultava.
Results: By the peace of Nystadt (1721) Sweden cedes large territories to Russia. Russia takes the place of Sweden as the foremost power of the north.
WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION—1740-1748.
(1) Austria, supported by Hungary, Bohemia, England, Holland and Saxony vs. (2) Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria.
Causes: When Maria Theresa succeeded her father, Charles IV. of Austria, Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia. This precipitated a struggle for Austrian territories. At the death of Charles VI. of Austria the right of Maria Theresa to the throne is contested chiefly by Frederick the Great of Prussia, who seizes Silesia.
Leaders: (1) Maria Theresa, George II. of England, Charles of Lorraine; (2) Frederick the Great of Prussia, Emperor Charles VII., Schwerin.
Chief Actions: (1) Dettingen; (2) Mollwitz, Chotusitz, Prague, Fontenoy, Hohenfriedburg, Soor.
Results: By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Silesia is secured to Prussia, which state now becomes a great European power. This war is one phase of the long rivalry between France and Great Britain for sea power and dominion in America and India.
SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, OR THIRD SILESIAN WAR;
In America: FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR—1756-1763.
(1) England, Prussia vs. (2) France, Austria, Russia and Spain, Sweden.
Causes: Maria Theresa wishes to regain Silesia. Hostilities between French and English in America and India. George II.’s concern for his ancestral territory of Hanover.
Leaders: (1) Frederick the Great, Duke of Cumberland, Wolfe (America), Robert Clive (India); (2) Daun (Austria), Charles of Lorraine, Montcalm (America).
Chief Actions: (1) Dresden, Rossbach, Leuthen, Zorndorf, Minden; (2) Kolin, Hohkirchen, Kunersdorf.
In America: (1) Louisburg, Fort Duquesne, Quebec.
In India: (1) Plassey, Wandewash.
Results: The peace of Paris (1763) gives England Canada, the supremacy in India and certain islands, especially in the West Indies. Prussia retains Silesia. This war really founded the British empire which is based on sea power and colonial dominion.
WARS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION—1792-1802.
(1) Revolutionary France vs. (2) Coalitions of England, Austria, Prussia, Holland and Spain. The Empire, Russia.
a. First Coalition—1792-1797.
Causes: Intrigues of emigrés; horror of Europe at the execution of the king; French offer of aid to revolutionists in other countries.
Leaders: (1) Dumouriez, Kellermann, Jourdan, Hoche, Pichegru, Napoleon Bonaparte, Moreau; (2) Duke of Brunswick, Coburg, Charles of Austria.
Chief Actions: (1) Valmy, Occupation of Nice and Savoy, Jemmapes, Execution of king (1793), Annexation of Belgium, Fleurus, Lodi, Siege of Mantua; (2) Mainz, Neerwinden, Kaiserslautern, Wurzburg.
Results: By peace of Campo Formio (1797) the French frontier is advanced to the Rhine, Venice is given to Austria and the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics founded in Italy under French control.
b. Bonaparte’s Egyptian Expedition—1798-1799.
Causes: Bonaparte aims to prepare the way to attack Great Britain’s power in India and dreams of rivaling early conquerors of the east.
Leaders: (1) Napoleon Bonaparte; (2) Nelson (England).
Chief Actions: (1) Battle of the Pyramids; (2) Battle of the Nile at Aboukir, Acre.
Results: Nelson’s victory removes a serious menace to British power in India, cuts off the French in Egypt and deprives France of communication with its best troops and ablest general.
c. Second Coalition—1799-1802.
Causes: The mistakes of the government of the Directory and the prestige of Nelson’s victory enable Great Britain to form the Second Coalition.
Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Joubert, Moreau; (2) Suvaroff, Melas, Archduke John.
Chief Actions: (1) Marengo, Hohenlinden; Napoleon’s passage of the Alps (Great St. Bernard); (2) Novi.
Results: The Peace of Presburg ends the contest between France and Austria. Much harsher terms are imposed on Austria. Peace of Luneville with Austria (1801); Peace of Amiens with England (1802); Surrender of England’s conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon; Malta to be restored to Knights of Malta.
NAPOLEONIC WARS—1802-1815.
(1) France under Napoleon vs. (2) European Powers led by England.
a. Third Coalition—1805.
Causes: Neither England nor France regarded the peace of Amiens as more than a truce. Among the many causes of friction leading to renewal of war, chief place was given to England’s refusal to restore Malta.
Leaders: (1) Napoleon; (2) Nelson, Mack, Alexander I. (Russia), Kutusoff.
Chief Actions: (1) Ulm, Austerlitz; (2) Trafalgar.
Results: As a result of his brilliant successes, Napoleon, in 1802 becomes consul for life and in 1804 took the title emperor of the French. Confirmation of treaty of Campo Formio, with the recognition of Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine and Ligurian republics.
b. (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia—1806-1807.
Chief Actions: (1) Double battle of Jena and Auerstädt, Berlin decree, Eylau (indecisive), Friedland.
Results: By the treaties of Tilsit (1807) Russia recognizes Napoleon’s relatives as kings of Naples, Holland and Westphalia and consents to the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the grand duchy of Warsaw under Napoleon’s control. Alexander and Napoleon combine to dominate Europe. Prussia cedes territories containing half her population.
c. Peninsular War—1808-1814.
Causes: Rebellion of Spain against Joseph Bonaparte, whom Napoleon had placed on the throne.
Leaders: (1) Soult, Massena; (2) Duke of Wellington.
Chief Actions: (1) Corunna; (2) Talavera, Lines of Torres Vedras, Albuera, Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse.
Results: French expelled from the peninsula.
d. Fifth War with Austria—1809.
Leaders: (1) Napoleon; (2) Archduke Charles.
Chief Actions: (1) Aspern,, Wagram.
Results: Austria cedes thirty-two thousand square miles of territory, containing three and one-half million inhabitants.
e. Invasion of Russia—1812.
Cause: Alexander’s refusal to enforce Napoleon’s continental system, and other causes of dispute.
Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Marshal Ney; (2) Kutusoff, Barclay de Tolly.
Chief Actions: (1) Smolensk, Borodino. Burning of Moscow, Retreat from Moscow, Passage of the Beresina.
Result: Less than twenty thousand of the half million men in Napoleon’s army recrossed the Russian frontier.
f. War of Liberation—1813-1814.
Causes: The disastrous Russian campaign, together with the steady progress of the British in the peninsular war encouraged the oppressed states of Germany to rise against Napoleon’s tyranny, Prussia taking the lead.
Leaders: (1) Napoleon,, Ney, Macdonald; (2) Frederick, William III., Francis I., Alexander I., Schwarzenberg, Blücher, Bernadotte.
Chief Actions: (1) Lützen, Bautzen, Dresden; (2) Dennewitz, Leipzig, (Battle of the Nations). Allies enter Paris.
Results: Driven from Russia in 1812, from Germany in 1813, Napoleon in 1814 was forced to surrender France itself. By the treaty of Fontainebleau he was given the Island of Elba and an annual revenue of two million francs.
g. Waterloo Campaign—1815.
Causes: Quarrels among the allies and dissatisfaction of French with Louis XVIII. tempt Napoleon to return from Elba.
Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Ney; (2) Wellington, Blücher.
Chief Actions: Napoleon lands at Cannes (March 1); enters Paris March 20.
(1) Ligny; (2) Quatre Bras, Waterloo (June 18).
Results: Waterloo marks the final downfall of Napoleon. He is transported to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. In the Congress of Vienna the allies reconstructed Europe, restoring in general the legitimate rulers and erecting barriers against democratic movements and liberal ideas.
WAR OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE—1821-1829.
(1) Greeks, aided by England, Russia and France vs. (2) Turks.
Causes: Revived feeling of Greek nationality, stimulated by a widespread secret society working for a restoration of a Greek empire at Constantinople.
Leaders: (1) Ypsilanti, Diebitsch (Russia), Codrington (England), Byron (England); (2) Ibrahim, Pasha.
Chief Actions: Massacre of Greeks at Chios.
(1) Navarino, Adrianople; (2) Missolonghi.
Results: The treaty of Adrianople, 1829, compelled Turkey to acknowledge the independence of Greece, which chose as king the Bavarian prince Otto I.
CRIMEAN WAR—1854-1856.
(1) Russia vs. (2) Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and Sardinia.
Causes: The question of the political status and future of the lands of the Turkish empire. Immediate cause, the claim of Russia to a protectorate over all Greek Christians living under the sultan’s rule.
Leaders: (1) Mentchikoff, Gortchakoff; (2) Canrobert, Pelissier (France), Raglan, Simpson (England).
Chief Actions: (1) Balaclava; (2) Alma, Siege of Sebastopol, Inkermann.
Results: In the peace of Paris (1856) Russia’s claim to a protectorate is disallowed, the Danube is opened to navigation and the Black Sea is closed to war vessels of all powers.
SEPOY MUTINY—1857-1858.
(1) Sepoys vs. (2) English.
Causes: Uneasiness created by the rapid progress of British ways and rule causes a revolt of native Sepoy troops of India. Immediate cause the rumor that cartridges furnished troops were greased with a mixture of hog and beef fat—the one animal an object of loathing to Mohammedans, the other of religious worship to the Hindu.
Leaders: (1) Nana Sahib; (2) Nicholson, Havelock, Campbell.
Chief Actions: Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut.
(1) Massacre at Cawnpore; (2) Delhi, Relief of Lucknow.
Results: Following the suppression of the mutiny the charter of the East India company is revoked and India passes directly under the crown, a secretary of state for India being added to the British ministry.
WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION—1859.
(1) Sardinia-Piedmont and France vs. (2) Austria.
Causes: Since 1848 Sardinia-Piedmont had been the center of the movement for Italian unity. Following promises of aid from Napoleon III. Cavour traps Austria into declaring war over the question of disarmament.
Leaders: (1) Victor Emmanuel, Napoleon III., Garibaldi; (2) Francis Joseph II., Gyulay.
Chief Actions: (1) Montebello, Magenta, Solferino. Peace signed at Zurich, November 10, 1859.
Results: By this war Victor Emmanuel gained Lombardy. In 1860 Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the papal legations were added. In 1861 he gained Sicily and Naples, together with the title King of Italy. Venetia followed as a result of alliance with Prussia in 1866 and the addition of Rome in 1871 completed the unification of Italy.
DANISH WAR—1864.
(1) Austria and Prussia vs. (2) Denmark.
Causes: Incorporation of the duchy of Schleswig with Denmark in violation of treaty of 1852.
Leaders: (1) Gablenz (Austria), Prince Frederick, Charles (Prussia); (2) Dermeza, Gerlach.
Chief Actions: (1) Invasion of Jutland, Storming of Düppel.
Results: Denmark gives up Schleswig-Holstein, which is jointly administered by Austria and Prussia.
AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR—1866.
(1) Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy vs. (2) Austria, Hanover, Saxony, and South German States.
Causes: Friction over Schleswig-Holstein enables Bismarck to force Austria into a war for supremacy in Germany.
Leaders: (1) William I., Prince Frederick, Charles, Moltke, Victor Emmanuel; (2) Benedek, Archduke Albert, Gablenz, Prince Charles of Bavaria.
Chief Actions: In Bohemia: (1) Soor, Koniggrätz or Sadowa; (2) Trautenau. In the West: (1) Aschaffenburg; (2) Langensala. In Italy: (2) Custozza, Lissa.
Results: Closed with the peace of Prague, August 23, 1866, which authorized the re-establishment of the federated German states, excluding Austria; Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, and her rights in Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia. Hanover, Hesse, Nassau are also annexed to Prussia.
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR—1870-1871.
(1) France vs. (2) Prussia supported by all German States.
Causes: Jealousy of France at Prussian gains and friction over Hohenzollern candidacy for the throne of Spain. Bismarck’s falsification of the “Ems dispatch” tricked France into a declaration of war.
Leaders: Napoleon III., MacMahon, Bazaine; (2) William I., Moltke, Prince Frederick Charles, Crown Prince Frederic William.
Chief Actions: (1) Saarbrucken; (2) Weissenberg, Wörth, Vionville, Gravelotte, Sedan, Capitulation of Metz, Orleans, Capitulation of Paris.
Results: Closed in 1871 with the treaty of Versailles with the following results: (1) The French military power was destroyed; (2) the western frontier of Germany was rendered secure; (3) The German empire was established; (4) Germany acquired Alsace and Lorraine. In France Napoleon III. is deposed and the Third Republic established, 1870.
RUSSO-TURKISH WAR—1877-1878.
(1) Russia vs. (2) Turkey.
Causes: Turkish misgovernment and revolts in her Christian subject provinces, which were barbarously put down (“Bulgarian atrocities”) arouse all Europe but Russia alone declares war.
Leaders: (1) Grand Duke Nicholas, Gurka, Grand Duke Michael, Alexander II.; (2) Suleiman Pasha, Osman Pasha, Mukhitar Pasha.
Chief Actions: (1) Passages of the Danube at Shitova, Shipka Pass, Plevna, Storm of Kars.
Results: By the peace of San Stefano as revised in the congress of the powers at Berlin, Montenegro, Servia and Roumania become independent; Bulgaria remains tributary but receives a Christian prince; Russia obtains large indemnity and part of Armenia and also Bessarabia.
CHINESE-JAPANESE WAR—1894-1895.
(1) Japan vs. (2) China.
Causes: Rival claims to suzerainty over Korea.
Leaders: (1) Ito, Yamagata, Oyama, Nogi; (2) Tso, Yeh, Wei.
Chief Actions: Yalu River, Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei, Niuchwang.
Results: Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed April 17, 1895, removed Korea from Chinese influence; ceded Formosa and the Pescadores to Japan, and awarded to the latter an indemnity of $180,000,000.
SOUTH AFRICAN OR BOER WAR—1899-1902.
(1) Great Britain vs. (2) Transvaal, Orange Free State.
Causes: Resistance by the Boers to the British form of government in the Transvaal.
Leaders: (1) Sir George White Buller, Methuen, Roberts, Kitchener, French; (2) Cronje, Botha, De Wet, Delarey.
Chief Actions: (1) Siege of Ladysmith, Paardeberg; (2) Colenso, Spion Kop, Vaal Krantz, Magersfontein.
Result: Boers surrendered May 31, 1902; are granted the right of self-government under British sovereignty, and united with other self-governing British colonies in South Africa, in 1910, to form the Union of South Africa.
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR—1904-1905.
(1) Japan vs. (2) Russia.
Causes: Russian encroachments in Manchuria, and their fortification of Port Arthur.
Leaders: (1) Togo, Kuroki, Oku, Nodzu, Oyama, Nogi; (2) Kuropatkin, Alexieff, Makaroff, Stoessel, Stakelberg, Linievitch.
Chief Actions: (1) Port Arthur and Chemulpo, Vladivostok, Yalu River, Dalny, Siege of Port Arthur, Mukden, Sea of Japan.
Results: Closed September 5, 1905, by treaty of Portsmouth by which Korea passes under control of Japan, China regains Manchuria, and Japan is granted important railroad rights.
BALKAN WAR—1912-1913.
(1) Montenegro, Bulgaria, Servia and Greece vs. (2) Turkey.
Causes: Discontent with Turkish rule in Macedonia.
Leaders: (1) Savoff, Dimitrieff, Putnik, Constantine; (2) Nazim Pasha, Mukhtar Pasha, Abdullah Pasha.
Chief Actions: (1) Kirk Kilisseh, Lule Burgas, Monastir.
Results: Turkey appealed to the powers, November 3, 1912, for intervention, and an armistice was signed December 3, 1912, ending one of the shortest and most sanguinary wars in history. The treaty of peace was signed May 30, 1913.
(2) Servia, Greece, Roumania, Turkey vs. Bulgaria.
Causes: Disputes over the division of Macedonia.
Chief Actions: Mainly astounding atrocities and the re-occupation of Adrianople by Turkey.
Results: Reorganization of the Balkan states. Albania was made independent under an international commission of control; Crete was ceded to Greece; Macedonia was divided among Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria; and Roumania gained a strip from the northwest of Bulgaria. On September 17, 1913, an agreement between Bulgaria and Turkey provided that the latter retain Adrianople, Kirk Kilisseh, and Dimotika. September 28 the treaty between Bulgaria and Turkey was signed at Constantinople.
EUROPEAN WAR—1914-1917.
(1) Entente Allies (Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Belgium, Servia, Montenegro, Roumania, Portugal, Japan) vs. (2) Teutonic Allies (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria).
Causes: (1) The immediate occasion of this great conflict was the murder of the Crown Prince and Crown Princess of the Austro-Hungarian empire, on June 28, 1914, at Sarajevo, Bosnia, through the alleged instigation of a Servian revolutionary society, called the Narodna Odbrana, which had for its purpose the disrupting of the Austro-Hungarian empire, particularly those parts inhabited largely by Servians and other Slavic races, followed by a demand on the part of the Austro-Hungarian government that Servia suppress the criminal organization and permit the former to co-operate in the inquiry as to the accomplices on Servian territory in the murders of the Prince and Princess. This demand was refused by Servia, which immediately received the support of Russia, France and Great Britain, while Austria-Hungary received the support of Germany, and, later, of Turkey.
(2) The underlying causes were the following:
(a) The policy of Russia (popularly known as Pan-Slavism), an age-long political creed of Russian ambition, to dominate the Balkan countries and extend her dominions to the Bosphorus, the Ægean and the Adriatic.
(b) The ambition of France to regain Alsace-Lorraine, lost to her by the Franco-Prussian war.
(c) The determination of Great Britain to check the growth of Germany, politically, industrially, and especially commercially.
(3) More remote causes, and more specious ones, are alleged to be:
(a) The European political doctrine of the “Balance of Power,” which was the outgrowth of the Napoleonic wars, and received its first stamp of approval at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which settled the important boundaries of the map of Europe for more than half a century afterward. Subsequently, the “great powers” of Europe assumed the point of view that any acquisition of power, territory or population by any one of them entitled all the others to compensation; so that the relative strength and importance might not be disturbed. This rule has been applied to every important war since Napoleon’s time, and any threatened disturbance of this “balance” has always had in it the germ of a general conflict. Hence arose the historic “alliances,” known as the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Triple Entente, comprising France, Russia and Great Britain, on the other.
(b) Militarism, so-called, with its attendant jealousies and obstacles to social and economic reforms, and which might be said to be the direct fruits of the “balance of power” doctrine, as is also the doctrine of the “guaranteed neutrality” of certain small countries of Europe, which astute European diplomacy created for the purpose of “buffer” states.
Military Leaders: (1) Kitchener, French, Haig, Joffre, Grand Duke Nicholas, Kouropatkin, Brusiloff, Admirals Fisher and Jellicoe; (2) Emperor William, Hindenburg, Mackensen, Kluck, Falkenhayn, Archduke Frederick, Hoetzendorf, Crown Prince Frederick William, Admiral Tirpitz, Crown Prince Rupprecht, Enver Pasha.
Chief Theaters of Action: (1) Belgium; (2) Northern France; (3) Poland; (4) Dardanelles; (5) Servia and Balkans; (6) Roumania; (7) Austro-Italian Front; (8) Lithuania; (9) North Sea and Inlets; (10) Mediterranean; (11) German Colonial Possessions throughout the world.
Results: Except for the loss of Germany’s Colonial Possessions, the results of the war to date (1917) largely preponderate in favor of the Teutonic Allies—the land campaigns being almost overwhelmingly in their favor. (See further Great Battles of the World.)
Chronology of Great Events:
1914
June 28.—Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and the Duchess of Hohenberg at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by Servian student.
July 28.—Austria declares war on Servia, and hostilities commence, after Germany and Austria refuse England’s invitation to a conference.
August 1.—Germany formally declares war on Russia, and troops are ordered mobilized.
France mobilizes.
August 3.—Germany declares war on France. German troops enter Belgium.
August 4.—War declared by England on Germany.
August 6.—Austria declares war against Russia.
August 9.—Servia declares war on Germany.
August 11.—Montenegro declares war on Germany.
August 12.—France declares war on Austria-Hungary.
August 12.—England declares war on Austria.
August 23.—Japan in state of war with Germany.
August 25.—Austria declares war on Japan.
August 29.—Austria declares war on Belgium.
August 30.—Paris prepares for a siege.
September 5.—England, France and Russia agree not to treat for peace separately.
October 30.—Russia declares state of war exists with Turkey.
November 5.—Great Britain officially announces state of war with Turkey.
Servia severs diplomatic relations with Turkey.
1915
February 17.—Germans begin submarine campaign by sinking British collier without warning.
February 24.—Britain closes Irish and North channels to all navigation.
March 1.—Great Britain declares virtual blockade of German coast.
March 15.—British council order prohibits all traffic to and from Germany.
May 23.—Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary.
October 14.—Bulgaria declares war on Servia.
1916
August 27.—Italy declares war on Germany.
Roumania entered the war on the side of the allies.
October 11.—Upon demand of Great Britain and France the entire Greek fleet and sea-coast forts were turned over to the allies or dismantled.
December 7.—David Lloyd George accepted British post of Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury.
December 8.—Roumanian army trapped in Prahova Valley, surrendered to General von Mackensen’s forces.
December 12.—Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg announced to the Reichstag that Germany and her allies proposed to enter forthwith into peace negotiations.
1917
February.—The chief occurrences in the opening months of this year were the blockade declared by Germany against the Entente Allies, and the announcement of unrestricted submarine warfare upon neutral shipping to the nations composing that alliance. This course was justified by the German government as a retaliation against the starvation blockade instituted by Great Britain and her allies.