The Continent of North America
Since the beginning of the sixteenth century America has been the general name for the two continents and adjacent islands, forming the main body of land found in the western hemisphere.
Position and Extent.—North America forms the northern section of the “New World” discovered by Columbus. It is separated from Europe by a sea nine hundred and thirty miles broad, from Asia by Bering Strait sixty miles across, and extends from the Arctic Ocean nearly to the equator.
The main mass is triangular in shape, and its outline varied by large peninsulas, broad gulfs and numerous inlets. Development of coast-line, twenty-eight thousand one hundred and thirty miles. Length, four thousand five hundred miles; breadth, three thousand one hundred miles. The area of the continental mainland is estimated at seven million one hundred and forty-six thousand six hundred and forty-one square miles; the entire area, including Greenland, the Arctic Archipelago, the West Indies, Newfoundland, and other islands, at over nine million square miles.
Islands.—It is customary to regard Greenland as a part of America, while the adjacent island of Iceland, though partially in the western hemisphere, is usually associated with Europe. The other principal American islands in the Atlantic are Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Anticosti, Prince Edward Island, Long Island, the Bermudas, the Antilles or West Indies, Joannes, Staten Island and South Georgia.
In the Pacific are the Aleutian Islands, Kadiak, the Alexander and Queen Charlotte groups, Vancouver and other British-Columbian Islands, the Santa Barbara group, Bevilla-Gigedo, the Pearl Islands, and others in the Gulf of Panama, the Galápagos, Juan Fernandez and the associated islets, Chiloe and the Chonos Archipelago. In the Arctic Ocean there are many large but unimportant islands. (See Map of Comparative Size of Islands and Table of Areas.)
Coast-line.—The coast-line of North America on the west is almost everywhere high and rocky. To the south of Puget Sound good harbors are rare, but British Columbia and Alaska have great numbers of good seaports, the coast-line being, in many places, deeply cut with high-walled fjords, or “canals,” and elsewhere sheltered by ranges of high and well-wooded islands. The Atlantic coast, north of New York Bay, is generally rocky and well sheltered with islands, and has abundance of good natural harbors; but south of the parallel of New York the coast of the mainland is almost everywhere low and sandy. Many of the best ports are formed by river-mouths, and have sandbars across their entrances. Nowhere else in the world is there any such extent of low and sandy coast as on the Atlantic and Gulf seaboards of the United States.
Surface.—The western mountain-system of North America comprises a very great number of minor ranges, mostly having a north and south direction. The main chain (Sierra Madre) cannot be said to preserve an unmistakable identity throughout. The Coast Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade Mountains are the most noted of the western parallel ranges; they all lie on the Pacific slope, and contain some of the highest of North American peaks. The elevated plateau called the Great Basin (chiefly in Utah and Nevada), contains the Great Salt Lake and several smaller bodies of strongly saline water, evidently the remains of a much larger lake which once sent its waters to the sea. The eastern or great Appalachian mountain-system has a general direction nearly parallel with the Atlantic coast-line.
North of the St. Lawrence River is seen the vast and complicated Laurentian mountain-system, which extends from the Atlantic westward to near Lake Superior.
The highest summits are Mt. McKinley, in the north; Mt. Harvard, in the Rocky mountains; Mt. Whitney, in the Sierra Nevadas; and Mt. Popocatepetl or Peak of Orizaba, in Mexico. (See Tables of Mountain Peaks.)
Rivers and Lakes.—In the Rocky Mountain region of Canada, the great rivers, Yukon, Fraser, Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Mackenzie, take their rise. Between these mountains and Hudson Bay, a girdle of vast lakes, or inland seas (Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Deer Lake, Winnipeg, and others), form a regular succession running from the Arctic Circle to Lake Superior, the first of a wonderful chain of great sea-like expansions of the Upper St. Lawrence (the others being Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario). North of the St. Lawrence system almost the whole country is thickly studded with lakes, which, with their connecting streams, form a network of important waterways traversable by canoes and boats.
The Atlantic slope of the United States is well supplied with water, and many of its streams afford extensive navigation. The Hudson is noted for its fine scenery; the Potomac is one of the noblest of American rivers; and important streams flowing to the Atlantic are the St. John, the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Merrimac, the Connecticut, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the James, and the St. John’s, nearly all navigable in their lower courses.
The chief rivers flowing to the Gulf of Mexico are the Appalachicola, the Mobile, the Pearl, the great Mississippi, the Sabine, the Trinity, the Brazos, the Colorado of Texas and the Rio Grande.
Of the many large Alaskan rivers the principal are the Yukon and the Kuskoquim. The Fraser is a swift and strong river; the great river Columbia is noted alike for its navigation, its salmon fisheries, and its enormous cataracts. The Rio Colorado, whose waters flow to the Gulf of California, traverses a desert plateau. Here nearly every watercourse runs in a deep-walled cañon, a narrow valley with precipitous sides, often of prodigious height.
In the plateau of Central America the largest lake is that of Nicaragua, nearly equal to Ontario in extent, and only one hundred and thirty-one feet above the level of the sea. (See further under the respective countries of North America.)
Climate.—Largely determined by the direction of the mountain ranges. Five climatic regions, viz., an arctic region, whose mean temperature is less than thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit; an Atlantic temperate region, extending as far as the Mississippi, with abundant rains and dense woods; an inland temperate region, dry, with steppes or prairies; a Pacific coast region, and a tropical region.
Political Divisions.—The political divisions of North America are:
(1) Danish America,[8] which includes Greenland and three small islands of the Virgin group in the West Indies.
[8] The Danish West Indies were transferred to the sovereignty of the United States in 1917 at the purchase price of twenty-five million dollars.
(2) British North America, in which division we may place the Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador, the Bermudas, the numerous British West Indian islands, and British Honduras.
(3) The United States, including the detached territory of Alaska.
(4) Mexico.
(5) The Central American republics of Honduras, Guatemala, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, together with Panama—unless its southern part be regarded as belonging to the South American continent.
(6) The West Indian republics of Hayti and San Domingo.
(7) The Dutch West Indies.
(See the articles on the separate states and colonies.)
The United States
The republic of the United States is by far the most populous, wealthy, and progressive country of all the New World.
Location and Extent.—It occupies the most valuable portion of the North American continent, the whole of it (with the exception of the territory of Alaska) lying within the temperate zone, between Canada on the north and Mexico on the south, and reaching across from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.
Its boundary toward the Canadian Dominion passes through the Haro, or northern channel of the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, south of Vancouver Island, and thence along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude to Lake Superior; then midway through the center of the Great Lakes to the St. Lawrence, and down that river to the forty-fifth parallel, and an irregular boundary which separates New Brunswick from the States of New York and Maine, terminating at Passamaquoddy Bay.
In the south, the Mexican frontier runs from the Pacific coast, northward of the peninsula of California, to the Rio Grande del Norte, which it follows to the Gulf of Mexico.
From Atlantic to Pacific, the breadth of the United States is not less than twenty-five hundred miles; and from north to south the country extends nearly seventeen hundred miles.
Surface.—The surface of the United States from east to west may be divided as follows: (1) The Atlantic Plain, which extends from the coast to the Allegheny Mountains. (2) [580] The Mississippi Valley and Great Central Plain, which extends from the Allegheny Mountains west to the Rocky Mountains. (3) The Western Highlands. (4) The Pacific slope, which extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.
Mountains and Plains.—The chief mountain systems are the Appalachian region in the east and the Rocky Mountains in the west.
The Appalachian System begins in the northern part of New England (in Maine without the appearance of regular ranges) and New York, and extends southwestward to Alabama and Georgia, being divided by the Hudson River valley and Lake Champlain, and that of the Mohawk River into three distinct sections.
A coast-plain extends from its eastern base to the Atlantic. It is narrow in Maine, where it terminates in a bold rocky coast indented by bays, and broken into projecting promontories and islands. South of Massachusetts the coast becomes lower and more sandy, and the plain grows gradually wider, with the exception of a narrow belt at New York, until in North Carolina it attains a width of two hundred miles.
In the southern part of New England it is characterized by hills, and below New York by a distinct coast region and a more elevated slope. This higher region, which is in Virginia and thence southward, is marked by a somewhat abrupt terrace, varies in altitude from a few hundred to more than a thousand feet, and is known as the Piedmont plateau. The lower coast region is seldom more than one hundred feet above the sea. It has a sandy soil, and in many places there are large swamps near the coast. Much of this swampy country is uninhabitable, but when reclaimed, as it has been in many parts of North and South Carolina, it makes valuable rice-land. Many acres of fertile agricultural land have also been secured in Florida by draining its swamps. The middle elevated region is diversified by hills and valleys, and has a productive soil. The dividing line between it and the low coast-plain marks the head of navigation of most of the streams, and also determines the sites of many important towns.
The surface of this region today is a series of parallel ranges divided by fertile valleys. The various ridges are named as follows: The Blue Ridge, which lies nearest the Atlantic; the Kittatinny Chain; the Allegheny Mountains, which lie in the western part of Virginia and the central part of Pennsylvania; the Cumberland Mountains, on the eastern boundary of Tennessee and Kentucky; the Catskill Mountains, in the State of New York, which are continued in the Sacondago Chain; the Green Mountains, in the State of Vermont; the Hudson River Highlands, and the hills of New Hampshire. There is no peak of marked elevation in the Appalachian region, the highest point being Mt. Washington, in New Hampshire, which reaches a height of nearly seven thousand feet.
Great Central Plain.—West of the Appalachian system and lying between it and the western highland is a great central valley, forming part of the continental depression which extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. It is almost an absolute plain, rising gradually from the Gulf toward the chain of Great Lakes in the north, and toward the mountains on the east and west. The only important departure from its uniform level character is an elevation of from five hundred to two thousand feet, running from southern Missouri through northwestern Arkansas into eastern Oklahoma, and known as the Ozark Mountains.
This great valley occupies about one-half the entire area of the United States, and the fertile prairies and bottom-lands of the eastern and central portions make it the most important agricultural basin of the globe. From an irregular line west of the Mississippi River the land rises in an almost imperceptible slope till it reaches the base of the western plateau.
The Rocky Mountain System extends a distance of about two thousand miles. The system is continued in Canada. The Rocky Mountains are not a single range, but are double and sometimes threefold. These ranges are the edge of a region of plateaus and hills which extends to the coastal mountains. The chief mountain ranges belonging to the United States Rockies are the Bitter Root Mountains, the Blue Mountains, and the Big Horn Mountains in the north; the Wahsatch Mountains, the Wind River Mountains, and the White Mountains in the center; and the Sierra Madre and the Sangra de Cristo Range in the south. In the western part of the southern Rockies lies the Great Basin of Colorado, with the Wahsatch Mountains on the east and the Sierra Nevada on the west. This basin is extremely arid, has suffered much volcanic action.
The Western or Pacific System forms a part of the vast elevation which extends from the northern to the southern extremity of the western continent. In the United States it is a great plateau of four thousand to ten thousand feet surmounted by a complex system of ranges, in its widest part more than one thousand miles broad. Of this Cordilleran region the Rocky Mountains form the eastern and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains and the Coast Ranges the western border.
In the ranges of central Colorado alone nearly forty of the summits have an altitude of more than fourteen thousand feet. In the Wind River Mountains, in Wyoming, are the head-waters of the Colorado, the Columbia, and the Mississippi, the three great river-systems of the United States; and in the northwestern corner of the same state is situated the National Park, famous for its hot springs and geysers as well as for its magnificent scenery (see Yellowstone).
Between the Wahsatch Range and the lofty masses of mountains in Colorado is a region of peculiar interest, consisting of level plateaus in which the changes of elevation from one plain to another are marked by abrupt descents and steep cliffs. It is furrowed by cañons or gorges, whose sides are nearly vertical; and the bed of the Colorado is in some places more than a mile and a quarter below the surface of the plateau. (See Grand Cañon under Colorado River.)
Between the Wahsatch Range and the Sierra Nevada lies the Great Basin, an immense tract having at best but little rainfall, except upon the summits of the ranges by which it is traversed, and none of whose waters are drained to either ocean. The saline swamps, salt lakes, and sinks of Nevada indicate the former location of one of these lakes; Great Salt Lake is all that now remains of the other.
The Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range are topographically continuous, and constitute a great mountain-wall, which so far as the height of the peaks and the grandeur of the scenery are concerned, is one of the most striking portions of the Cordilleran system. Most of the peaks of the Sierras are, however, of granite and metamorphic rock, while those of the Cascade Range are volcanic. The greatest altitude is attained with Mt. Whitney as the culminating point. The lofty character of the range is maintained throughout the greater part of California, and the sublimity of the scenery is justly celebrated. (See Yosemite Valley.)
From this point there extends northward one of the most remarkable groups of extinct or faintly active volcanoes to be found anywhere in the world: the lava overflows in this region cover an area of above two hundred thousand square miles. The most prominent peaks are Mt. Shasta, in California, and Mt. Rainier, in Washington. In three separate places rivers have cut a passage through the volcanic portion of the range. The most notable is the passage of the Columbia River in a grand cañon more than three thousand feet in depth.
The Coast Ranges of Washington, Oregon, and northern California consist of numerous and approximately parallel chains, which as a rule pitch off abruptly toward the sea, leaving no coast-plain. Between the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range is a series of broad valleys, occupied mainly in Oregon by the Willamette River, and in California by the Sacramento and San Joaquin. In southern California the mountains of the Coast Ranges diminish in height, but throughout their whole extent they are interspersed with picturesque and fertile valleys.
Coast.—The Atlantic coast has a length of about twelve thousand three hundred and sixty miles; the Gulf Coast of five thousand seven hundred and fifty miles, and the Pacific Coast of three thousand two hundred and fifty miles.
On the coast of the New England states there are many indentations which, though small, furnish commodious harbors. Long Island Sound adds greatly to the commercial importance of New York harbor, and farther south are Delaware and Chesapeake Bays; Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, and several small indentations, such as those which form the harbors of Charleston and Savannah. The Chesapeake Bay is the largest indentation of the Atlantic Coast and runs inland in a northward direction for more than one hundred and eighty miles, with an average breadth of about fifteen miles. From Cape Hatteras to Cape Sable, however, the coast is swampy, and, especially in Florida, fringed with lagoons. The harbors of this part of the coast are not good naturally. The coast of the Gulf of Mexico is low and very swampy, but is of special climatic and commercial importance.
The Pacific Coast of the United States has a very narrow Continental Shelf, and few bays or capes. With the exception of Puget Sound, the Bay of San Francisco, and the harbor of San Diego, there is scarcely a noticeable break in the continuity of the coast line.
Islands.—There are many small rocky islands along the coast of Maine, and on the southern New England Coast is a group to which belongs Long Island, the largest of the islands of the United States. Farther south, off the Atlantic Coast, and also in portions of the Gulf of Mexico, are many low sand-spits lying parallel to the coast and having behind them shallow channels, lagoons and swamps. On the Pacific Coast there are no islands of importance except the Santa Barbara group off the southern coast of California.
Rivers.—The rivers of the Atlantic Plain rise in the Appalachian system, and are comparatively short. In many cases they are too rapid to be of much value for navigation, but are valuable for supplying water power. These rivers almost without exception have good harbors at their mouths. The chief are: the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the Potomac, the James, and the Savannah.
The Great Central Plain is drained by the Mississippi-Missouri river system, the basin of which covers half the area of the United States, and is equal in area to about one-third the area of Europe.
The Mississippi rises in Lake Itasca, in Minnesota, at about fifteen hundred feet above sea-level. After flowing for about one hundred miles in an easterly direction it turns south, and is joined by numerous tributaries. The chief are: St. Peter’s River, which joins the main stream nine miles above St. Anthony’s Falls; the Missouri, which enters the Mississippi just above St. Louis; the Ohio, which joins the main river at Cairo; the Arkansas, the Wisconsin, the Illinois, and the Red River.
The Mississippi-Missouri has made a broad flood plain, varying in width from thirty to sixty miles. This plain is subject to severe inundations, for it slopes very gently away from the river bed, which is in many parts of the river above the level of the surrounding plain. The river carries a vast amount of silt, which it deposits at its mouth, thus forming a delta which stretches a series of long, narrow, tentacle-like arms seaward.
Other rivers falling into the Gulf of Mexico are the Mobile and the Rio Grande. The Mobile, which enters the gulf at the town of Mobile, is the union of the Alabama and the Tombigbee. The Rio Grande forms the boundary between Texas and Mexico.
The rivers flowing into the Pacific are comparatively short, owing to the nearness of the coast ranges to the sea. The Colorado River flows into the Gulf of California, after crossing an arid plateau. (See description below.)
The San Joaquin and the Sacramento rivers unite and flow into the harbor of San Francisco; these and the Columbia are the only important rivers entering the Pacific.
The Great Basin of California is largely an area of inland drainage. The rivers flow into lakes with no outlets to the sea.
Colorado River (Spanish for “red” or “reddish”), is a remarkable river formed by the union of the Grand and Green Rivers, and flowing through the great plateau region. Below the junction of the Green and Grand, the main affluent in Utah is the San Juan, which drains an interesting region in the southwest of Colorado and the northwest of New Mexico. In Arizona the main affluents are the Colorado Chiquito or Flax River, the Bill Williams, and the Rio Gila, all from the left. The only important affluent the Colorado receives from the right is the Rio Virgen. From the junction of the Grand and Green the general course of the stream is to the southwest through the southern part of Utah and northwestern Arizona; and it afterwards separates Arizona from Nevada and California. The lower part of its course is in Mexican territory, where it flows into the northern extremity of the Gulf of California.
The most striking features of the Colorado basin are its dryness, and the deeply channeled surface of the greater part of the country. Almost every stream and watercourse, and most of all the Colorado itself, has cut its way through stratum after stratum of rock, until now it flows in a great part of its course, at the bottom of a deep trench or cañon.
The Grand Cañon.—The main stream, for nearly four hundred miles below the mouth of the Colorado Chiquito, thus makes its way through a great plateau, forming what is called the Grand Cañon of the Colorado, the most extensive and marvelous example of the kind anywhere known.
Throughout the upper part of the great cañon the walls are from four thousand to seven thousand feet in height, and are often nearly perpendicular. Frequently they are terraced and carved into a myriad of pinnacles and towers, tinted with various brilliant colors. At some points the walls on either side rise sheer from the water; at others there is a talus of fallen rock, or occasionally a strip of fertile soil, on one or both banks. There are two main trails by which the bottom of the cañon may be reached. The Bright Angel Trail is seven miles down from the rim to the river and requires three hours for the descent. The Grand View Trail is somewhat longer and more difficult.
This over-drained river basin has an area of two hundred and twenty-five thousand square miles. The whole course of the river below the junction is about nine hundred miles; to its remotest sources it is over two thousand miles. Navigation is possible for light-draft steamers for over six hundred miles. The river is subject to vast and frequent changes of volume, and except where confined by cañon-walls, the river channel shifts to and fro in a very remarkable degree.
Hudson River, one of the most beautiful and important in America, rises in the Adirondack Mountains, four thousand three hundred and twenty-six feet above the level of the sea, where its head-streams are the outlets of many mountain-lakes. At Glens Falls it has a fall of fifty feet, and soon after, taking a southerly course, runs nearly in a straight line to its mouth, at New York City. It is tidal up to Troy, one hundred and fifty-one miles from its mouth, and magnificent steamboats ply daily between New York and Albany.
Below Newburg, sixty miles from New York, the river enters the highlands, which rise abruptly from the water to the height of sixteen hundred feet. Here historical associations add to the interest of varied scenery of singular beauty and grandeur: here was the scene of Arnold’s treason and of André’s fate; and at West Point, the seat of the United States military academy, eight miles below Newburg, are the ruins of Fort Putnam, built during the War of Independence.
Emerging from the highlands the river widens into a broad expanse called Tappan Bay, which is four and one-half miles wide and thirteen miles long. Below, on the right bank, a steep wall of trap rock, called the Palisades, rises from the river’s brink to a height of three hundred to five hundred and ten feet, and extends for nearly twenty miles to the upper portion of the city of New York.
The river from here is known as the North River, and is from one to two miles wide; and after passing between New York and Hoboken and Jersey City, it falls into New York Bay. Its whole length is about three hundred and fifty miles, and its principal tributaries are the Sacondaga, Mohawk, and Walkill.
The Hudson has valuable shad and sturgeon fisheries, and has large commercial value. It is connected by the Erie Canal with Buffalo and the Great Lakes, while the Richelieu Canal connects it with Montreal. The Hudson River Railroad, connecting New York with Albany, runs along the east bank.
The river is named for the English navigator who explored it in 1609. Robert Fulton’s first successful experiment in steamboat navigation was made on this river in 1807.
The St. Lawrence, issuing from Lake Ontario, flows northeast for some seven hundred and fifty miles—part of the way forming the boundary between Canada and the United States—and falls into the Gulf of St. Lawrence by a broad estuary. But in its widest acceptation the name includes the whole system of the Great Lakes and their connecting streams, with a total length from source to mouth of two thousand miles, and a drainage basin of five hundred and sixty-five thousand two hundred square miles. It pours more fresh water into the ocean than any other river except the Amazon.
This mighty artery rises, under the name of the St. Louis, on the spacious plateau which sends forth also the Mississippi toward the Gulf of Mexico, and the Red River of the North toward Hudson Bay. Lake Superior (six hundred and two feet above sea-level), the next link in the chain, finds its way to Lake Huron through St. Mary’s River, whose rapids have a fall of twenty and one-half feet. Below Lake Huron, which receives Lake Michigan from the south, St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, and Lake Erie, maintain pretty nearly the same level (there is a fall of some eight feet, however, in Detroit River) till the river Niagara descends three hundred and twenty-six feet to Lake Ontario, which is itself still two hundred and forty-seven feet above the sea-level.
The St. Lawrence proper, with a number of lakelike expansions (such as the Lake of the Thousand Isles, of St. Francis, St. Peter, etc.), presents the character first of a river, and then of an estuary, down to the gulf. What is known as the Lake of the Thousand Islands contains about seventeen hundred islands, big and little, many of them extremely picturesque. This is a famous tourist region, with numerous hotels and other resorts as well as many fine private estates.
Prior to 1858 only vessels drawing not more than eleven feet of water could pass up the river above Quebec, but since then a channel has been made in the shallow parts of the river, three hundred feet wide and twenty-seven and one-quarter deep, which permits the passage up to Montreal of large vessels.
Between Lake Ontario and Montreal there are several rapids, which, however, may be all avoided by means of canals that have been constructed at a very great expense. Immediately above the [583] island of Montreal, the St. Lawrence is joined by its principal auxiliary, the Ottawa, from the northwest; and a little more than half-way between this confluence and Three Rivers, the highest point of tidal influence, the Richelieu from the south brings in the tribute of Lake Champlain. Other principal tributaries are the St. Maurice, the Saguenay, and the Batiscan. The width of the St. Lawrence varies from less than one to four miles; the estuary at its mouth is above one hundred miles across. During winter the river is frozen over and navigation closed.
Lakes.—Of the Great Lakes of North America, Lake Michigan lies within the United States, and the southern shores of Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, and Lake Superior are United States territory. These lakes were formed by the action of the glacier which once covered the continent as far south as the forty-second parallel, roughly speaking. They are remainders of much larger lakes and are of the utmost importance as waterways.
New England has very many smaller lakes, which are also the result of glacial action. The largest lake of the United States apart from the Great Lakes is the Great Salt Lake of Utah. The extremely low rainfall of this region and the intense evaporation consequent upon the high temperature are responsible for the salinity of the waters of the lake.
The Great Lakes.—The five Great Lakes cover a total area of over ninety thousand square miles, forming the largest collective mass of fresh water in the world.
Lake Superior.—The northern shores of Superior are mostly precipitous cliffs ranging from three hundred to one thousand feet in height. On the southeast sandy coasts prevail. The coast on the south and southwest is composed largely of sandstone cliffs, rich in iron and other metal deposits. The bed of Superior is supposed to be an ancient volcanic crater. Its depth of one thousand and eight feet represents a depression extending four hundred feet below sea-level. Superior is, therefore, distinct in origin from the other lakes of the group, whose beds represent ancient river systems and date from the glacial period. The basin of the lake, closely circumscribed by the Mississippi and Hudson Bay watersheds, receives many streams, but all of them short.
Lake Huron, the second of the Great Lakes, is bounded north, east and south by the Province of Ontario, and south and west by the State of Michigan, including Georgian Bay (five thousand six hundred and twenty-six square miles), and North Passage, one thousand five hundred and fifty-six square miles. It is connected with Lake Michigan by the Straits of Mackinac, three and one-half miles broad and one hundred and thirty-five feet deep.
The discharge of Lake Huron is about two hundred and seventeen thousand cubic feet per second. By reason of evaporation and rainfall, the level of the lake varies annually between four and five feet, but much greater local variation is caused by the strong winds. The densely wooded northeast is broken by many low islands of limestone and glacial débris. Elsewhere the shores are almost unbroken and low, except when cliffs of one hundred or one hundred and fifty feet high rise from the northeast border and afford good sites for the many Canadian towns and villages. Nearly all the harbors on this coast are protected by breakwaters.
Lake Michigan.—The area of Lake Michigan includes Green Bay on the northwestern shore, and Grand Travers Bay directly on the eastern shore. Many islands lie in the lake between these two breaks in the shore, which elsewhere is low and unbroken.
About the southern and eastern borders are immense heaps of sand which have been piled up by waves and currents, and drift inland by the winds, sometimes, as at Sleeping Bear bluffs, completely burying the heavy forests.
The level of Michigan varies, but not as greatly as does that of Huron, according to the direction and force of the winds, the changes in rainfall, evaporation, atmospheric pressure, etc. Except when caused by protracted gales blowing steadily in one direction, this variation rarely exceeds one and three-tenths feet. The lake has a lunar tide with accompanying variation of from one and one-half inches neap to about three inches spring tide, and the water is warmer than the air in winter and cooler in summer, and visibly ameliorates the climate of the shores, as may be shown in the quantity and rich quality of the Michigan fruits. Like all the Great Lakes, Michigan abounds in fish, such as whitefish and trout.
Lake Erie has a northeast and southwest direction, bounded on the entire upper shore by the Province of Ontario, and on the southern and eastern shores by Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. At its southwestern end it is connected with Lake St. Clair by the Detroit River. At its northwestern end it discharges into Lake Ontario through the Niagara River. It is connected by the Welland Canal with Lake Ontario and by other canals with the Hudson and Ohio Rivers, making it thus a link in the waterway from east to west.
Besides the drainage from the Lake Superior system, Lake Erie receives the Grand River, the Maumee from the west, and the Sandusky and Cuyahoga from the south. The west coast is broken by the islands of Put-in-Bay.
Lake Ontario is the most eastern, with a northeast and southwest direction, like Lake Erie. It is the lowest of the Great Lakes, and has naturally the largest discharge, three hundred thousand cubic feet per second. The shores are flat, except in the Bay of Quinte, which extends on the northeast fifty miles inland. There are many harbors and flourishing ports. The waters have a surface current, due to the fact that the larger axis of the lake coincides with the direction of the prevailing westerly winds. This, added to frequent violent storms, keeps the lake from freezing, except a few miles in width along the shores.
Lake Ontario is connected with the Erie Canal and Hudson River by the Oswego Canal and with the Ottawa River by the Rideau Canal.
Great Salt Lake, in Utah, stretches along the western base of the Wahsatch Mountains, about four thousand two hundred feet above the sea, forming a principal drainage center of the Great Basin. Well-marked shore-lines on the mountains around, reaching one thousand feet higher than the present level, show that the lake had formerly a vastly greater extent; this prehistoric sea has been named Lake Bonneville. Great Salt Lake is over eighty miles long and from twenty to thirty-two broad, but for the most part exceedingly shallow. It contains several islands, the largest Antelope I., about eighteen miles long. Its tributaries are the Bear, Ogden, Jordan and Weber, the Jordan bringing the fresh waters of Lake Utah; but Great Salt Lake has no outlet save evaporation, and its clear water consequently holds at all times a considerable quantity of saline matter in solution. Several species of insects and a brine-shrimp have been found in its waters, but no fishes; large flocks of water-fowls frequent the shores.
The first mention of Great Salt Lake was by the Franciscan friar Escalante in 1776, but it was first explored and described in 1843 by Fremont.
Champlain is a beautiful lake separating the states of New York and Vermont, and penetrating, at its north end, about six miles into the Dominion of Canada. Lying ninety-one feet above sea-level, it is one hundred and ten miles long, by from one to fifteen broad, empties itself into the St. Lawrence by the Richelieu River, and has communication by canal with the Hudson. The lake, now an important trade channel, was the scene of several incidents of the French and Indian revolutionary wars; and here a British flotilla was defeated by the Americans September 11, 1814. It was discovered by Champlain in 1609, and in 1909 tercentenary celebrations of its discovery were held along its shores.
Natural Wonders.—Of the great natural wonders the chief are the Niagara Falls, the Grand Cañon of Colorado, and Yellowstone Park. The Sequoia, General Grant and Calaveras Parks—all reservations of the famous big trees, many thousands of years old, have also great scenic interest. Mt. Ranier Park, in Washington, encloses the noblest and most interesting mountain of our Pacific Coast. The chief feature of Crater Lake Park, in southern Oregon, is a lake two thousand feet deep, occupying the crater of an extinct volcano on the summit of the Cascade Range, with walls one thousand to two thousand feet high. The latest addition is Glacier Park, in northwestern Montana. It is named from its glaciers, of which there are over sixty within an area of five square miles, and contains numerous snow-capped peaks seven thousand to twelve thousand feet high. It also contains Lake McDonald, one of the most beautiful alpine lakes. Among the national monuments are the petrified forests in Arizona.
GARDEN OF THE GODS, COLORADO,
is a tract of land about five hundred acres in extent, thickly strewn with grotesque rocks and cliffs of red and white sandstone. Among the chief features are the Cathedral Spires, the Balanced Rock, etc. The Gateway of the Garden of the Gods consists of two enormous masses of bright red rock, three hundred and thirty feet high and separated just enough for the roadway to pass between.
Garden of the Gods, a region in Colorado, is noted for its view of Pike’s Peak, and its weird and grotesque rock pinnacles, needles, etc., some of which receive descriptive names such as Cathedral Spires. The region is about five hundred acres in extent, and in 1908 was presented to Colorado Springs city.
Grand Canyon.—See under Colorado River.
Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky, is eighty-five miles by railroad southwest of Louisville. The cave is about ten miles long; but it is said to require upwards of one hundred and fifty miles of traveling to explore its multitudinous avenues, chambers, grottoes, rivers and cataracts. It is the largest cavern in the world. The main cave is only four miles long, but it is from forty to three hundred feet wide, and rises in height to one hundred and twenty-five feet. Lucy’s Dome is three hundred feet high, the loftiest of the many vertical shafts that pierce through all the levels.
It is estimated that there are more than four thousand sink-holes and five hundred open caverns. Some avenues are covered with a continuous incrustation of the most beautiful crystals; stalactites and stalagmites abound.
There are several lakes or rivers connected with Green River outside the cave, rising with the river, but subsiding more slowly, so that they are generally impassible for more than six months in the year. The largest is Echo River, three-fourths of a mile long, and in some places two hundred feet wide. The air of the cave is pure; the temperature keeps at about fifty-four degrees.
Among the most striking facts which exploration has revealed are the following: there is a pit, named the Bottomless Pit, one hundred and five feet deep, besides Scylla, one hundred and thirty-five feet deep. Crevice Pit, with Klett’s Dome, which forms a part of it, is one hundred and fifty feet in total vertical measurement. Cleveland Avenue is two miles long, Silliman’s one and one-half miles and in places two hundred feet in width. Large stretches of water have been christened Dead Sea, Lake Lethe; also there are the Styx, and Roaring and Echo rivers. In the outer galleries of the cave millions of bats are congregated. There are also blind fish, crayfish, crickets, and other abnormal insect inhabitants of the cave.
BIG TREE, CALIFORNIA
The Mariposa Grove of Big Trees (six thousand five hundred feet), so-called from its situation in Mariposa (“butterfly”) County, occupies a tract of land four square miles in area, reserved as a State Park, and consists of two distinct groves, one-half mile apart. The Lower Grove contains about two hundred and forty fine specimens of the Sequoia Gigantea, including the “Grizzly Giant,” the largest of all, with a circumference of ninety-four feet and a diameter of thirty-one feet. Its main limb, two hundred feet from the ground, is six and one-half feet in diameter. In ascending to the Upper Grove, which contains three hundred and sixty big trees, the road goes through a tunnel, ten feet high and nine and one-half feet wide (at the bottom), cut directly through the heart of a living Sequoia, twenty-seven feet in diameter. (See illustration.) About ten of the trees exceed two hundred and fifty feet in height and about twenty trees have a circumference of over sixty feet, three of these being over ninety feet. The Calaveras Grove has taller trees than any in the Mariposa Grove, but the latter has those of greatest circumference. At Santa Cruz there is a grove which contains about a score of the genuine Redwood with a diameter of ten feet and upwards. The largest is twenty-three feet across; one of the finest, named the Giant, has a circumference of seventy feet. Here is a large hollow tree in which General Fremont camped for several days in 1847. Another stump is covered with a platform, which holds twelve to fourteen people.
Niagara Falls.—See under Famous Waterfalls.
Yosemite Valley is the name of a cleft in the west slope of the Sierra Nevada, about the center of California, and one hundred and forty miles east of San Francisco. The name Yosemite is an Indian word which signifies “large grizzly bear.” This celebrated valley, noted for the sublimity and beauty of its scenery, is about six miles long and from one-half to nearly two miles in breadth, and is traversed by the Merced River. The beholder is awed and impressed by the massiveness of its mountain elevations, the nearly perpendicular granite walls, from three thousand to six thousand feet high, by which it is shut in throughout its entire length, and the grandeur of its waterfalls, which are in some respects the most remarkable in the world.
At the lower end of the valley stands the striking cliff known as El Capitan, three thousand three hundred feet high, while from near its lower corner the Virgin’s Tears Fall descends one thousand feet. But the eye turns from it to the remarkable fall opposite, happily named the Bridal Veil, which leaps from the brow of a cliff nine hundred feet high, and descends in a broad sheet of spray and finally mist, swaying in the wind and constantly changing its form of fleecy beauty. Farther up the valley are Cathedral Rock (two thousand six hundred and sixty feet), the Three Brothers (three thousand eight hundred and thirty feet), Sentinel Rock (three thousand and forty-three feet), and directly opposite it the grand Yosemite Falls. (See Famous Waterfalls.) Above the falls are the North Dome (three thousand five hundred and sixty-eight feet) and the vast Half Dome, nearly one mile (four thousand seven hundred and thirty-seven feet) high, whose summit can now be reached by a long climb. Two miles above the great falls the stream enters the main valley in two arms, coming out of two canyons. In that of the south fork is the Illilouet Fall, some six hundred feet high; in the main canyon are Vernal Fall and Nevada Fall, the latter one of the finest in the world.
(See Famous Waterfalls.)
The country surrounding the valley and constituting the National Park is a rolling and hilly region varying from eight thousand to ten thousand feet above sea-level. There is little soil or vegetation except a scattered forest growth. Small glaciers still remain near the summits of some of the adjacent mountains. Bare granite peaks rise still higher from this surface.
Yellowstone National Park comprises a tract of land originally comprising three thousand five hundred and seventy-five square miles in northwestern Wyoming, set apart by act of Congress in 1872 as a national park to preserve from destructive molestation the most wonderful group of natural features and phenomena known within the boundaries of the United States. It is readily reached over the Northern Pacific Railroad, which has a branch from Livingston to Gardiner, just outside the north park boundary, thirty-six hours’ ride from St. Paul; or it may be reached from the Oregon Short Line R. R. from the west side by a more difficult stage connection.
The whole park plateau lies between six thousand and eight thousand feet above sea-level. The mountains rise in great grandeur upon this plateau, giving evidence of their volcanic origin, though now extinct, by their form, and their rock structure, and the many evidences of pent-up heat that one sees in the hot springs and geysers for which the locality is justly famous. Twenty-four peaks rise over ten thousand feet, several over eleven thousand. Electric Peak on the border is eleven thousand one hundred and fifty-five feet. Many have been glaciated. Just outside the Teton Range peaks rise to nearly fourteen thousand feet. It is a part of the continental divide and from Two-ocean Pond the waters may flow into either the Atlantic or the Pacific. The Yellowstone, Snake and Madison rivers are fed by the waters from this area.
The surface of the park is dotted with lakes, the largest being Yellowstone Lake, standing seven thousand seven hundred and forty-one feet above sea-level, ten by twenty miles in average dimensions, the largest body at so great elevation in the United States.
The streams contain numerous falls and rapids, twenty-five of special interest, some as picturesque as the Falls of the Yellowstone, though not on such a grand scale, and some far removed from the usual routes of travel. The falls and canyons of the Yellowstone are considered among the most wonderful in the world. The canyon is cut more than two thousand feet deep into the lavas and sediments, exhibiting the most fantastic carvings of erosion, modified by an exquisite blending of colors. Into it plunges the river by two great leaps, the Upper and the Lower Falls, one hundred and twelve and three hundred and ten feet high respectively, and then flows on as a narrow ribbon scarcely more than one hundred and sixty to two hundred feet wide for twelve miles of this wonderfully beautiful chasm.
Yellowstone Park includes within its borders the largest geysers in the world. There are about seventy in all, included in six groups or geyser basins. Norris, Upper, Middle and Lower basins, ten to fifteen miles apart, are on the headwaters of the Madison, here called Five Hole River. The Upper is most active and is called the Great Geyser Basin. A group is also found at Shoshone Lake, at the head of Snake River, and another group at Heart Lake. Fifty geysers spout water and steam from thirty to two hundred and fifty feet into the air. Some spout from open bowl-shaped basins, and others have built cones or tubes by their deposits. Extinct geysers are marked by the remains of these cones, among which is Liberty Cap. Excelsior geyser is the largest of all. It has a bowl-shaped opening two hundred by three hundred feet, flows four thousand gallons of boiling hot water per minute, and throws a fifty-foot column of water and steam seventy-five feet to two hundred and fifty feet high. Giant throws a five-foot column over two hundred feet high for an hour. Old Faithful, so named because of its exceptional regularity, every sixty-four to sixty-five minutes without a failure within the memory of the oldest observers, discharges a column one hundred and fifty feet high amounting to one and a half million gallons of water at each eruption. There is every gradation in size and violence and periodicity.
In the Mammoth Hot Springs area, near the northern boundary, where there are fifty active springs within an area of one hundred and seventy acres, there is a travertine accumulation of one thousand feet. Others deposit silica in similar manner, both types aided much by algous plant growth in the mineralized warm waters. In some places sulphur has been deposited.
Nine-tenths of the whole area is forest. The tree limit varies from nine thousand four hundred to nine thousand seven hundred feet. Few of the plateau localities are bare. Pine, poplar, balsam, cedar and spruce grow abundantly and many to large size. In the spring and geyser localities the trees are often covered by deposits and buried. Whole forests have been thus entombed. Petrified trees are common. Wild animals are wholly unmolested. Deer, elk, buffalo and bear may be seen and approached near enough to photograph. Trout abound in the waters throughout.
NATURAL BRIDGE OF VIRGINIA
The Natural Bridge of Virginia (one thousand five hundred feet above the sea) is a huge monolithic limestone arch, two hundred and fifteen feet high, one hundred feet wide, and ninety feet in span, crossing the ravine of the Cedar Creek. It seems to be a remnant of a great horizontal bed of limestone rock that entirely covered the gorge of the brook, which originally flowed through a subterranean tunnel. The rest of this roof has fallen in and been gradually washed or worn away. The bridge is finely situated in a beautiful amphitheater, surrounded by mountains, on land originally granted by George III. to Thomas Jefferson, who built a cabin here for the use of visitors. Among the names upon the smooth side of the archway is that of George Washington (west side, about twenty-five feet up), which was the highest of all until a student named Piper actually climbed from the bottom to the top of the arch in 1818.
The first white man to attempt an exploration [587] of the region was a trapper named Coulter, who in 1805 traversed a part of this district. His tales were disbelieved, but were confirmed thirty years later by the discoveries of Bridger. In 1870 the first official survey was made, and in 1871 Hayden’s famous expedition revealed the glories of the Yellowstone district.
Climate and Irrigation.—The United States, stretching over such a vast area and having such great tracts of mountain and plain, must necessarily present a great variety of climate. The mean annual temperature ranges from under forty degrees to seventy-five degrees. The isotherm of fifty-five degrees mean annual temperature crosses the center of the country from east to west, passing through St. Louis. The mean annual rainfall for the whole country is about thirty inches, but there is a great difference in this respect between different parts. The rainfall is most abundant on the northwest Pacific Coast, on the Gulf Coast, and on the higher mountain ranges. On the great plains it is only ten to twenty inches, and there are large desert stretches in the Rocky Mountain region with a rainfall of less than ten inches.
Irrigation.—As far as lack of rainfall is concerned in the so-called rainless regions of the United States, this has been notably offset by great works of irrigation that have been steadily going forward. Agriculture, horticulture and vitaculture are, therefore, no longer dependent on chance but science, as the National Irrigation Congress expresses it.
Modern irrigation in the United States began in 1750 with the watering of the gardens in the hills and deserts of the coast of California by the adventurous missionaries from Mexico. Irrigation by English-speaking people had its origin in Utah one hundred years later. There the Mormons, separated by one thousand miles of untrodden desert from all cultivated land, found in irrigation their only means of escape from starvation.
In 1870 there were twenty thousand acres under irrigation, followed by a rapid development of small ditches, until in 1880 there were one million acres irrigated. Today (1917) upward of fifty million acres are included in reclamation projects, and it is estimated that there are upward of four hundred and fifty million acres still awaiting the scientific use of water.
The diversity of methods used in irrigation in the United States is remarkable. Practically every system to be found in the world can be seen in some part of the arid west. This is due to the fact that many of the irrigators have come from distant parts of the world and each seeks to introduce on his farm customs and practices of his old environments. This is particularly noticeable in California, where the Chinese irrigate their truck gardens in Chinese fashion, and Italians, Spaniards and Mexicans imitate for a time at least the practices of their forefathers.
Upward of one hundred and fifty thousand miles of irrigation canals, with reservoirs and supplementary works, have been built at a cost of more than six hundred million dollars. These projects are distributed through the States of Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. The most notable among them are: the Truckee-Carson Canal and Reservoir, in Nevada; the Minidoka project, in southern Idaho; that of the Uncompahgre Valley, in Colorado; the Roosevelt Dam, in the Salt River Valley, Arizona; the Klamath Reservoir, on the Oregon-California boundary; the Boisé project, Idaho; that of Yuma, on the Arizona-California boundary; North Platte, on the Nebraska-Wyoming boundary; and the gigantic Elephant Butte Reservoir, in New Mexico—the second largest in the world.
Political Divisions.—Under its present organization the United States comprises fifty-one political divisions. Of these forty-eight are states enjoying the full privileges afforded by the federal constitution. The three territories—Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico—all are organized but not yet admitted to statehood. The Philippines have a modified territorial government.
(See Tables appended.)
It is worthy of remark that the center of population advanced westward during the ten decades since 1790 in a nearly uniform line along the thirty-ninth parallel of latitude.
THE CENTER OF POPULATION
| Census Year | Approximate Location by Important Towns | From Point to Point in Direct Line[9] |
|---|---|---|
| 1790 | Twenty-three miles east of Baltimore, Md. | ... |
| 1800 | Eighteen miles west of Baltimore, Md. | 40.6 |
| 1810 | Forty miles northwest by west of Washington, D. C. | 36.9 |
| 1820 | Sixteen miles north of Woodstock, Va. | 50.5 |
| 1830 | Nineteen miles west by southwest of Moorefield, W. Va.[10] | 40.4 |
| 1840 | Sixteen miles south of Clarksburg, W. Va.[10] | 55.0 |
| 1850 | Twenty-three miles southeast of Parkersburg, W. Va.[10] | 54.8 |
| 1860 | Twenty miles south of Chillicothe, Ohio | 80.6 |
| 1870 | Forty-eight miles east by north of Cincinnati, Ohio | 44.1 |
| 1880 | Eight miles west by south of Cincinnati, Ohio | 58.1 |
| 1890 | Twenty miles east of Columbus, Ind. | 48.6 |
| 1900 | Six miles southeast of Columbus, Ind. | 14.6 |
| 1910 | In the city of Bloomington, Ind. | 39.0 |
[9] Movement in miles during preceding decade.
[10] West Virginia formed part of Virginia until 1860.
Public Lands.—The United States originally owned nearly all the area of the states, with the exception of the original thirteen. Homesteads have been given, or sold at a nominal price, to all bona fide settlers. Vast areas have been given to railroad companies and in aid of education. The country’s Indian wards have been provided with ample reservations. The government has established great national parks, and it has reserved more than seventy-two thousand square miles of forest land.
The following tabulations give numerous important facts concerning the states and territories:
TABLE OF STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES
| Date of Admission Into Union | State or Territory Origin and Meaning of Name Area and Population Motto and Meaning | Settlement Where, When, By Whom Original Territory from Which Derived | Capitals and Populations Chief Productions of State | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1819 | Alabama (Indian—Here we rest). 51,998 sq. miles. Pop. 2,138,093. Motto: Here we rest. | Mobile Bay, 1702, by the French. From Louisiana, Georgia, Mississippi and Alabama territories. | Montgomery: Pop. 38,136. Corn, oats, wheat, rice, cotton, sugar, iron, lumber, manufactures, potatoes. | |
| 1867 | ‡Alaska (Al-ay-eska, meaning “the great country”). 590,884 sq. miles. No motto. | Three Saints, 1784, by the Russians. Purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000. | Juneau: Pop. 1,864. Seals, salmon, gold, copper, silver, lumber, tin, lead, coal. | |
| 1911 | Arizona (Indian—Sand Hills). 113,956 sq. miles. Pop. 204,354. Motto: Ditat deus (Founded by God). | Tucson, 1580, by the Spanish. From New Mexico territory. | Phoenix: Pop. 11,134. Copper, gold, silver, alfalfa, fruits, live stock, wheat, barley. | |
| 1836 | Arkansas (From a tribe of Indians). 53,335 sq. miles. Pop. 1,574,449. Motto: Regnat populi (The people rule). | Arkansas Post, 1685, by the French. From Louisiana, Missouri and Arkansas territories. | Little Rock: Pop. 45,941. Cotton, lumber, corn, oats, wheat, fruits, wool, coal, tobacco. | |
| 1850 | California (From an old Spanish romance). 158,297 sq. miles. Pop. 2,377,549. Motto: Eureka (I have found it). | San Diego, 1768, by the Spanish. From New Albion, Upper California. | Sacramento: Pop. 44,696. Gold, silver, copper, lead, petroleum, borax, lumber, fruits, wine, olives, beet sugar. | |
| 1876 | Colorado (Spanish—Red, or Ruddy). 103,948 sq. miles. Pop. 799,024. Motto: Nil sine numine (Nothing without providence). | Auroria, 1859, by the Americans. From Louisiana and Mexican cession. Colorado territory. | Denver: Pop. 213,381. Gold, silver, coal, copper, vegetables, fruits, live stock, wheat, beet sugar, oats, corn. | |
| * | 1788 | Connecticut (Indian—Long River). 4,965 sq. miles. Pop. 1,114,756. Motto: Qui transtulit sustinet (He who transplanted still sustains). | Windsor, 1636, by the English. From North Virginia, New England. | Hartford: Pop. 98,915. Manufactures, woolen, cotton, notions; tobacco, iron, granite, cereals. |
| * | 1787 | Delaware (In honor of Lord De La Warr). 2,370 sq. miles. Pop. 202,322. Motto: Liberty and independence. | Wilmington, 1637, by the Swedes. From New Sweden, New Netherlands, three lower counties on the Delaware. | Dover: Pop. 3,720. Corn, wheat, tomatoes, fruits, manufactures, leather, iron, steel, machinery. |
| 1791 | District of Columbia (In honor of Columbus). 70 sq. miles. Pop. 331,069. Motto: Justitia omnibus (Justice to all). | Rome, 1663, by the English. Ceded to government by Maryland and Virginia. | Washington: Pop. 331,069. Flour mills, manufactures. | |
| 1845 | Florida (Spanish—Blooming). 58,666 sq. miles. Pop. 752,619. Motto: In God is our trust. | St. Augustine, 1565, by the Spanish. From Florida territory. | Tallahassee: Pop. 5,018. Fruits, vegetables, tobacco, rice, cotton, lumber, turpentine, resin, fish, phosphate. | |
| * | 1788 | Georgia (In honor of George II.). 59,265 sq. miles. Pop. 2,609,121. Motto: Obverse: Wisdom, justice, moderation. Reverse: Agriculture and commerce. | Savannah, 1733, by the English. One of the original thirteen states. | Atlanta: Pop. 154,839. Cotton, corn, rice, oats, tobacco, oysters, peaches, melons, marble, clay; cotton goods, lumber, fertilizers, tar. |
| ... | ‡Hawaii (From the native Owhyhee). 6,449 sq. miles. No motto. | Honolulu, 1820, by the Americans. From Sandwich Islands. | Honolulu: Pop. 52,183. Sugar, fruits, rice, coffee, hides, wool, honey, sisal. | |
| 1890 | Idaho (Indian—Gem of the Mountains). 84,313 sq. miles. Pop. 325,594. Motto: Salve (Hail). | Coeur d’Alene, 1842, by the Americans. From Oregon, Washington and Idaho territories. | Boise City: Pop. 17,358. Gold, silver, copper, lead, lumber, flour, wheat, oats, barley, live stock. | |
| 1818 | Illinois (Indian—The Men). 56,665 sq. miles. Pop. 5,638,591. Motto: National union, state sovereignty. | Kaskaskia, 1682, by the French. From Northwest, Indian and Illinois territories. | Springfield: Pop. 51,678. Corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, live stock, wool, meat, manufactures. | |
| 1816 | Indiana (Indian’s Ground). 36,354 sq. miles. Pop. 2,700,876. No motto. | Vincennes, 1702, by the French. From Northwest and Indiana territories. | Indianapolis: Pop. 233,650. Corn, wheat, tobacco, vegetables, fruits, wool, coal, clay, flour, machinery. | |
| 1846 | Iowa (Indian—Drowsy Ones). 56,147 sq. miles. Pop. 2,224,771. Motto: Our liberties we prize and our rights we will maintain. | Dubuque, 1833, by the Americans. From Louisiana, Missouri, Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa territories. | Des Moines: Pop. 86,368. Corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, live stock, butter, coal, lumber, poultry. | |
| 1861 | Kansas (Indian—Smoky Water). 82,158 sq. miles. Pop. 1,690,949. Motto: Ad astra per aspera (To the stars through difficulties). | Leavenworth, 1854, by the Americans. From Louisiana, Kansas territory. | Topeka: Pop. 43,684. Corn, wheat, hay, live stock, fruits, coal, petroleum, salt, meats, Kaffir corn. | |
| 1792 | Kentucky (Indian—Dark and Bloody Ground). 40,598 sq. miles. Pop. 2,289,905. Motto: United we stand, divided we fall. | Boonesboro, 1769, by the English. From Virginia. | Frankfort: Pop. 10,465. Tobacco, hemp, wheat, cotton, live stock, lumber, coal, sorghum, flour. | |
| 1812 | Louisiana (In honor of Louis XIV.). 48,506 sq. miles. Pop. 1,656,388. Motto: Union, justice, and confidence. | New Orleans, 1718, by the French. From Louisiana, Territory of Orleans. | Baton Rouge: Pop. 14,897. Cotton, corn, rice, sugar, lumber, oysters, salt, sulphur. | |
| 1820 | Maine (The Main Land). 33,040 sq. miles. Pop. 742,371. Motto: Dirigo (I direct). | Saco, 1623, by the English. From New England, Laconia and Massachusetts. | Augusta: Pop. 13,211. Hay, grains, dairying, potatoes, wool, granite, ice, lumber, apples, paper. | |
| * | 1788 | Maryland (In honor of Queen Henriette Maria). 12,327 sq. miles. Pop. 1,295,346. Motto: Fatti maschii, parole femine (Manly deeds, womanly words). | St. Mary’s, 1632, by the English. From one of the original states. | Annapolis: Pop. 8,609. Wheat, hay, corn, vegetables, fruits, oysters, coal, wool, canned fruits, vegetables. |
| * | 1788 | Massachusetts (The Place of Great Hills). 8,266 sq. miles. Pop. 3,366,416. Motto: Ense petit placidam sub liberate quietem (With the sword she seeks calm peace under liberty). | Plymouth, 1620, by the English. From North Virginia, New England, Massachusetts Bay. | Boston: Pop. 670,585. Manufactures (woolen, cotton), boots, shoes, fish, tobacco, granite, marble. |
| 1837 | Michigan (Indian—Great Lake). 57,980 sq. miles. Pop. 2,810,173. Motto: Si quaeris peninsulam amoenam, circumspice (If you seek a beautiful peninsula, behold it here). | Sault Ste. Marie, 1668, by the French. From Northwest, Indiana and Michigan territories. | Lansing: Pop. 31,229. Corn, wheat, oats, hay, fruits, vegetables, iron, copper, clay, lumber, manufactures. | |
| 1858 | Minnesota (Indian—Cloudy Water). 84,682 sq. miles. Pop. 2,075,708. Motto: L’étoile du nord (The star of the north). | St. Paul, 1838, by the Americans. From Louisiana and Northwest and Minnesota territories. | St. Paul: Pop. 214,744. Corn, wheat, oats, barley, flaxseed, wool, live stock, flour, iron, lumber, dairying. | |
| 1817 | Mississippi (Indian—Great River, or Father of Waters). 46,865 sq. miles. Pop. 1,797,114. No motto. | Biloxi, 1699, by the French. From Louisiana and Georgia, Mississippi territory. | Jackson: Pop. 21,262. Cotton, corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, rice, tobacco, oysters, shrimps. | |
| 1821 | Missouri (Indian—Great Muddy). 69,420 sq. miles. Pop. 3,293,335. Motto: Salus populi suprema lex esto (The welfare of the people is the supreme law). | St. Genevieve, 1755, by the French. From Louisiana and Louisiana and Missouri territories. | Jefferson City: Pop. 11,850. Corn, wheat, oats, rye, cotton, swine, honey, zinc, lead, tobacco, meats. | |
| 1889 | Montana (Spanish—A Mountain). 146,572 sq. miles. Pop. 375,053. Motto: Oro y plata (Gold and silver). | Yellowstone River, 1809, by the Americans. From Louisiana and Nebraska, Idaho, Dakota and Montana territories. | Helena: Pop. 39,165. Wheat, wool, live stock, fruit, oats, barley, lumber, copper, lead, silver, coal. | |
| 1867 | Nebraska (Indian—Shallow Water). 77,520 sq. miles. Pop. 1,192,214. Motto: Equality before the law. | Bellevue, 1847, by the Americans. From Louisiana, Nebraska territory. | Lincoln: Pop. 43,973. Corn, wheat, oats, live stock, hay, chicory, sugar beets, fruits, potatoes. | |
| 1864 | Nevada (Spanish—Snow-covered). 110,690 sq. miles. Pop. 81,875. Motto: All for our country. | Genoa, 1850, by the Americans. From Upper California and Utah and Nevada territories. | Carson City: Pop. 2,466. Gold, silver, copper, zinc, wool, live stock, lumber, borax. | |
| * | 1788 | New Hampshire (Hampshire, England). 9,341 sq. miles. Pop. 430,572. No motto. | Portsmouth, 1623, by the English. From North Virginia, New England, Laconia. | Concord: Pop. 21,497. Hay, corn, potatoes, oats, apples, granite, mica, manufactures. |
| * | 1787 | New Jersey (In honor of governor of Jersey Island). 8,224 sq. miles. Pop. 2,537,167. No motto. | Elizabethtown, 1617, by the Dutch. From New Netherland. | Trenton: Pop. 96,815. Market garden crops, cereals, fruits, fisheries, manufactures, textiles, machinery. |
| 1911 | New Mexico (From Old Mexico). 122,634 sq. miles. Pop. 327,301. Motto: Crescit eundo (It increases by going). | ... | Santa Fe: Pop. 5,072. Gold, silver, fruits, vegetables, live stock, wool, lumber, copper, coal, turquoise. | |
| * | 1788 | New York (In honor of Duke of York). 49,204 sq. miles. Pop. 9,113,614. Motto: Excelsior (Higher). | New York, 1614, by the Dutch. From New Netherland. | Albany: Pop. 100,253. Market garden crops, fruits, corn, wheat, dairying, manufactures, clothing, textiles, books, magazines, papers. |
| * | 1789 | North Carolina (In honor of Charles II.). 52,426 sq. miles. Pop. 2,206,287. Motto: Esse quam videri (To be, rather than to seem). | Albemarle Sound, 1653, by the English. From Albemarle colony. | Raleigh: Pop. 19,218. Cotton, corn, tobacco, wheat, shad, oysters, lumber, mining. |
| 1889 | North Dakota (Indian—Allied). 70,837 sq. miles. Pop. 577,056. Motto: Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable. | Pembino, 1859, by the Americans. From Louisiana, Minnesota and Nebraska and Dakota territories. | Bismarck: Pop. 5,443. Wheat, oats, barley, flaxseed, live stock, wool, minerals. | |
| 1803 | Ohio (Indian—Beautiful River). 41,040 sq. miles. Pop. 4,767,121. No motto. | Marietta, 1788, by the Americans. From Northwest territory. | Columbus: Pop. 181,548. Corn, wheat, oats, hay, potatoes, fruits, tobacco, live stock, wool, dairying, coal, petroleum, salt, iron, steel, machinery, flour. | |
| 1907 | Oklahoma (Indian—Beautiful Land). 70,057 sq. miles. Pop. 1,657,155. Motto: Labor omnia vincit (Labor conquers everything). | Guthrie, 1890, by the Americans. From Indian and Oklahoma territories. | Oklahoma City: Pop. 64,205. Corn, wheat, oats, cotton, flax, live stock, petroleum, minerals. | |
| 1859 | Oregon (Spanish—Wild Marjoram). 96,699 sq. miles. Pop. 672,765. Motto: The union. | Astoria, 1811, by the Americans. From Oregon territory. | Salem: Pop. 14,094. Lumber, live stock, wheat, hay, fruits, hops, wool, salmon, gold, silver, paper making. | |
| * | 1787 | Pennsylvania (Latin—Penn’s Woods). 45,126 sq. miles. Pop. 7,665,111. Motto: Virtue, liberty and independence. | Chester, 1638, by the Swedes. From original state. | Harrisburg: Pop. 64,186. Manufactures, steel, machinery, textiles, coal, coke, petroleum, natural gas, iron, grains, wool, leather. |
| ... | ‡Philippines (In honor of Philip II.). 115,026 sq. miles. | Cebu, 1565, by the Spanish. From Archipelago de San Lazaro. | Manila: Pop. 250,000. Cocoa, coffee, tobacco, cotton, hemp, cocoanuts, corn, sugar, rice, timber, dyewoods. | |
| ... | Porto Rico (Spanish—Rich Port). 3,435 sq. miles. | San Juan, 1510, by the Spanish. Ceded by Spain. | San Juan: Pop. 50,000. Coffee, sugar, tobacco, cotton, citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples, salt. | |
| * | 1790 | Rhode Island (Rhodes, an island in the Ægean Sea). 1,248 sq. miles. Pop. 542,610. Motto: Hope. | Providence, 1636, by the English. From Providence and Rhode Island plantations. | Providence: Pop. 224,326. Manufactures, worsted, cotton, jewelry, machinery, rubber, minerals. |
| * | 1788 | South Carolina (In honor of Charles II.). 30,989 sq. miles. Pop. 1,515,400. Motto: Dum spiro, spero. Spes (While I breathe, I hope. Hope). | Ashley River, 1670, by the English. From Carteret colony. | Columbia: Pop. 26,319. Cotton, wheat, corn, oats, tobacco, rice, oysters, turpentine, lumber, phosphates. |
| 1889 | South Dakota (Indian—Allied). 77,615 sq. miles. Pop. 583,888. Motto: Under God the people rule. | Southeast part, 1859, by the Americans. From Louisiana, Minnesota and Nebraska and Dakota territories. | Pierre: Pop. 3,656. Corn, wheat, oats, flax, potatoes, live stock, wool, gold, silver, tin, dairying. | |
| 1796 | Tennessee (Indian—River with the Great Bend). 42,022 sq. miles. Pop. 2,184,789. Motto: Agriculture, commerce. | Fort Loudon, 1757, by the English. From North Carolina, territory south of the Ohio River. | Nashville: Pop. 110,364. Corn, wheat, cotton, potatoes, tobacco, live stock, coal, iron, marble, lumber. | |
| 1845 | Texas (From tribe of Indians). 265,896 sq. miles. Pop. 3,896,542. No motto. | San Antonio, 1692, by the Spanish. From Mexican cession. | Austin: Pop. 29,860. Cotton, corn, oats, wheat, rice, sugar, live stock, wool, fruits, lumber, petroleum, coal. | |
| 1896 | Utah (Indian—Mountain Dwellers). 84,990 sq. miles. Pop. 373,351. Motto: Industry. | Salt Lake City, 1847, by the Americans. From Mexican cession, Utah territory. | Salt Lake City: Pop. 92,777. Gold, silver, copper, lead, coal, vegetables, fruits, sugar, wheat, oats, live stock, wool. | |
| 1791 | Vermont (French—Green Mountain). 9,564 sq. miles. Pop. 355,956. Motto: Freedom and unity. | Fort Dummer, 1724, by the English. From New Netherland, New Hampshire grants. | Montpelier: Pop. 7,856. Hay, cereals, potatoes, lumber, marble, dairying, maple sugar, manufactures, wood pulp. | |
| * | 1788 | Virginia (In honor of Elizabeth, the virgin queen). 42,627 sq. miles. Pop. 2,061,212. Motto: Obverse; Sic semper tyrannis (Ever so to tyrants). Reverse: Perseverando (By perseverance). | Jamestown, 1607, by the English. From South Virginia. | Richmond: Pop. 127,628. Corn, wheat, oats, tobacco, potatoes, cotton, oysters, coal, iron, cotton, manufactures. |
| 1889 | Washington (After George Washington, first president). 69,127 sq. miles. Pop. 1,141,990. Motto: Al-Ki (Bye-bye). | Columbia River, 1811, by the English. From Oregon and Washington territories. | Olympia: Pop. 6,996. Lumber, coal, wheat, barley, oats, fruits, salmon, live stock, minerals. | |
| 1863 | West Virginia (From Virginia). 24,170 sq. miles. Pop. 1,221,119. Motto: Obverse: Montani semper liberi (Mountaineers are always free men). Reverse: Libertas et fidelitas (Liberty and fidelity). | Berkeley County, 1726, by the Americans. From Virginia. | Charleston: Pop. 22,996. Corn, oats, hay, wheat, fruits, cattle, sheep, lumber, coal, petroleum, natural gas, mining. | |
| 1848 | Wisconsin (Indian—Wild Rushing Channel). 56,066 sq. miles. Pop. 2,333,860. Motto: Forward. | Green Bay, 1745, by the French. From Northwest, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin territories. | Madison: Pop. 25,531. Corn, oats, barley, wheat, hay, potatoes, fruits, beet sugar, dairying, iron, lumber. | |
| 1890 | Wyoming (Indian—Extensive Plain). 97,914 sq. miles. Pop. 145,965. Motto: Equal rights. | Cheyenne, 1867, by the Americans. From Louisiana (chiefly), Nebraska, Dakota, Idaho, and Wyoming territories. | Cheyenne: Pop. 11,320. Wool, lumber, coal, copper, petroleum, minerals. | |
| * Original Thirteen States. ‡ Organized Territories. | ||||
Cities.—In January, 1917, three cities of the United States, New York, Chicago and Philadelphia, had a population of over one million. St. Louis, Boston, Cleveland, Baltimore, Pittsburgh and Detroit had each over 500,000. Buffalo, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Newark, New Orleans, Washington, Minneapolis and Seattle had over 300,000. Forty-seven others had populations ranging from 100,000 to 300,000; while altogether there were one hundred and ninety-eight above 30,000.
The following table gives the approximate population of all cities in excess of 100,000.
POPULATION OF CITIES HAVING OVER 100,000 IN 1917
| Cities | Est. Pop. Jan. 1, 1917 |
|---|---|
| Akron, Ohio | 106,000 |
| Albany, N.Y. | 110,000 |
| Atlanta, Ga. | 191,000 |
| Baltimore, Md. | 590,000 |
| Birmingham, Ala. | 182,000 |
| Boston, Mass. | 757,000 |
| Bridgeport, Ct. | 150,000 |
| Buffalo, N.Y. | 469,000 |
| Cambridge, Mass. | 112,000 |
| Camden, N.J. | 105,000 |
| Chicago, Ill. | 2,498,000 |
| Cincinnati, Ohio | 411,000 |
| Cleveland, Ohio | 674,000 |
| Columbus, Ohio | 215,000 |
| Dallas, Tex. | 135,000 |
| Dayton, Ohio. | 130,000 |
| Denver, Col. | 261,000 |
| Des Moines, Iowa | 106,000 |
| Detroit, Mich. | 572,000 |
| Fall River, Mass. | 130,000 |
| Fort Worth, Tex. | 100,000 |
| Grand Rapids, Mich. | 141,856 |
| Hartford, Ct. | 145,000 |
| Houston, Tex. | 148,000 |
| Indianapolis, Ind. | 272,000 |
| Jersey, City, N.J. | 306,000 |
| Kansas City, Mo. | 298,000 |
| Los Angeles, Cal. | 504,000 |
| Louisville, Ky. | 239,000 |
| Lowell, Mass. | 111,000 |
| Memphis, Tenn. | 160,000 |
| Milwaukee, Wis. | 437,000 |
| Minneapolis, Minn. | 364,000 |
| Nashville, Tenn. | 135,000 |
| Newark, N.J. | 408,000 |
| New Bedford, Mass. | 113,000 |
| New Haven, Ct. | 150,000 |
| New Orleans, La. | 372,000 |
| New York City | 5,603,000 |
| Oakland, Cal. | 192,000 |
| Omaha, Neb. | 166,000 |
| Paterson, N.J. | 126,000 |
| Philadelphia, Pa. | 1,710,000 |
| Pittsburgh, Pa. | 580,000 |
| Portland, Ore. | 296,000 |
| Providence, R.I. | 255,000 |
| Reading, Pa. | 107,000 |
| Richmond, Va. | 157,000 |
| Rochester, N.Y. | 257,000 |
| Salt Lake City, Utah | 125,000 |
| San Antonio, Tex. | 125,000 |
| San Diego, Cal. | 100,000 |
| San Francisco, Cal. | 464,000 |
| Scranton, Pa. | 150,000 |
| Seattle, Wash. | 349,000 |
| Spokane, Wash. | 125,000 |
| Springfield, Mass. | 102,103 |
| St. Joseph, Mo. | 101,800 |
| St. Louis, Mo. | 758,000 |
| St. Paul, Minn. | 247,000 |
| Syracuse, N.Y. | 155,000 |
| Tacoma, Wash. | 108,094 |
| Toledo, Ohio | 192,000 |
| Trenton, N.J. | 110,000 |
| Washington, D.C. | 364,000 |
| Worcester, Mass. | 164,000 |
| Youngstown, Ohio | 118,000 |
Atlanta (ăt-lăn´tȧ), Ga. [The “Gate City”; the name Atlanta was suggested by its geographical position, immediately on the dividing ridge, separating the Gulf and Atlantic waters.]
It is situated at the base of the Blue Ridge, near the Chattahoochee River; has an elevation of over one thousand feet, and a remarkably healthful climate.
Atlanta is laid out in the form of a circle, with the Union Depot as its center. A little to the south of the old Union Station is the State Capitol, which contains a library of about sixty thousand volumes and an interesting geological collection. A little to the northwest is the New Court House; and farther to the north, beyond the railway, are the Custom House and the L. & N. Freight House, an enormous concrete structure. The City Hall, the Chamber of Commerce, the Opera House, the Carnegie Library (of white marble), the Century Building, the Empire Building, the Equitable Building, the Jewish Temple, and the First Methodist Church are notable edifices. Among the chief educational establishments are the Georgia School of Technology, the Atlanta University (for colored students), the Agnes Scott Institute, and the Clark University (colored students). The finest private houses are in Peachtree Street.
Several railroads, converging at Atlanta and leading to other important Southern cities, greatly facilitate the city’s extensive and rapidly increasing trade. It has a large export trade in tobacco, cotton, horses, and mules, its mule market being one of the most important in the United States. Its manufactures include implements, fertilizers, cotton goods, other foundry and machine products.
Atlanta was first settled in 1830. In 1843 it was incorporated as a town, and called Marthasville. In 1845 changed its name to Atlanta, and two years later secured a city charter. It was an important city in the Confederacy and the objective point of General Sherman’s campaign. The battle of Atlanta (July 22, 1864) was fought southeast of the city. In September the city was made a military camp by Sherman, and in November he left the city in flames, and started on his “march to the sea.” The city was almost entirely destroyed, but recovered rapidly after the war, and in 1878 became the capital of Georgia.
Baltimore (bôl´tĭ-mōr), Md. [The “Monumental City”; named for the proprietor of a large tract of land in Maryland, Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, who settled the province in 1635.]
It is situated on an estuary of the Patapsco River, at the head of navigation, about fourteen miles from Chesapeake Bay, and is on the Baltimore and Ohio, the Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington, and other railroads. A good harbor and fine geographical situation give Baltimore unusual trade advantages, and it has become one of the great export centers of the United States.
The city is roughly divided into two nearly equal parts by a small stream, Jones Falls, which flows entirely through the city. The portion of the city northeast of the stream is called “Old Town.” Baltimore Street is the chief longitudinal thoroughfare.
The natural center for the visitor is Mt. Vernon Place, a small square, prettily laid out and suggesting Paris in its tasteful monuments and surrounding buildings. In the middle rises the Washington Monument, a column one hundred and thirty feet high, surmounted by a colossal statue of George Washington.
At the northeast corner of the square is the handsome Mt. Vernon Methodist Episcopal Church; at the southeast corner, Peabody Institute, for the encouragement of science, art, and general knowledge.
On the south side of the square is the house of Henry Walters, connected by an overhead bridge with a new picture-gallery containing the celebrated Walters Collection, one of the finest private collections of art in America.
Charles Street, one of the chief thoroughfares of the city, leads to the north from the Washington Monument past the Union Station, near which, at the north end of the B. & O. tunnel, is the Mt. Royal Station. Following Charles Street to the south we pass (right) the First Unitarian Church and the back of the Roman Catholic Cathedral, which faces Cathedral Street. The latter is surmounted by a dome one hundred and twenty-five feet high, and contains some interesting paintings. Adjacent is the residence of the Cardinal.
Farther on Charles Street passes the Masonic Temple, intersects Baltimore Street, the chief business street of the city, and is continued to South Baltimore. In East Fayette Street, to the left, is the Court House, a handsome white marble building, and the Post Office, in front of which rises the Battle Monument, erected in 1815 in memory of the struggles of the war of 1812-1814. The interior of the Court House is adorned with admirable mural paintings. To the east of the Post Office is the City Hall, a large and handsome building, with a dome two hundred and sixty feet high.
To the south of the City Hall, in Gay Street, between Water and Lombard Streets, is the imposing new Custom House, which was damaged by the fire of 1904, but has since been repaired and completed.
A little to the west of Mt. Vernon Place, between Howard St. and Eutaw St., are the unpretentious buildings formerly occupied by Johns Hopkins University, one of the foremost institutions of learning in the country. It was endowed with over three million five hundred thousand dollars by Johns Hopkins, a Quaker. In 1902 a suburban site about two miles north of the Washington Monument was secured for this famous university, and the first of a fine group of buildings was occupied by it in 1914.
The Johns Hopkins Hospital, opened in 1889, is also due to the liberality of Mr. Hopkins, who bequeathed over three million dollars for its foundation.
Both as a scientific and charitable institution, this hospital is an important adjunct to the University; and in the completeness of its equipment and excellence of its system, it ranks with the foremost hospitals in the world. The buildings of the Medical School of Johns Hopkins University adjoin the hospital.
Druid Hill Park, a pleasure-ground of about seven hundred acres, owes its beauty in great part to the fact that is has been preserved as a private park for one hundred years before passing into the hands of the city. Its hills afford beautiful views. Druid Lake, one-half mile long, is one of the reservoirs of the city waterworks.
Baltimore is an important center of the traffic in breadstuffs, and is also the seat of extensive and varied industries—cotton and woolen goods, flour, tobacco and cigars, beer, glassware, boots and shoes, iron and steel (including machinery, car-wheels, iron bridges, stoves, furnaces, etc.), clothing, pianos, organs, and the canning of oysters. Shipbuilding has become an important development, and Sparrows Point, with its immense Bessemer steel plant, is a place of great industrial activity.
The construction of the first important line of railway in the United States was begun at Baltimore in 1828 and carried on by private enterprise, and the first telegraph line was constructed to, and the first message received in, Baltimore. In 1904 Baltimore was visited by a fire which consumed fifty million dollars’ worth of property.
SOME VIEWS IN BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS: RIVER FRONT, PARKS AND NOTABLE BUILDINGS
THE CHARLES RIVER EMBANKMENT
STATE HOUSE BOSTON COMMON TREMONT STREET
Boston (bôs´ton), Mass. [Called the “Hub” and “Athens of America”; name is derived from Boston, a seaport in England, originally called Botalf, or Botolph’s town.]
The capital of Massachusetts, the chief town of New England, Boston is one of the oldest and most interesting cities of the United States. Whether considered from the point of view of its educational and charitable institutions, its trade, manufactures and public buildings, its influence upon the intellectual life and literary culture of the nation, or its historic part as an inspirational center of political liberty and social reform, its record and position command attention.
In no other American city are the civic and other public buildings more closely associated with events of national importance.
CUSTOM HOUSE
TRINITY CHURCH COPLEY-PLAZA HOTEL
PIERCE BUILDING PUBLIC LIBRARY
BUNKER HILL MONUMENT
Boston is situated at the head of Massachusetts Bay, about two hundred miles northeast of New York, and occupies a peninsula between the Charles River and the arm of the bay known as Boston Harbor. Originally the town was founded on three hills, Beacon, Copp’s and Fort, which, however, have been materially cut down. The metropolitan area now includes also East Boston, on Noddle’s or Maverick Island, on the other side of the harbor; South Boston, separated from the old city by an arm of the harbor; Charlestown, on the other side of the river; and the suburban districts of Brighton, Roxbury (or Boston Highlands), West Roxbury (including Jamaica Plain), and Dorchester. Boston is connected with the city of Cambridge by several bridges across the Charles. The old town is cramped and irregular, and its streets are narrow and crooked; but the new parts, especially the so-called Back Bay, formed by filling in the tide-water flats on the Charles, are laid out on a very spacious scale.
The chief retail business streets of Boston are Washington Street and Tremont Street. Among the finest residence streets are Commonwealth Avenue, Beacon Street, Marlborough Street, Mt. Vernon Street, and Bay State Road.
Boston Common, a park of forty-eight acres in the heart of the city, shaded by fine elms and other trees and crossed by many pleasant walks, has been reserved for public use since 1634 and is carefully guarded for this purpose in the charter of 1822. Just across Charles from the Common is the fine Public Garden, reclaimed from what was low-lying waste land.
That part of the Common adjoining Tremont Street and known as the Tremont Street Mall is now occupied by eight small buildings, covering the entrances to the stations of the Boston Subway, a wonderful piece of engineering that facilitates traffic by an underground system of electric cars. The subway was, in part, constructed in 1895-1898, at a cost of about four million one hundred and sixty-five thousand dollars, and since greatly extended by the expenditure of many millions more.
Near the northeast angle of the Common, on Beacon Hill, stands the State House, an imposing building surmounted by a huge gilded dome, and preceded by a Corinthian portico and a flight of steps. On the terrace in front are statues of Daniel Webster and Horace Mann. The dome is illuminated at night.
In Beacon Street, opposite the State House, is the beautiful Shaw Monument, by Saint-Gaudens, erected in honor of Colonel Shaw and his regiment, the first colored regiment raised during the Civil war.
In Pemberton Square is the new County Court House, a massive granite building in the German Renaissance style, with an imposing central hall adorned with emblematic figures. In School Street, to the left, is the City Hall, behind which is the Old Court House. In front of the City Hall are statues of Franklin and Josiah Quincy.
School Street ends at the large Old South Building in Washington Street, the most crowded thoroughfare in Boston, with many of the best shops. Following Washington Street (“Newspaper Row”) to the left, we soon reach, at the corner of State Street, the Old State House, dating from 1748 and restored as far as possible to its original appearance, even to the figures of the British lion and unicorn on the roof.
State Street, the center of financial life, leads to the east, past the Exchange Building (with the Stock Exchange) and other large office buildings, to the Custom House, a massive granite building in the shape of a Greek cross, with lofty tower.
Change Alley (now inappropriately styled “Avenue”), diverging to the left from State Street leads to Faneuil Hall, the “cradle of American liberty,” originally presented to the city in 1742, by Peter Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant, but rebuilt after a fire in 1761 and reconstructed on the original plan in 1898.
Devonshire Street leads to the right from State Street to the Government Building, a huge edifice occupying the entire block between Milk Street, Devonshire Street, Water Street and Post Office Square. The Post Office occupies the ground floor, the basement, and part of the first floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to the United States Sub-Treasury and the United States Courts.
At the corner of Washington Street stands the Old South Meeting House, built in 1729 on the site of an earlier church of wood, which lay near Governor Winthrop’s house.
Boylston Street, another important thoroughfare, diverging from Washington Street to the right, skirts the Common and Public Garden and leads to the Back Bay. At the corner of Berkeley Street (right) stands the Museum of Natural History, with a library of thirty thousand volumes and good zoological, ornithological, entomological and mineralogical collections. Opposite is the Berkeley Building, a structure of a fine commercial type. Adjacent are old buildings of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, one of the leading institutions of the kind in the world. It now occupies a magnificent group of buildings on the Cambridge side of the Charles River, erected at a cost of ten million dollars.
Boylston Street now reaches Copley Square, which offers perhaps the finest architectural group in Boston, including Trinity Church, the Copley-Plaza Hotel, the Public Library, the New Old South Church, and a number of imposing business structures. (See illustrations.)
Trinity Church, on the east side of the square, the masterpiece of H. H. Richardson and a typical example of “Richardsonian” architecture, is deservedly regarded as one of the finest buildings in America. Its style may be described as a free treatment of the Romanesque of Central France.
The Public Library, on the west side of the square, designed by McKim, Mead & White, and erected in 1888-1895, is a dignified, simple and scholarly edifice which forms a worthy mate to the Trinity Church. Its style is that of the Roman Renaissance.
The New Old South Church, so called as the successor of the Old South Church, is a fine building in the Italian Gothic style, with a tower two hundred and forty-eight feet in height. The marbles and ornamental stone work are very fine.
Huntington Avenue, which diverges to the left from Boylston Street at Copley Square, contains many important buildings. This thoroughfare, and the district known as the Back Bay Fens, is celebrated for its cultural institutions. Among them are Mechanics Hall, Horticultural Hall, the imposing Symphony Hall, the New England Conservatory of Music, and the new Opera House—all in Huntington Avenue. Just beyond this is the New Museum of Fine Arts, a large granite edifice by Guy Lowell, admirably adapted for its ends. Farther out, at the corner of Longwood Avenue, are the extensive new buildings of the Harvard Medical School, erected at a cost of five million dollars, and equipped in the most complete and up-to-date manner.
Commonwealth Avenue, which runs parallel with Boylston Street, is one of the finest residence streets in America, with rows of trees and handsome houses. It is two hundred and forty feet wide and adorned with statues.
Beacon Street, beginning on Beacon Hill, skirting the north side of the Common, and then running parallel with Commonwealth Avenue is the aristocratic street of Boston. Its back-windows command a fine view of the Charles River.
The Back Bay, the fashionable west end district traversed by the above-named streets, was at the beginning of the nineteenth century occupied by dreary mud-flats, salt-marshes and water.
The Back Bay Fens have been skillfully laid out on the site of unsightly swamps and form the first link in the splendid chain of parks and boulevards, of which Franklin Park is the chief ornament. The chief entrances to the Fens are marked by a gateway and a fountain; and at the end of Boylston Street is a fine memorial of John Boyle O’Reilly, by D. C. French.
Fenway Court, the residence of Mrs. John L. Gardner, a building in a Venetian style, enclosing a courtyard and incorporating many original balconies, windows, and other details brought from Italy, contains a choice collection of art, which is open to the public from time to time.
Franklin Park is five hundred and twenty acres in extent and lies in West Roxbury (reached by electric car). It abounds in natural beauty and many of its drives and walks are very attractive.
The Public Park System of Boston, as a whole, is almost unique. The City Park System, with a total area of twenty-four hundred acres, forms an almost unbroken line of parks and parkways from the Public Garden to City Point, in Boston Harbor. The Metropolitan System, forming an outer line of parks, has an area of eleven thousand acres, including two large wooded reservations (Blue Hills, and Middlesex Fells), three beaches (Revere Beach, Nantasket Beach, and Lynn Beach), and the boating section of the Charles River. When completed this system will afford fifty miles of drives.
The North End of Boston, embracing the site of Copp’s Hill, now one of the poorer districts and occupied mainly by foreigners, contains some points of considerable historical interest. The Copp’s Hill Burial Ground, dating from 1660, contains the graves of Increase, Cotton and Samuel Mather. Adjacent, in Salem Street, is Christ Church, the oldest church now standing in the city (1723), on the steeple of which the signal-lanterns of Paul Revere are said to have been displayed on April 18th, 1775, to warn the country of the march of the British troops to Lexington and Concord. North Square is the center of what is known as “Little Italy.” The House of Paul Revere has recently been restored and contains some relics.
Within metropolitan Boston are many famous institutions of learning. At the head of these stand Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Radcliffe College, the greater part of whose schools are in the adjoining city of Cambridge and the remaining in Boston. Among the institutions of higher education are Boston University, with its affiliated colleges, its schools of law, medicine, and theology, and its post-graduate department in philosophy, science, and language; the medical, dental, and agricultural schools of Harvard University; Boston College; the medical and dental schools of Tufts College; Simmons College for Women; the New England Conservatory of Music; the Massachusetts Normal Art School; the Lowell Institute; and the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy.
Wellesley College is situated in the beautiful village of Wellesley, about fifteen miles from Boston, on Lake Waban.
Besides Trinity Church, already referred to, there are upward of three hundred other edifices. Chief of these are the Cathedral of the Holy [595] Cross, on the corner of Washington and Malden Streets, the largest and most noteworthy Catholic church in New England; Arlington Street Church, corner of Arlington and Boylston Streets; First Church of Christ, Scientist, on Falmouth Street, corner of Norway; and Fremont Temple, a Free Baptist Church.
The beauty of the parks, squares, and of many public buildings is enhanced by monuments and statues, of which the following are the chief: Bunker Hill Monument in Charlestown, two hundred and twenty feet high, built of granite and commemorative of the resistance and heroism of American patriots at the Battle of Bunker Hill; the equestrian statue of Washington in the Public Garden; the monument to Colonel Shaw; the Soldiers’ Monument in the Common; the Crispus Attucks monument, a memorial of the Boston Massacre of 1770; statues to General Joseph Warren, Edward Everett, Charles Sumner, Alexander Hamilton, Governor Winthrop, William Lloyd Garrison, Benjamin Franklin, Josiah Quincy, Beethoven, Daniel Webster, Horace Mann, Phillips Brooks and many other notable men.
The principal industries of Boston are the manufacture of food preparations, clothing, building, printing, publishing, and book-binding, distilled liquors, machinery, metals and metallic goods, and furniture. Other important manufactures include musical instruments, woolen goods, boots and shoes, rubber goods, tobacco, and drugs and medicines. As a commercial port, Boston ranks next to New York, the value of foreign trade amounting to two hundred million dollars annually. After London, the city is the leading wool market of the world.
Boston was settled in 1630 by a party of Puritans from Salem. A memorable massacre occurred here in 1770, and in 1773 several cargoes of English tea were thrown overboard in the harbor by citizens. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on Breed’s Hill, within the present city limits, June 17, 1775. The city charter was granted in 1822.
Cambridge (kām´brĭj), Mass. [So named for the English university town of that name. The English name is supposed to mean “the bridge over the river Cam,” the real name of which is the Granta.]
It is virtually a suburb of Boston, from which it is separated by the Charles River, and with which it is connected by several bridges. The city comprises Old Cambridge, the seat of Harvard University, North Cambridge, East Cambridge, Cambridgeport, and Mount Auburn. The streets are broad and shaded with elms, and there are many places of historical and literary interest, among these the Craigie House and “Elmwood,” the homes of Longfellow and Lowell, respectively; and Mount Auburn Cemetery, containing the graves of Longfellow, Lowell, Prescott, Motley, Agassiz, Holmes, and other noted men.
The chief interest of Cambridge, however, lies in its educational institutions, which include Harvard University, Radcliffe College (for women), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Episcopal Theological School, and Andover Theological Seminary. All these institutions are now in close working alliance with Harvard University.
Harvard University, founded in 1636, is not only the oldest but the richest of American universities, and the roster of graduates contains more than twenty thousand names. Massachusetts Hall is the oldest of the present buildings, being built in 1720. The most notable buildings architecturally (besides the fine Medical School group in Boston) are: Austin Hall and Longdell Hall, devoted to the Law School; Widener Memorial Library, a splendid new building dominating the college yard; Busch Hall, devoted to the art collections of the Germanic Museum; Memorial Hall, containing Sanders Theater; and Sever Hall, containing class-rooms.
The activities of the university require upward of sixty other buildings, including laboratories, lecture halls, museums, residence halls, and a number of fine structures devoted to the social, religious, athletic and art life of the student body.
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, founded in 1861, is located on the Charles River Parkway, and occupies a newly acquired area of about seventy acres. Here has been erected a magnificent group of buildings, unrivaled, perhaps, in design, adaptation for their respective uses, and general equipment. This institution is devoted to the teaching of science as applied to the various engineering professions—civil, mechanical, mining, electrical, chemical, and sanitary engineering—as well as to architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, physics, and geology.
Among the industrial establishments are foundries, machine shops, and extensive manufactories. The Riverside, Athenæum, and University Presses are well-known printing establishments, and the “Bay Psalm Book,” the first book printed in America, was published in Cambridge in 1640.
Cambridge was settled in 1630 by Governor Winthrop under the name of Newtowne. In 1636 Harvard College was founded at Newtowne, and in 1638 Newtowne became Cambridge. The Washington elm, under which Washington received command of the American troops, is still standing.
Under this ancient elm near the Cambridge Common, Washington assumed command of the American Continental army July 3, 1775, by order of the Continental Congress. It is therefore one of the landmarks of the greatest historic interest to every liberty-loving American—man, woman, or child.
MICHIGAN BOULEVARD AND GRANT PARK, CHICAGO, VIEWED FROM THE WEST SHORE OF LAKE MICHIGAN
1. Blackstone Hotel 2. Harvester Building 3. Congress Hotel 4. Auditorium Hotel 5. Fine Arts Building 6. Chicago Club 7. McCormick Building 8. Stratford Hotel 9. Railway Exchange 10. Orchestra Hall 11. Pullman Building 12. Gas Building 13. Lake View Building 14. Illinois Athletic Club 15. Monroe Building 16. University Club 17. Ward Building
Left-hand side enlarged (160 kB)
Right-hand side enlarged (153 kB)
Chicago (shĭ-kä´gō), Ill. [The “Windy City”], probably received its name from the Indian Checagua, meaning “wild onion” and “pole-cat.”
It is the second city and largest railway center of the United States, and is situated on the southwest shore of Lake Michigan, at the mouths of the rivers Chicago and Calumet, five hundred and ninety feet above sea level and fifteen to seventy-five feet above the lake. It is eight hundred and fifty miles from Baltimore, the nearest Atlantic port, and two thousand four hundred and fifteen miles from San Francisco.
Chicago is noted for the magnitude of its commercial enterprises; for the greatness of its financial institutions; for the excellence of its parks and public playgrounds—particularly in the number, equipment, and splendid use of its small parks in congested localities; for its universities, its efficient public-school system, and for other educational, artistic, and morally uplifting institutions that give to it an enlightened, a cultured, and a progressive citizenship.
It is estimated that not more than 350,000 of the inhabitants are of native American parentage; about 550,000 are Germans, 250,000 are Irish, 225,000 Scandinavians, 160,000 Poles, 110,000 Bohemians, 40,000 Italians, 60,000 Canadians, and 100,000 English and Scottish. There are some fourteen languages, besides English, each of which is spoken by ten thousand or more persons.
The city has a water-front on the lake of twenty-six miles and is divided by the Chicago River and its branches into three portions, known as the North, South, and West Sides, to which must be added the “Loop,” or business part of the city. The site of the city is remarkably level, rising very slightly from the lake; and its streets are usually wide and straight. Among the chief business-thoroughfares are State, Clark, Madison, Randolph, Dearborn, and La Salle Streets, and Wabash Avenue. Perhaps the finest residence streets are Prairie and Michigan Avenues and Drexel and Grand Boulevards, on the South Side, and Lake Shore Drive, on the North Side.
A splendid bird’s-eye view of Chicago is obtained by ascending to the top of the tower of the Auditorium on Congress Street and Michigan Boulevard. This huge building, erected in 1887-1889 at a cost of three million five hundred thousand dollars, includes a large hotel and a handsome theater. The Fine Arts or Studebaker Building, adjoining the Auditorium, on Michigan Boulevard, is one of the show buildings of Chicago, and has deservedly been described as the focus of the artistic and intellectual life of Chicago, containing as it does a theater, concert, assembly, and lecture rooms, studios of leading artists, and the meeting-places of several clubs. The beautiful Romanesque building to the north of the Fine Arts Building is the Chicago Club. A little farther to the north, at the corner of Jackson Boulevard, is the tall Railway Exchange Building, erected in 1903-1904, and cased in tiles. Next to this on the north is the new building of the Chicago Orchestra Association, on the roof of which is the house of the “Cliff Dwellers,” a literary and artistic club. A little to the south of the Auditorium, at the corner of Harrison Street, is the Harvester Building, erected in 1907, beyond which is the palatial Blackstone Hotel. A little farther to the south is the Illinois Central Station.
Following Michigan Avenue toward the north from the Auditorium, we reach the Art Institute of Chicago, an imposing building in a semi-classical style, containing a valuable collection of paintings, sculptures, and other objects of art. Opposite is the magnificent People’s Gas Building, erected at a cost of eight million dollars.
Farther to the north, on the opposite side of Michigan Avenue, are the buildings of the Illinois Athletic Club, the University Club, and the Chicago Athletic Club. At the corner of Madison Street is the Montgomery Ward Building, with its tower, and a little farther up, at the corner of Washington Street, is the Chicago Public Library, an imposing building in a classical style, erected in 1893-1897, at a cost of two million dollars.
This fine edifice is worthy to rank with the Library of Congress and the Boston Public Library. The main entrances are to the north and south, in Randolph Street and Washington Street. The interior is sumptuously adorned with marble, mosaics, frescoes and mottoes. It contains three hundred and fifty thousand volumes. On the first floor is a large Memorial Hall, used by the Grand Army of the Republic and covered by a dome; it contains an interesting collection of Civil War and other historical relics.
On the north, Michigan Avenue ends at the Chicago River. Fort Dearborn stood to the left, on the river, at the end of the avenue.
The business quarters of Chicago occupy chiefly the great central district called the “Loop,” which is bounded by the lines of the Elevated Railway. We may follow Randolph Street to the west to the City Hall and County Building, two large adjoining buildings, in a modern classical style with huge Corinthian columns, built at a cost of five million dollars.
La Salle Street, leading to the south from the County Building, contains some of the finest office buildings in the city. Among these are the Chamber of Commerce at the corner of Washington Street; the Tacoma Building at the corner of Madison Street; the Y. M. C. A. Building, a little farther to the south; the New York Life Insurance Building; the low but impressive Northern Trust Co. Building, and the oddly shaped Women’s Temperance Temple, all three at the corners of Monroe Street; the new granite building of the Corn Exchange National Bank, the Home Insurance Co. Building, and the Rookery, with a very attractive interior lined with white marble. Farther on in La Salle Street, at the corner of Jackson Boulevard, is the Illinois Trust & Savings Bank, a massive two-storied edifice, with a fine central court. At the end of La Salle Street stands the granite building of the Board of Trade.
Jackson Boulevard leads hence to the east to the Federal Building, containing the Post Office and Custom House and occupying an entire city square. It is in the Corinthian style, with a large central dome two hundred feet in height.
Other notable buildings within the “Loop” district include: the Continental and Commercial Bank, Hotel La Salle, First National Bank, and the great department store, office, newspaper, and hotel buildings.
The park system of Chicago is without a parallel in America; it embraces Lincoln Park, on the lake shore to the north, and six others, and is divided into three sections, all connected or nearly so by magnificent boulevards, which, with the park drives, measure over sixty miles. In all, Chicago has ninety-three parks, covering more than four thousand four hundred acres. A characteristic feature of the system is the large number of small “People’s Parks” scattered through the poorer districts and provided with baths, gymnasiums and playgrounds. On the north side is Lincoln Park, reached via Lake Shore Drive, one of the finest residence streets in Chicago, containing some very handsome houses. This passes near the Water Works, at the foot of Chicago Avenue, and ends on the north at Lincoln Park, which is at present three hundred acres in area, but is being extended by filling in the adjacent shallows of Lake Michigan.
Among the attractions of this park are the conservatories, palm-house, lily-ponds, and flower-beds; a small zoological collection; a fountain illuminated at night by electric light; the statues of Lincoln (by Saint-Gaudens), Grant (by Rebisso), Beethoven, Schiller, La Salle, a Mounted Indian, and Linnaeus; and the boating lake. Near the main entrance is the Academy of Sciences, containing admirably arranged and classified collections illustrating the various natural sciences.
Grant Park, consisting of a public pleasure ground of two hundred and ten acres, lies between Michigan Boulevard and Lake Michigan. This park has been improved of late by the depression of the tracks of the Illinois Central Railway and by the construction of massive stone viaducts connecting the park proper with the lake shore. The adjoining part of the lake, between the shore and the breakwater, has been filled in and added to the park. In Grant Park, to the south of the Auditorium and opposite Eldredge Place, is an equestrian statute of General John A. Logan, in bronze, by Saint-Gaudens.
The South Side parks are also fine. They are best reached by Michigan Avenue and Drexel Boulevards, two fine residence streets with tasteful houses and ornamental gardens. Michigan Avenue also contains several churches, the Calumet Club, numerous large hotels and apartment houses, and the First Regiment Armory. In Drexel Boulevard is the handsome Drexel Memorial Fountain.
Washington Park (three hundred and seventy-one acres) and Jackson Park (five hundred and twenty-three acres) are connected by a wide boulevard known as the Midway Plaisance, on which is located the University of Chicago.
The West Side parks, Douglas Park, Garfield Park, and Humboldt Park are little inferior to those of the North and South Sides.
The University of Chicago, between Fifty-sixth and Fifty-ninth Streets, occupies probably the finest group of buildings, architecturally, devoted to higher education in the United States. The total value of buildings and equipment is more [598] than thirty million dollars, one-fourth of which was contributed by citizens of Chicago and the balance by John D. Rockefeller. The ground has an area of sixty-six acres, and the university includes faculties of Arts, Literature, Science, Commerce and Administration, Education, Medicine, Law, and Divinity.
Above thirty different buildings have already been erected, mainly of limestone and in a Gothic style, from the designs of H. I. Cobb and Mr. Coolidge. Perhaps the most successful group is that at the corner of Fifty-seventh Street and Lexington Avenue, including an Assembly Hall, a Students’ Club House, the University Tower, and the University Commons. Other important buildings are the Cobb Lecture Hall, the Kent Chemical Laboratory, the Ryerson Physical Laboratory, the Law School, the Anatomy, Physiology, Zoology, and Botany Buildings, the Walker Museum, the Haskell Oriental Museum, the handsome Bartlett Gymnasium, dormitories for women and dormitories for men. On the south edge of the campus stands the main structure of the Harper Memorial Library, an enormous Gothic building by Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge, erected in memory of President Wm. R. Harper. The Yerkes Observatory, at Williams Bay on Lake Geneva, containing one of the largest refracting telescopes in the world, belongs to the University of Chicago. Connected with the University is the large School of Education, facing the Midway Plaisance, between Monroe and Kimbark Avenues.
Other notable educational institutions include the Lewis Institute, founded and endowed by the late Mr. A. A. Lewis and opened in 1896, comprising a School of Arts and a School of Engineering, tuition in which is furnished at a nominal cost; and the Armour Institute, a well equipped institution for higher technical education, endowed by its founder with three million dollars.
Hull House, at the southwest corner of Polk and South Halsted Streets, is a social settlement of men and women, furnishing a social, intellectual, and charitable center for the surrounding district. It includes a free kindergarten, a coffee-house, a residential boys’ club, a theater, a labor-museum, and a free gymnasium, while classes, lectures, and concerts of various kinds are held.
The famous Union Stockyards (“Packingtown”) are in South Halsted Street, five and one-half miles to the southwest of the City Hall, and may be reached by the South Halsted Street or Racine Avenue trolley-lines, both running directly to the main entrance at Forty-first Street. The yards proper cover an area of about five hundred acres, have twenty-five miles of feeding-troughs, and twenty miles of water-troughs, and can accommodate seventy-five thousand cattle, three hundred thousand hogs, fifty thousand sheep, and five thousand horses. From two-thirds to three-fourths of the cattle and hogs are killed in the yards, and sent out in the form of meat. About thirty thousand workers are employed by the packing-houses. Chicago is the greatest live stock and grain market in the world.
Among the more important general manufactures of the city may be mentioned those of railway cars, locomotives, agricultural implements, mining appliances, clothing, electrical apparatus, lumber products, furniture, pianos, organs, leather, cigars, chemicals, beer, spirits, and flour. The steel and iron industry is conducted on a large scale, and the city has some large rolling mills. Chicago is also one of the leading publishing centers of the United States, and is an active jobbing center for the book trade.
As a center of railroad industry Chicago takes precedence over all cities of the world. Twenty-six of the principal trunk-line railroads of the United States run trains into Chicago terminals, and in addition to these there are numerous belt transfer, terminal and industrial lines which have either a part or all of their trackage in the city. Within the corporate limits of the city are eight hundred miles of main line railway and one thousand four hundred miles of auxiliary track. The total mileage of the twenty-six roads entering Chicago approximates ninety-seven thousand miles, or about forty-two per cent of the total mileage of the United States. The land occupied by main line property within Chicago represents nine thousand six hundred acres, or eight per cent of the entire area of the city.
There are six principal passenger terminals in Chicago, located as follows:
Baltimore & Ohio Terminal (Grand Central Station), at Fifth Avenue and Harrison Street. Central Station, at Michigan Avenue and Twelfth Street. Chicago & North Western Passenger Terminal, at North Clinton, West Madison, and North Canal Streets. La Salle Street Station, with entrance on Van Buren Street. Dearborn Station, at Dearborn and Polk Streets. Union Passenger Station, at Adams and Canal Streets.
Present plans are under way, however, to concentrate all roads entering Chicago in three great union stations—the North Western Station (already built, at a cost of $25,000,000), the Illinois Central Station, and the Pennsylvania Station, the two latter involving an expenditure of one hundred and fifty million dollars.
The water carrying trade of Chicago is comparable to that of New York and Boston, and exceeds that of Philadelphia, New Orleans, Baltimore, and San Francisco.
The Chicago Tunnel System involves a labyrinth of small tunnels or subways, six by seven and one-half feet in size, and sixty-two miles long, forty feet under the principal business streets within the Loop district. These tunnels connect with all railway freight depots, passenger stations and, through their sub-basements, with a number of the larger mercantile concerns. They also extend beyond the Loop—north, south, and west—a distance of about two miles. They are not designed for passenger traffic, but are used by cars laden with all sorts of merchandise, coal, ashes, etc.
There are three underground power stations, four universal freight and transfer stations (one of them occupying five floors below the ground), eighty-five ordinary stations, and twelve tunnels, extending sixty feet under the Chicago River or its branches. So far, between thirty million and forty million dollars have been expended on construction and equipment. The bores also contain the cables of the automatic telephone company.
The site of Chicago was first visited by Joliet and Marquette in 1673. The United States Government established there the frontier post of Fort Dearborn in 1804. On October 8 and 9, 1871, occurred the memorable fire which reduced the greater part of the city to ashes. In 1886 occurred the Haymarket riot, in 1893 the World’s Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago, and in 1894 the Pullman strike, the greatest in history, centered in Chicago.
Cincinnati (sin-si-nä´ti), Ohio. [The “Queen City,” named in honor of Cincinnatus, the Roman patriot.]
It is the second city of Ohio, on the north bank of the river Ohio, two hundred and seventy miles southeast of Chicago by rail, opposite the cities of Covington and Newport, in Kentucky. Steam ferries and six lofty bridges connect the city with the Kentucky shore; the suspension bridge by Roebling is two thousand two hundred and fifty feet long, and cost one million eight hundred thousand dollars.
Cincinnati occupies an exceedingly broken and irregular site, the more densely built parts being [599] enclosed between the Ohio River and steep hills. The river front is upwards of fourteen miles in length. A second terrace is fifty or sixty feet higher, and a district between the hills and the Miami Canal, known as “over the Rhine,” is occupied by the large German colony.
The main portion of the city is regularly laid out and its streets are well paved. The chief shopping district is bounded by Fourth, Main, Seventh, and Elm Streets. The best residential quarters are on the surrounding highlands, built on a succession of irregular hills, by whose steepness they are broken into a series of some five and twenty villages, interspersed with parks.
Fountain Square, an expansion of Fifth Street, may, perhaps, be called the business center of the city and from it start most of the street railway lines. In the middle of the square stands the Tyler Davidson Fountain, cast at the Royal Bronze Foundry at Munich. To the north, at the corner of Fifth Street and Walnut Street, is the United States Government Building containing the Post Office, Custom House, and United States Law Courts, erected at a cost of five million dollars. It is of sawed freestone in the Corinthian style.
By following Fifth Street to the west and turning to the left down Vine Street, we pass the entrance to the Emery Arcade and reach, at the corner of the busy Fourth Street, the Chamber of Commerce. Opposite, at the northeast corner of Fourth and Vine Streets, stands the Ingalls Building. On the north side of Fourth Street, between Vine and Race Streets, is the fine Third National Bank.
Following Fourth Street towards the west, we soon reach Plum Street, which we may follow to the right to St. Paul’s Protestant Cathedral, at the corner of Seventh Street; the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Peter, at the corner of Eighth Street, and the Synagogue, opposite the last. In the block bounded by Central Avenue and Eighth, Ninth and Plum Streets is the City Hall, a large red building in a Romanesque style, with a lofty tower, constructed of brown granite and red sandstone at a cost of one million six hundred thousand dollars. A little to the east, in Vine Street, between Sixth and Seventh Streets, is the Public Library. To the north of this point, “over the Rhine,” is Washington Park, with the Springer Music Hall and the Exposition Building.
Among other buildings may be mentioned the County Court House, St. Xavier’s College, the Oddfellows’ Temple and the Cincinnati Hospital. Recent buildings of the modern type include the Traction Building, the Mercantile Library, the Union Trust Building, and the First National Bank.
The chief park of Cincinnati is Eden Park, which lies on the hills to the east and affords fine views of the city and river. It contains the Art Museum, a storage reservoir of the City Water Works, and the Water Tower. The top of the last affords the best view of the city and its environs, the river, and the Kentucky Highlands.
The Art Museum is a handsome group of buildings on a hill-top, some in a Romanesque, others in a Grecian style. Adjacent is the Art Academy. Both are maintained by a private corporation.
There are more than two hundred and fifty churches, including a Roman Catholic cathedral; besides many handsome theaters, hotels, and public halls, hospitals and asylums, and schools.
The educational institutions are of the highest order. They include the University of Cincinnati, which has associated with it the Cincinnati Hospital and the Cincinnati Observatory, the Ohio and Miami Medical Colleges, St. Joseph’s and St. Xavier’s Jesuit Colleges, the Law Theological Seminary, Cincinnati Conservatory of Music and the Ohio Mechanics’ Institute.
Cincinnati is a center of musical and art culture, and its decorative pottery and wood-carving have a national reputation. It has a large river and canal traffic, and many railways converge here.
Among the factories are clothing factories, foundries, machine shops, coach-works, works for the manufacture of furniture, tobacco, shoes, leather, etc. There is some boat-building and printing; and the slaughter-houses, stockyards, and grain elevators are very extensive.
Cincinnati was settled by white men in 1780, was incorporated as a city in 1819, and early attained the name of “the Queen City of the West;” as also that of “Porkopolis,” from its great trade in pork. Great riots occurred in 1884, and were with difficulty suppressed by the military.
Cleveland, Ohio. [The “Forest City;” named in honor of General Moses Cleveland of Connecticut, who had charge of the surveying of this region, acting as general agent for the Connecticut Land Company.]
It is the largest city of Ohio, and is situated on the south shore of Lake Erie, three hundred and fifty miles by rail east of Chicago. The city is built mainly upon a plain from sixty to one hundred and fifty feet above the lake, and five hundred and eighty feet above sea-level. It is divided into the East and West Sides by the tortuous valley of the Cuyahoga River, which is crossed by two high-level bridges—one mainly of stone, and one of iron, three thousand nine hundred and thirty-one feet long. The former, one thousand and seventy feet long, was completed in 1878 at a cost of two million two hundred thousand dollars. There are three other similar viaducts in different parts of the city.
The chief business street is Superior Avenue, a really fine and wide thoroughfare, the west end of which is lined with substantial business blocks, such as the Perry-Payne Building. A little farther on the street expands into Monumental Park or the Public Square, containing a Soldiers’ Monument and a statue of General Moses Cleveland. The new Federal Building, at the northeast corner of the square, contains the Post Office, the Custom House, and the Court House.
This building is the first of several public buildings comprised in the so-called “Group Plan,” the others being the City Hall, County Building, Public Library, and Union Station. A broad mall connects all these buildings.
At the northwest corner is the Old Court House, adjoined by the American Trust Building. On the north side of the square, at the corner of Ontario Street, is the handsome building of the Society for Savings, established in 1849, and now having deposits of upwards of fifty million dollars. Adjacent is the Chamber of Commerce, containing a handsome auditorium, with a library and reading room. In Superior Avenue, beyond the Federal Building, is the massive City Hall, which is adjoined by the temporary building of the Public Library. A little to the north of this point is the huge Central Armory.
Euclid Avenue, which begins at the southeast angle of the Public Square, is, at its east end, also an important artery of business, and farther out becomes one of the most beautiful residence streets in America, with each of its handsome houses surrounded by pleasant grounds and shady trees. At the northeast corner of the Square and Euclid Avenue is the Williamson Building; a little farther on, also on the north side of the Avenue, is the handsome First National Bank; on the right is the tall, narrow building of the Guardian Savings & Trust Co. To the left is the Arcade, four hundred feet long, one hundred and eighty feet wide, and one hundred and forty-four feet high, with a fine five-balconied interior, running through to Superior Avenue; and to the right is the Colonial Arcade, running through to [600] Prospect Avenue. At the corner of East Sixth Street are the tall Garfield and New England Buildings. Nearly opposite the New England Building is the new Taylor Arcade, just east of which is the Hippodrome Building. Farther on, near east Ninth Street, is the Citizens Building, with the offices of the Citizens Savings & Trust Co., and at the corner is the Schofield Building. Directly opposite the latter, at the southeast corner of East Ninth Street and Euclid Avenue, is the Cleveland Trust Co. At the corner of East Twelfth Street is the handsome Union Club. Farther on are several fine churches. About four and one-half miles from the Public Square Euclid Avenue reaches University Circle, with a statue of Senator M. A. Hanna by Saint-Gaudens, and one of Kossuth, erected by the Hungarians of Cleveland. To the right is the building of the Western Reserve Historical Society, to the left is the Elysium, an artificial ice skating rink. Just beyond the Circle is the entrance to Wade Park, which contains statues of Commodore Perry, and a Goethe-Schiller Monument. Opposite the Park are the buildings of the Western Reserve University (including Adelbert College, Woman’s College, Law, Medical, and Dental Schools, and a Library School, in addition to the graduate department) and the Case School of Applied Science. About one mile farther on the avenue passes Lake View Cemetery, containing the Garfield Memorial, the Rockefeller Monolith, the graves of Senator Hanna and John Hay, and the Wade Memorial Chapel.
Prospect Avenue, which runs parallel to Euclid Avenue on the south, is little inferior to it in beauty.
Cleveland’s rapid growth is due mainly to the fact that nowhere else can the rich iron ores of Lake Superior, the coal of Northern Ohio, and the limestone of the Lake Erie islands, be brought together so cheaply; its position at the north terminus of the Ohio Canal being very advantageous, and seven railways terminate here.
The chief industries of the city are the various manufactures of iron, including steel rails, forgings, wire, bridges, steel and iron ships, engines, boilers, nails, screws, sewing machines, agricultural implements and machinery of all kinds, the refining of petroleum, wood-work, and other manufactures of endless variety. Cleveland is the greatest iron ore receiving point in America, one of the largest lumber markets and extensively engaged in the automobile industry.
Cleveland was founded in 1796 by General Moses Cleveland, under the direction of the Connecticut Land Company. In 1814 Cleveland was incorporated as a village with less than one hundred inhabitants. The opening of the Ohio land served as an impetus to growth, and in 1836 Cleveland was incorporated as a city. Its great prosperity dates from its connection by rail with the cities of the East and the manufacturing establishments set up during the Civil War.
Des Moines (dē-moin´), Iowa. [This name was applied by the Indians to a place in the form of Moingona, which the French shortened into Moin, calling the river “rivière des Moins.” Finally, the name became associated with the Trappist monks, and the river by a spurious etymology was called “la rivière des moines,” “the river of the monks.”]
The capital and largest city of Iowa, it is an important manufacturing and commercial city, and noted especially for its extensive insurance interests and exceptional railroad facilities. It has many important buildings, among them the Capitol, built at a cost of three million dollars, the United States Government Building, the State Arsenal, a State Historical Building, completed in 1908 at a cost of five hundred thousand dollars, Drake University, Highland Park College, Des Moines College, and a state library. A new city hall at a cost of four hundred thousand dollars, and a great coliseum to seat ten thousand are recent additions.
The city has nearly one hundred churches of all denominations. Half a dozen bridges over the two rivers connect the different parts of the town, and there is a public park, with fine groves of forest trees.
Vast bituminous coal fields have contributed to the growth of the manufacturing industries. These include typewriters, wagons, sleighs, cotton and woolen goods, pottery, furniture, and electrical appliances. The city was one of the first to adopt the electric car system.
Des Moines was settled in 1846, incorporated as the town of Fort Des Moines, 1851, chartered as a city and became the capital of the State in 1857. In 1907 Des Moines adopted the commission form of government and attained wide celebrity as a leader in progressive municipal government.
Denver, Colo. [The “Queen City of the Plains”; named after James W. Denver, ex-Governor of Kansas, upon the consolidation in 1860 of the towns of St. Charles and Aurora.]
The capital of Colorado, it is situated on the South Platte River, nine hundred and twenty-two miles west of St. Louis. It lies on a level plain, five thousand one hundred and ninety-six feet above the sea, beyond which rise the snow-capped peaks and deep blue shoulders of the Rocky Mountains.
The Union Depot lies at the foot of Seventeenth Street, one of the chief business thoroughfares, and electric cars start from here for all parts of the city. Near the station is a large bronze Arch, bearing the work “Welcome.” The route up Seventeenth Street and Seventeenth Avenue by electric car to the City Park and then across to Colfax (or Fifteenth) Avenue and return traverses the chief features of the city. On the way out is passed the Equitable Building, the roof of which affords a superb view.
The Rocky Mountains are seen to the west in an unbroken line of about one hundred and seventy miles, extending from beyond Long’s Peak on the north to Pike’s Peak on the south. Among the loftiest of the intervening summits are Grey’s Peak, Torrey’s Peak, and Mount Evans. The bird’s-eye view of the city in the immediate foreground includes the State Capitol and the fine residences of Capitol Hill on the east.
At the corner of Seventeenth and Glenarm Streets is the Denver Club, and at the corner of Sherman Avenue are the University Club and the Central Presbyterian Church. In returning through Colfax (or Fifteenth) Avenue the following buildings may be observed: the State Capitol, an imposing structure erected at a cost of two million five hundred thousand dollars; the new Public Library, between Acoma and Bannock Streets; the United States Mint, at the corner of Cherokee street, and the West Side Court House. The County Court House occupies the block bounded by Court Place and Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Tremont Streets. The Custom House and Post Office, on Sixteenth Street, is another imposing building. In Fourteenth Street is a handsome Auditorium used by the Democratic Convention in 1908.
The other important buildings of the city include the Denver High School, Stout Street, between Nineteenth and Twentieth Streets; the City Hall, corner Fourteenth and Larimer Streets; the Mining Exchange; the Chamber of Commerce; Baptist College (Montclair); the Tabor Opera House Block; the Broadway Theater; the Denver Athletic Club; Trinity Church, Broadway and Eighteenth Street; the Church of Christ, Scientist, Fourteenth and Logan Avenues; the Y. M. C. A., [601] Lincoln and Sixteenth Avenues; Mystic Shrine Temple, Sherman and Eighteenth Avenues; the Westminster University of Colorado, and the Jesuit College of the Sacred Heart (College Avenue, corner of Homer Avenue). On Capitol Hill are the new buildings of St. Mary’s Cathedral (Roman Catholic) and St. John’s Cathedral (Episcopalian). The Art Museum, in Montclair, contains a collection of paintings and other objects of art. The Museum in the City Park includes an interesting collection of Colorado animals. In University Park, eight miles to the southeast of the Union Depot, is the University of Denver.
The city is the center of a great agricultural and mining district, and has a large trade in cattle, hides, wool, and tallow. It is chiefly, however, to its position as the center of a great mining region that Denver owes its marvelous progress; the discovery, in 1878, of the fabulous wealth of the Leadville Hills attracted capital and emigration from all parts of the continent. It has a United States assaying mint, is an important ore market, and is noted for its smelting and refining works, foundry and machine shops.
Denver has an abundant water supply, and the clear invigorating air and dry climate of Denver are famous. It was founded on a barren waste, dry and treeless, in 1858, and the following year incorporated as a city by the Provisional Legislature.
Detroit (dē-troit´), Mich. [The “City of the Straits”; named from the river or strait on which the city is built. Derived from two French words, detroit, “the narrows.”]
It is situated on the Detroit River, eighteen miles from Lake Erie, at an altitude of six hundred feet. The river, sometimes called the “Dardanelles of the New World,” is here the boundary between the United States and Canada. It affords a splendid harbor, with a water-front of about nine miles. Ferries connect with the Canadian side. Many beautiful islands, with those of Lake St. Clair, are popular as places of summer residence and resort.
One of these, Belle Isle, is about seven hundred acres in extent and forms a beautiful public park, with fine trees, and still retaining many of its natural features unimpaired. It contains a statute of Schiller, a small zoological collection, a large aquarium and horticultural building, and a casino.
Woodward Avenue, the principal thoroughfare, divides the city into two very nearly equal parts. It is also the main business street, and at its northern end has many of the city’s most prominent buildings. Its expansion, about half a mile from the river, is known as the Campus Martius, adorned with a handsome fountain, from which Michigan and Gratiot Avenues diverge to the left and right. To the left stands the City Hall, the tower of which contains a clock with a dial eight and one-half feet in diameter. In front of the City Hall is the Soldiers’ Monument.
In Gratiot Avenue, near the Campus Martius, is the Public Library, containing two hundred and twenty thousand volumes and some historical relics. The Chamber of Commerce, at the corner of Griswold and State Streets, is thirteen stories high. The Post Office, in Fort Street, adjoining the site of the old Fort Lernoult, is a handsome building. In the same street, at the southeast corner of Shelby Street, is the State Savings Bank, and adjoining it on the east is the tall Penobscot Building.
Just to the east of the Campus Martius, in Cadillac Square, stands the County Building. It is in a plain renaissance style with a Corinthian portico over the main entrance, sculptures in the pediment, and a tower surmounted by a gilded dome. In front of it is the Cadillac Chair, erected in 1901 to commemorate the two hundredth anniversary of the city’s foundation.
A little farther on Woodward Avenue reaches Grand Circus Park, a square with trees, fountains, and a statue of ex-Governor Pingree. To the north, at the corner of Adams Street, is the Central Methodist Church, with a richly decorated interior. One block to the east, between Adams and Elizabeth Streets, is the new building of the Y. M. C. A. At the corner of Edmund Place, one-half mile farther on, are the First Unitarian and First Presbyterian churches, two fine Romanesque buildings of red stone. Between Erskine and Eliot Streets, to the right, is the Temple Bethel, an effective Jewish synagogue. Also to the right, at the head of Martin Place, is the handsome Harper Hospital; and Grace Hospital is also seen to the right (corner of Willis Avenue and John R. Street) a little farther on. To the left, a little higher up, is the Detroit Athletic Club. The north end of Woodward Avenue and the adjoining streets form the principal residence quarter.
Jefferson Avenue, which runs at right angles to Woodward Avenue, crossing it one-fifth mile from the river, contains many of the chief wholesale houses, and toward its northeast end has also many pleasant residences. The site of Fort Pontchartrain was at the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Griswold Street, two squares to the west of Woodward Avenue. To the east, on the left side of the street, are the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul and the Jesuit College, and on the right side the Academy of the Sacred Heart. On the same side, at the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Hastings Street, about one-half mile to the east of Woodward Avenue, stands the Museum of Art, containing paintings, sculptures and oriental curiosities.
The commerce of Detroit is enormous, a number of conditions favoring it as a commercial and industrial center. Its geographical position brings it into relation with an immense lake traffic and with the Canadian trade. About three-fourths of the total trade is with Canada. The principal exports are grain, wool, pork, lard, hides, and copper. It has important lumbering interests and large tanneries.
The manufactures include stoves, freight cars, drugs, varnish, paint, furniture, carriages, cigars, and matches. Other industries are those of iron and steel, foundry and machine shop products, and the manufacture of malt liquors.
The site of Detroit was visited by a party of Frenchmen as early as 1610, and again by La Salle in 1670, but no permanent settlement was made until 1701, when Sieur de la Mothe Cadillac, the first Governor of the French territory in this vicinity, built Fort Pontchartrain and established a small trading village. In 1815 Detroit was incorporated as a village, and in 1824 was chartered as a city by the Legislature of Michigan Territory. It was the capital of the Territory from 1805 to 1837, and of the State from 1837 to 1847.
Hartford, Conn. [Named from Hertford, England.] It is the capital of Connecticut, on the right bank of the Connecticut River, fifty miles from its mouth, and one hundred and twelve by rail northeast of New York. It is a handsome city, finely situated on the navigable Connecticut River, at its confluence with the Park River. The Union Depot is near the center of the town. To the southwest of it, beyond the Park River, lies Bushnell Park, containing the handsome white marble Capitol, a conspicuous object in most views of the town.
The fine sculptural embellishment of the north facade of the Capitol was done under the supervision of Paul W. Bartlett and partly by his own hand. The Senate Chamber contains a good [602] portrait of Washington, by Stuart, and an elaborately carved chair, made from the wood of the “Charter Oak.” In the Library are the Charter of Connecticut and portraits of Connecticut governors. In the east wing of the ground floor is a statue of Nathan Hale, and in the west wing are the tombstone of General Putnam and a statue of Governor Buckingham.
The gateway to the park was erected as a Soldiers’ Memorial.
Following Capitol Avenue to the east and then turning to the left, along Main Street, is the Wadsworth Athenæum, containing a gallery and libraries with one hundred and fifty thousand volumes, and the collections of the Historical Society. Adjacent are the buildings of the Ætna Life Insurance, the Ætna Fire Insurance, and the Travelers Insurance Co. A little farther on is the Post Office, adjoined by the interesting Old State House, erected by Chas. Bulfinch. Opposite is the Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Co. The State Arsenal is also on Main Street farther along.
Near the State House are the High School, the Hartford Orphan Asylum, and the Hartford Theological Institute. About a mile to the south is Trinity College, with fine buildings and equally fine location. The Colt Firearms factory is in the southeast part of the city, and near it is the handsome Church of the Good Shepherd, erected in memory of Colonel Colt, inventor of the revolver, by his wife.
A tablet at the corner of Charter Oak Place marks the site of the “Charter Oak,” where, in 1687, the charter of Connecticut was concealed to save it from Sir Edmund Andros, a tyrannical British governor. Charter Oak Park is famous for its trotting races. Elizabeth Park has a fine show of flowers.
Among other large buildings are the Retreat for the Insane, the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, the Old Folks Home, the City Hospital, and St. Joseph’s Roman Catholic Cathedral. The last is in Farmington Avenue, which, with its continuation, Asylum Street, contains many fine private residences.
Hartford is a prominent commercial and manufacturing city, and is particularly noted for the importance of its insurance companies, rating third in this regard among the cities of the United States. It is the farthest point, at present, to which large steamers can ascend the Connecticut River. Among the manufactures are firearms—the celebrated Colt manufactory is here—typewriters, rubber goods, especially tires, electrical supplies, automobiles, bicycles, sewing-machines, hardware, tools, carriages, silver plate, woven wire mattresses, book binding machinery, cash registers, knit goods, etc.
The site of a Dutch fort in 1633, and of a colony of Massachusetts settlers as early as 1635-1636, Hartford was incorporated as a city in 1784. Here (January 14, 1639) was adopted the first constitution in writing ever proclaimed by a people organizing a government, therefore Hartford is called the birthplace of American democracy. In 1687 occurred the famous attempt of Governor Andros to seize the charter of Connecticut. Hartford was the capital of Connecticut until 1701, thenceforth until 1873 it divided the responsibility with New Haven. Since 1875 it has been sole capital. Here in 1814 took place the famous meeting of New England delegates known as the Hartford Convention.
About 1780 the “Hartford wits,” of whom Joel Barlow was one, made the city a literary center. Since that time it has been the residence of a large number of literary men and women; among them Harriet Beecher Stowe, Whittier, Trumbull, Charles Dudley Warner, and Samuel L. Clemens. Noah Webster, Henry Barnard, Frederick Law Olmsted, and John Fiske were born here.
Indianapolis (in-di-a-nap´o-lis), Ind. [Literally, the City of Indiana, from Indiana and polis, city.]
It is the capital of Indiana, on the west fork of White River, in a level plain one hundred and ninety-five miles southeast of Chicago by rail. It is a regularly built and beautiful city.
The focus of the city is the circular Monument Place, from which four wide avenues run diagonally to the four corners of the city. The other streets, many of them one hundred feet wide, are laid out at right angles to each other. In the center of this place rises the Soldiers and Sailors’ Monument, two hundred and eighty-five feet high, by Bruno Schmitz of Berlin. Round the monument are statues of General G. R. Clark, Governor Whitcomb, President W. H. Harrison, and Governor Morton. A little to the west is the State Capitol, a large building with a central tower and dome, erected at a cost of two million dollars. At the east entrance to the Capitol is a statue of Governor Morton and near by is that of Governor Hendricks. The Marion County Court House, also an imposing edifice, lies to the east of Monument Place, while to the north of it is the United States Court House and Post Office, erected in 1902-1904. To the southwest of the former is a statue of General H. W. Lawton, by A. O’Connor. In University Park is a statue of Benjamin Harrison, erected in 1908.
The John Herron Art Institute, at the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and Sixteenth Street, contains a School of Art and a collection of modern paintings. Other large and important buildings are the Blind Asylum; the Propylæum, owned and controlled by a stock company of women for literary purposes; the Deaf and Dumb Asylum; the Union Railway Station; the City Hall; the Public Library; the Masonic Temple; the Oddfellows Building; the Deutsche Haus, a German club-house; the Mænnerchor Building, and several churches. The Winona Technical Institute is installed in buildings erected for the United States Arsenal. The Central Hospital for the Insane lies one and one-half miles to the west of the city, beyond the White River. The Riverside, Broad Ripple, Brookside, Fairview, and Garfield Parks deserve mention.
Indianapolis is one of the chief railroad centers of the United States, fifteen main lines converging here. It is also a great center of electric railways, which radiate hence in all directions, two hundred and fifty cars leaving the terminal station daily. The trade in agricultural produce is very considerable. Pork-packing is the leading industry, but there are also large flour and cotton and woolen mills, numerous foundries, and manufactories of furniture, carriages, tiles, etc.
Indianapolis was first settled in 1819, the city founded in 1821, became the seat of the state government in 1825, was incorporated as a town in 1836, and received its city charter in 1847. In the same year the first railroad in the state was opened.
Los Angeles (los an´je-les, Sp. pron. lōs äng´he-lās), Cal. [Named by the Spaniards Pueblo de la Reina de los Angeles, “The Town of the Queen of the Angels,” hence Los Angeles, “the angels.”]
It is the metropolis of southern California, lies on the Los Angeles River, twenty miles above its mouth and fifteen miles in a direct line from the Pacific Ocean, and four hundred and eighty-three miles southeast of San Francisco by the Southern Pacific Railroad.
It is a splendid city of wide streets and spacious sidewalks, with an extensive residential quarter, one hundred and thirty churches, over sixty public schools, and about one thousand seven hundred manufactories. It publishes newspapers in seven languages.
The city, especially the residential quarters, is embowered in plants, among the characteristic [603] features of which are the swift-growing eucalyptus, the graceful pepper-tree, many palms, Norfolk Island pines, live-oaks, india-rubber trees, orange trees, roses, geraniums, yuccas, century plants, bananas, calla lilies, and pomegranates. A distinguished French traveler pronounces Los Angeles one of the few really beautiful cities in the United States.
Broadway, running parallel to Main Street, is the dividing line for east and west, as First Street is for north and south. Among the many substantial buildings in Main Street are the City Hall, between Second and Third Streets, and the new Chamber of Commerce. The latter contains an interesting collection of California products, the Palmer collection of Indian antiquities, and the Coronel collection, illustrating the Spanish period. Here is also the first cannon brought to California by Padre Junipero Serra in 1769. In Temple Street, near Broadway, stands the County Court House. The Public Library is at the southeast corner of Broadway and Third Street.
Other edifices worthy of mention are the Women’s Club, in the Mission-Renaissance style (940 South Figueroa Street), the State Normal School (corner Grand Avenue and Fifth Street), the Security Savings Bank (corner Spring and Fifth Streets), the Union Trust and Hellman Buildings (opposite corners of Spring and Fourth Streets), the Auditorium (corner Fifth and Olive Streets), the Y. M. C. A. (Hope Street, between Seventh and Eighth Streets), the Y. W. C. A. (corner Hill and Third Streets), the Farmers and Merchants National Bank (corner Fourth and Main Streets), the Grant Building (corner Broadway and Fourth Street), Hamburger’s (corner Broadway and Eighth Street), Merchants Trust (207 Broadway), and the International Bank (corner Temple, Spring and Main Streets). The viaduct of the Electric Railway, in San Fernando Street, spanning the railway tracks on the east side of the city, is an interesting piece of engineering.
Los Angeles also contains many parks, including the Griffith Park of three thousand acres, and the Eastlake Park and Westlake Park, each with a small lake. The University of Southern California is situated at Wesley Avenue and Thirty-fifth Street.
The small plaza, with the Old Mission Church, at the north end of the business-town, is interesting as a survival of the ancient settlement. Just beyond is a genuine Chinatown, keeping many of the original adobe structures. An excellent view of the city can be obtained from the tower at “Angel’s Flight,” corner Hill and Third Streets. Opposite Eastlake Park is an Ostrich Farm, with some two hundred adult birds.
Los Angeles is the center of the orange-growing industry. The residents are principally occupied in the cultivation and export of oranges, grapes, and other fruits, as well as the manufacture of wine. There are rich oil-wells in and near the city and this district now forms part of one of the richest petroleum fields in the world. Many invalids resort to Los Angeles in the winter because of its mild and equable climate. The city has a harbor on the coast, eighteen miles off.
It is one of the oldest towns in the Western states, and was already a thriving place when the Franciscan fathers established a mission there in 1781. Under Mexican rule Los Angeles alternated with Monterey as the capital of California. From 1835 to 1847 it was the capital of the State of California. In 1846 it was occupied by the United States forces. For the first century of its history Los Angeles was only a small pueblo constructed mainly of adobe in the Mexican style, but the advent of the railroad brought a sudden impetus. It was the first city in the United States to be lighted with electricity.
Louisville (lōō´ĭ-vĭl, or lōō´ĭs-vĭl), Ky. [The “Falls City”; named by act of the Virginian Legislature in 1780, in honor of Louis XVI. of France, then assisting the American colonies in their revolutionary struggle.]
It is the largest city of Kentucky, and is situated on the Ohio River, one hundred and thirty miles by water southwest of Cincinnati. The river is here crossed by two railroad bridges, and forms a series of rapids—the “Falls of Ohio”—descending twenty-six feet in two miles.
Louisville covers about forty square miles of a plain, and is nearly enclosed by hills. It is handsomely built and extends for nearly eight miles along the river. Its well-shaded streets are from sixty to one hundred and twenty feet wide, and slope up from the river.
Perhaps the most prominent building in Louisville is the Custom House, in Chestnut Street between Third and Fourth Streets. The Court House is in Jefferson Street between Fifth and Sixth Streets, and is adjoined by the City Hall, with its square clock-tower.
The Louisville Public Library, at the corner of Fourth and York Streets, contains also an art gallery and a small museum, including the Troost Collection of Minerals.
The Farmers’ Tobacco Warehouse, in Main Street, is the center of the tobacco trade and has a large storage capacity. The University of Louisville, at corner of Eighth and Chestnut Streets, is housed in a handsome building. The Lincoln Bank, corner of Fourth and Market Streets, is fifteen stories high, with a splendid view from upper windows and roof.
Fourth Avenue, with many pleasant residences, leads south, passing the pretty little Central Park, to the Racecourse. Louisville possesses three fine parks: Iroquois Park, Cherokee Park, and Shawnee Park, to the south, east and west of the city. The First Regiment Armory has an enormous drill-hall and can seat fifteen thousand persons.
The Louisville Bridge, one mile long, crossing to the west end of Jeffersonville, was built in 1868-1872 and has twenty-seven iron spans supported by limestone piers. The Kentucky and Indiana Bridge, leading to New Albany, is one-half mile long. A third bridge, also leading to Jeffersonville, was constructed in 1892.
President Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) is buried near his old home, five miles to the east of Louisville.
Louisville is the greatest market for tobacco in the world, and has large pork-packing establishments, distilleries, and tanneries, with manufactories of plows, furniture, castings, gas and water pipes, machinery, flour, cement, cotton seed oil and cake, steam railroad cars, and carriages and wagons.
It was founded in 1778 and in 1780 named in honor of Louis XVI. of France, whose troops were then assisting the Americans. A great part of the town, including the tobacco-market and the city hall, was destroyed by a cyclone in March, 1890. Since the Civil War, Louisville has rapidly grown in importance as one of the chief gateways to the southwest.
Milwaukee (mĭl-wau´kē), Wis. [Named from the river, called by the Algonquins Minnwaukee, or Me-ne-wau-kee, “good earth, good country, rich or beautiful country.”]
It is the largest city in Wisconsin, and is situated on the west shore of Lake Michigan at the common mouth of three improved and navigable rivers, which, with a canal, supply twenty-four miles of dockage. An excellent harbor has been formed by the erection of huge breakwaters, and the river admits the largest lake-vessels to the doors of the warehouses.
The city is well built, largely of a light-colored [604] brick, and many of its streets are lined with beautiful shade trees, recalling some of the older eastern cities. Among the finest residence streets are Grand Avenue, Prospect Avenue, Waverly Place, Juneau Avenue, Marshall Street and Astor Street. About two-thirds of the inhabitants are Germans, which may account for its successful cultivation of music and art. There are no fewer than seventy-five musical societies in the city.
Grand Avenue, which runs east and west, contains many of the chief buildings and best shops, while Wisconsin Street and East Water Street are also busy thoroughfares. Among the most prominent buildings is the Federal Building, a handsome structure of granite in a turreted baronial style, occupying the block bounded by Jefferson, Jackson, Michigan and Wisconsin Streets, and containing the Post Office, Custom House and United States Court House. The interior is finely finished in marbles, mosaics, mahogany, and oak. The County Court House, a brown sandstone edifice, is in the square bounded by Jefferson, Jackson, Oneida, and Biddle Streets. The tall Wells Building, at the corner of Milwaukee and Wisconsin Streets; the Chamber of Commerce, Michigan Street; Plymouth Church, a massive building at the corner of Van Buren and Oneida Streets, and St. Paul’s Church, Marshall Street, are other important structures. The Auditorium, in Cedar Street, can accommodate ten thousand people.
The Layton Art Gallery, a well-lighted structure at the corner of Jefferson and Mason Streets, has some interesting pictures and statues. The paintings include examples of Rosa Bonheur, Constable, Corot, Millet, Achenbach, Alma-Tadema, Clays, Inness, Kensett, Mauve, Holmberg, Pradilla, Mesdag, Munkácsy, Van Marcke, and other modern masters. In the Sculpture Hall are works by Hiram Powers and Romanelli. The magnificent Public Library in Grand Avenue, between Eighth and Ninth Streets, contains two hundred thousand volumes and a free museum of natural history, palæontology, etc.
The curiously thin looking City Hall, with one of the largest bells in the world and an illuminated clock-dial, visible for two miles at night, occupies a triangular site bounded by East Water, Market and Biddle Streets.
Other notable structures in the business district are the Germania Building, the Evening Wisconsin Building, the Sentinel, the New Insurance Building, the Mitchell Building and the Pabst Building.
Among the public monuments are statues of Washington, near Ninth Street, and the Soldiers’ Monument.
Juneau Park, laid out on a bluff overlooking Lake Michigan, contains statues of Solomon Juneau, the earliest white settler, and Leif Ericson; it commands fine views. Lake Park, farther to the north, also overlooks the lake. Near it is the North Point Pumping Station, with a tall and graceful water tower. The Forest Home Cemetery, at the southwest corner of the city, deserves notice. The attractions of Washington Park, on the west limits of the city, include a large herd of deer.
The great breweries, such as Pabst’s, which covers thirty-four acres, or Schlitz’s, are wonderfully interesting plants, while the grain elevators, the flour mills, the coal docks, the International Harvester Co., and the workshops of the C. M. St. P. Railway are also great concerns. To the south are the rolling mills of the Illinois Steel Co., covering one hundred and fifty-four acres of ground. To the southwest, chiefly in the valley of the Menomonee, are the large brick yards that produce the light colored bricks which give Milwaukee the name of “Cream City.” To the north, along the Milwaukee River, are extensive cement works.
Sheridan Drive, skirting the lake to the south for two miles, is intended to be prolonged so as ultimately to meet the boulevard of that name running from Chicago to Fort Sheridan.
The other industries include manufactories of leather, machinery, iron and steel goods, tobacco, clothing, stoves, tinware, brick, furnaces, cars, steel and malleable iron. Pork packing is also carried on extensively.
Milwaukee became a village in 1835 and received a city charter in 1846. Its growth has been rapid, particularly in the last twenty-five years.
Minneapolis (min-e-ap´ō-lis), Minn. [The “Flour City”; named from Dakota Indian words, Minni, “water,” ha, “curling,” and the Greek word polis, “a city,” namely “city of the curling water,” alluding to the Falls of St. Anthony.]
It is the largest city of Minnesota, adjoins the capital, St. Paul, and is situated on both sides of the Mississippi, which is here crossed by numerous bridges. The Falls of St. Anthony, with a perpendicular descent of sixteen feet, afford a water power which has been a chief source of the city’s prosperity.
At the corner of Second Avenue South and Third Street stands the Metropolitan Life Building, erected at a cost of one million six hundred thousand dollars. Adjacent is the Post Office, in a Romanesque style.
On Hennepin Avenue, at the corner of North Fifth Street, is the imposing Lumber Exchange. To the right are the West Hotel and the Masonic Temple. At the corner of Eighth Street is the private art gallery of Mr. T. B. Walker, containing good specimens of British portrait painters and of the Barbison school and also works by or ascribed to Raphael, Michael Angelo, Rubens, Rembrandt, Van Dyck, Holbein, and Murillo.
Farther on, at the corner of Tenth Street, is the Public Library and Art Gallery, an ornate Romanesque structure.
At the corner of Sixteenth Street is the new Roman Catholic Cathedral.
Other prominent churches are the First Unitarian Church, at the corner of Mary’s Place and Eighth Street; the Westminster Presbyterian Church, Nicollet Avenue; the Church of the Redeemer; the Fowler Methodist Episcopal Church, on Lowry Hill; the Second Church of Christ, Scientist; Plymouth Church, and St. Mark’s Cathedral.
At the other end of Hennepin Avenue is the Union Depot. Among other prominent buildings in the business quarter are the Court House and City Hall, a handsome building in Fourth Street, completed at a cost of three million dollars, with a tower three hundred and forty-five feet high; the New York Life Insurance Building, Fifth Street and Second Avenue, with an elaborate interior; the Northwestern National Bank; the First National Bank; the Andrus Building; Donaldson’s Glass Block Store; the Security Bank Building, and the Chamber of Commerce, Fourth Street South and Fourth Avenue.
The University of Minnesota lies on the left bank of the river, between Washington and University Avenues, and occupies various well-equipped buildings.
Other notable institutions are the Augsburg Theological School, Minneapolis Normal School, and a Conservatory of Music.
Within the urban limits of Minneapolis are fourteen wooded lakes, while the gorges of the Mississippi and the Minnehaha Creek are very picturesque. These natural features have been made the basis of a fine system of boulevards. From the southeast side of Lake Harriet the road runs to the east along the Minnehaha Creek, passing Lake Amelia, to Minnehaha Park, containing the graceful Falls of the Minnehaha, fifty feet high and immortalized by Longfellow.
The most delightful resort near Minneapolis or St. Paul is Lake Minnetonka (eight hundred and twenty feet above the sea), which lies fifteen miles to the west. The lake is singularly irregular in outline, and with a total length of twelve to fifteen miles has a shore line of perhaps one hundred and fifty miles.
Minneapolis is the foremost city in the world in flour and lumber products. The flour mills, perhaps its most characteristic sight, are congregated on the banks of the Mississippi, near St. Anthony’s Falls. Other important industries are the manufacture of agricultural implements and machinery, bread and baking products, cars and general shop construction, food preparations, foundry products, furniture, fur goods, dressed fur, malt liquors, patent medicines, and printing and publishing.
The Falls of St. Anthony were named in 1680 by Father Hennepin. In 1819 Fort Snelling was built by the United States government. Though a large mill was built as early as 1822, it was not till 1850 that a permanent settlement was made. In 1856 Minneapolis was incorporated as a town on the west bank of the river, and in 1867 it was incorporated as a city. St. Anthony on the east bank was annexed in 1872.
Nashville, Tenn. [The “Rock City”; first named as a settlement, Nashborough, in honor of Francis Nash of North Carolina, a brigadier-general in the Continental Army. In June, 1784, changed to Nashville.]
It is the capital of Tennessee, on the navigable Cumberland River, two hundred miles above the Ohio, and one hundred and eighty-five miles by railroad southwest of Louisville. The city, which is one of the principal railroad centers in the Southern states, is built mainly on the left bank of the river, which is crossed by a suspension bridge and a railroad drawbridge to the suburb of Edgefield. Nashville is a handsome, well-built town, and it is, perhaps, the most important educational center in the South.
The most prominent building in the city is the State Capitol, conspicuously situated on a hill. In its grounds are a bronze equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson, and the tomb of President Polk, whose home stood at the corner of Vine and Union Streets. Among the other chief buildings are the Court House, the Custom House, the Parthenon, used for exhibitions of art, Greek plays by students, etc., the Vendome and Bijou Theaters, the Carnegie Library, the Board of Trade, the First National Bank, and the Stahlman Building.
At the head of the educational institutions stands Vanderbilt University, endowed by Cornelius Vanderbilt with one million dollars. In the campus is a colossal statue of the founder, by Moretti. Other well-known institutions are the Peabody Teachers’ College, Boscobel College, Belmont College, the Saint Cecilia Academy, Radnor College, Buford College and Ward’s Seminary.
There are also several large colleges for colored students.
Among the places of interest near Nashville are the Hermitage, the home of General Andrew Jackson, eleven miles to the east.
Nashville occupies a foremost place among the manufacturing centers of the country. It is the fifth boot and shoe market in the United States, the largest candy and cracker manufacturing city in the South, and does an enormous wholesale dry goods, grocery, and drug business. It carries on an extensive trade in cotton and tobacco; while its manufactures, which are rapidly extending, include cotton, flour, oil, paper, furniture, timber, leather, iron, and spirits. The iron interests of the South are largely controlled here.
Nashville was settled in 1780, received its charter in 1806, and in 1843 was made the permanent capital.
New Haven, Conn. [The “City of Elms”; named by the original settlers the “new haven.” The original Indian name was Quinnippac. The present name substituted “by the court” September 5, 1640.]
It is the chief city and seaport of Connecticut, at the head of New Haven Bay, is situated four miles from Long Island Sound, seventy-three miles by railroad northeast of New York and thirty-five miles southwest of Hartford.
The city is situated on a level plain, with a background of hills. Its broad streets are shaded with elms, and the public squares, parks, and gardens, with its handsome public and private edifices, make it one of the most beautiful of American cities.
From the large Union Station, which adjoins the harbor, Meadow Street leads north to the Public Green, on which are the City Hall, three churches, the Second National Bank, and the Free Public Library, United States Court House and Post Office. At the southeast corner of the Green is the Bennett Fountain, designed by John F. Weir after the monument of Lysicrates at Athens.
In College Street are most of the substantial buildings of Yale University, which, besides the Academic Department, has schools of Science, Theology, Medicine, Law, Forestry, Music, and Fine Arts, and also a Graduate School.
From the Public Green the university “campus” or quadrangle is entered by an imposing tower-gateway known as Phelps Hall. Among the buildings in the campus are the Art School, containing a good collection of Italian, American, and other paintings and sculptures; Connecticut Hall, the oldest Yale building (1750); Osborn Hall; Battell Chapel; Vanderbilt Hall; Alumni Hall; Dwight Hall, and the College Library. At the corner of Elm and High Streets is the Peabody Museum of Natural History, in which the mineralogical collections are especially fine.
Other important buildings of the university are the buildings of the Sheffield Scientific School, the Schools of Law, Medicine, and Divinity, the Chemical and Physical Laboratories, Memorial and other large halls.
Hillhouse Avenue is especially noted for its trees, and Chapel Street, the principal promenade, for the gardens surrounding many of the residences.
The parks have an aggregate area of one thousand two hundred acres. Besides the Green are the parks at East Rock (three hundred and sixty feet high) and West Rock (four hundred feet high), two masses of trap rock near the city which afford fine views. East Rock is surmounted by a soldiers’ monument. West Rock is famous for a cave in which the regicides Goffe and Whalley were for a time concealed. Savin Rock, Morris Cove, and Momaugin are shore resorts accessible from the city by electric car lines.
The railway lines from New Haven to New York City are the only ones of consequence that have been completely electrified.
New Haven is an important industrial city and has considerable commerce. The harbor has a jetty and a breakwater surmounted by a lighthouse, and the port has a large coasting trade. But it is of more consequence as a manufacturing town, employing many thousands of workers producing hardware, wire, locks, clocks, cutlery, firearms, corsets, india-rubber goods, carriages, furniture, paper, matches, musical instruments, etc.
New Haven was settled in 1638 by a company chiefly from London. In 1639 a government was established under a written constitution, and Theophilus Eaton, the pastor of the colony, was chosen and continued in the governorship until [606] 1658. Church membership was a qualification for suffrage and eligibility to office. The New Haven colony was founded in 1643 by the union of Milford, Guilford and Stamford with New Haven. In the same year it became a member of the confederacy of the United Colonies of New England. The charter of Charles II. for Connecticut (1662) included the New Haven colony, but the latter, supported by Massachusetts and Plymouth, stubbornly opposed absorption and was only forced to accede in 1664. Yale College, founded in Saybrook, was removed to New Haven in 1717. The town was captured by the British under Tryon and Garth, July 5, 1779. It was incorporated as a city in 1784. Joint capital with Hartford from 1701; the government was removed from New Haven altogether in 1873.
New Orleans (nū ôr’lē-ănz), La. [The “Crescent City”; its name is a translation of the French name Nouvelle Orleans, given by them in honor of the Duc d’Orleans, then Regent of France.]
It is the chief city of Louisiana, a great port and mart, and is situated on both sides of the Mississippi River—the greater portion on the east bank—one hundred and seven miles from its mouth, and one thousand one hundred and ninety miles southwest of New York. The Mississippi makes two bends here, whence the city was called “The Crescent City,” but it is now shaped like the letter S. The river is from six hundred to one thousand yards wide, and sixty to two hundred and forty feet deep. The bar at its mouth was removed in 1874-1879 by the Eads jetties in South Pass, and vessels of thirty feet now easily reach New Orleans.
A great part of the city is below the level of the river during the high flood tides, which last for a few days each year, and is protected by a levee or embankment, fifteen feet wide and fourteen feet high. The city is laid out with considerable regularity, and many of the chief streets are wide and shaded with trees. The most important business thoroughfare is Canal Street, which runs at right angles to the river and divides the French Quarter, or “Vieux Carré” on the northeast, from the New City, or American Quarter, on the southwest. The finest residences are in St. Charles Avenue, and in Esplanada Avenue, where the wealthy Creoles have their homes. Of the total population about one-quarter are negroes, while the remaining three-fourths include large proportions of French, German, Irish, Italian and Spanish blood.
While it possesses few imposing buildings, New Orleans is a picturesque city. There are several parks, little improved, but with handsome monuments or statues of Jackson, Lee, Franklin, and others. The custom house of granite cost four million five hundred thousand dollars, and is the largest and most imposing building in the city. It is a large granite building in Canal Street, near the river, and contains a large Marble Hall.
Just below the Custom House, Canal Street ends at the Levee, which extends along the west bank of the Mississippi for about six miles and presents a very animated and interesting scene. At the left is Jackson Square, the old Place d’Armes, which retains its ancient iron railing, and contains a statue of General Andrew Jackson, by Mills. It is adjoined by the Cathedral of St. Louis, a good specimen of the Spanish-Creole style, built in 1792-1794, on the site of the first church in Louisiana, but altered in 1850. It contains some paintings and interesting tombs.
The buildings to the right and left are Court Houses, that to the south having been built for the Cabildo, or City Council of the Spanish régime. In it and in front of it were held the ceremonies attending the cession of Louisiana by the French Government to the United States in 1803.
In Orleans Street, near the east end of the Cathedral, is a Convent of Colored Nuns, which contains what was formerly the famous Quadroon Ballroom, mentioned by Cable, the scene of many celebrated festivities.
On the Levee, just beyond Jackson Square, is the French Market, which often reveals a scene of the greatest picturesqueness and animation. A little farther on, at the foot of Esplanade Avenue, is the United States Branch Mint, a large building in the Ionic style. In Royal Street, four blocks from Canal Street, is the new Court House, a handsome structure of white marble and terra cotta.
In the fine French Quarter the chief promenades are Esplanade Avenue, Rampart Street and Bourbon, Toulouse, Conti and Royal Streets. At the corner of Chartres and Hospital Streets is the Archbishop’s Residence, in the unchanged Ursuline Convent, built in 1730.
Following St. Charles Avenue from Canal Street to the south, is the St. Charles Hotel and the Orpheum and, just beyond, Lafayette Square, around which are grouped the City Hall, the new Post Office, St. Patrick’s Church, the First Presbyterian Church, and the Odd Fellows’ Hall. In the square are a statue of Franklin, by Hiram Powers, a monument to John McDonough, and a statue of Henry Clay. Farther on is Lee Circle, with a monument to General Robert E. Lee. At the corner of Camp Street and Howard Avenue, adjoining Lee Circle, stands the Howard Library, the last work of H. H. Richardson, who was a native of Louisiana. Adjacent are Memorial Hall, a museum of Confederate relics, and the new building of the Public Library. To the southwest, in Carondelet Street, is the Jewish Temple Sinai. The monument to Margaret Haughery, the “Orphans’ Friend,” is said to have been the first statue of a woman erected in the United States.
Tulane Avenue, named in honor of the chief benefactor of Tulane University, and its continuation Common Street, contain the Law Department of Tulane University, the House of Detention, the Jesuit Church of the Immaculate Conception in a singular Moorish style, the Parish Prison and Criminal Courts, the Hôtel Dieu, and the large Charity Hospital, originally established in 1784. The large Cotton Exchange is at the corner of Carondelet and Gravier Streets; the Produce Exchange is in Magazine Street, and the Sugar Exchange is at the foot of Bienville Street. The United States Marine Hospital lies near the river.
St. Charles Avenue, extending in a crescent from Lee Circle past Audubon Park to the river, is lined with oaks and magnolias and contains many old and admirable private residences. Among its public buildings are Christ Church, the New Orleans University, the Academy of the Sacred Heart, the Jewish Orphan Home, and the Harmony Club. At the point where the avenue crosses Audubon Park are the newer buildings of the Tulane University, an important and well-equipped institution. A department of Tulane University is the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Women, founded in 1886. A legacy of John McDonough has built and equipped thirty handsome school houses in different parts of the city.
The City Park, on the Metairie Ridge, is one hundred and fifty acres in extent. The Audubon Park, in which the Great Exhibition of 1884-1885 was held, and which now holds the “Sugar Experimental Station” of the State of Louisiana, is a long segment extending back from the river, being the ground in which the sugar cane was first grown in this state. Both parks contain fine live-oaks.
New Orleans is the largest cotton market in the world except Liverpool, handling annually two [607] million bales. The manufacturing products include machinery, cotton goods, boots and shoes, and amount in a year to sixty million dollars. As the outlet of the Mississippi Valley it commands a large export trade.
The site of New Orleans was first visited in 1699 by Bienville, who in 1718 laid the foundations of the city, and in 1726 made it the capital. In 1763 it was ceded to Spain by France, with the rest of Louisiana; but when in 1765 the Spanish governor attempted to take possession, he was driven out, and the people established a government of their own till 1769, when the Spaniards occupied it. It was ceded to France in 1802, and transferred to the United States a few days later. Incorporated as a city in 1804, it was divided in 1836-1852 into three separate municipalities, in consequence of the jealousies between the Creoles and the Americans. Other outstanding events have been the defeat of the British by Andrew Jackson in 1815; the capture in 1862 by the Federal fleet; serious political troubles with fighting in 1874 and 1877; and the lynching in 1891 of eleven Italian maffiosi. In 1880 the capital of Louisiana was removed from New Orleans to Baton Rouge.
Newport, R. I. [The “City of Mansions”; named in honor of the English admiral Christopher Newport (under James I.).]
It was, until 1900, one of the capitals of Rhode Island, and lies on the west shore of the island, in Narragansett Bay, five miles from the ocean, and sixty-nine miles by railroad southwest of Boston. It has a deep and excellent harbor, defended by Fort Adams.
The town is noted for fine scenery, and is one of the most fashionable watering-places in America, containing some of the finest mansions in the United States. Bathing facilities are unrivaled, and there are many fashionable promenades.
The chief attractions are Touro Park, and the Old Mill, Cliff Walk, Bailey’s Beach, and the Ocean Drive.
The central point of Old Newport is Washington Square, or the Parade, within a few minutes’ walk of the railway station and steamboat wharf. Here are the State House, with portrait of Washington, by Stuart; the old City Hall (new one in Broadway, corner of Bull Street); a statue of Commodore O. H. Perry, the hero of Lake Erie; the Perry Mansion, and the Roman Catholic Church, with an Ionic portico.
Following Touro Street, to the southeast, is the Synagogue built in 1762 and the oldest in the United States; the Newport Historical Society; and, a little beyond, the picturesque Hebrew Cemetery. Touro Street ends here and Bellevue Avenue, the fashionable promenade, begins, running to the south.
The fine Fern-leaf Beech is at the corner of Bellevue Avenue and Redwood Street. Nearly opposite this is Touro Park, containing the Round Tower or Old Stone Mill, the origin of which is still somewhat of a mystery. Some authorities believe that it was built by Governor Arnold in the seventeenth century as a wind-mill, while others regard it as very possibly the central part of a church built by the Norsemen in the eleventh century. Longfellow mentions it in his Skeleton in Armor. The park also contains statues of M. C. Perry and W. E. Channing; and opposite its south side stands the Channing Memorial Church.
A few hundred paces farther on, Bath Road leads to the left from Bellevue Avenue to the First Beach.
Bellevue Avenue soon passes the Casino, a long, low, many-gabled building, containing a club, a theater, etc. The Lawn Tennis Championship of America is decided in the courts attached to the Casino. Farther on, the avenue passes between a series of magnificent villas, and then turns sharply to the right and ends at Bailey’s Beach.
First or Easton’s Beach, a strip of smooth hard sand, three-fourths mile long, affords some of the best and safest surf-bathing on the Atlantic coast. From the east end of the beach a road leads round Easton’s Point to Purgatory, a curious fissure in the conglomerate rocks, one hundred and fifty feet long, seven to fourteen feet wide, and fifty feet deep.
At the west end of Easton’s Beach begins the famous Cliff Walk, which runs along the winding brow of the cliffs for about three miles, with the ocean on one side and the smooth lawns of handsome homes on the other. Here are summer residences, owned by the wealthiest society people of Boston, New York, and other cities.
Across the hill is Bailey’s Beach, a small bay with a long row of bathing-houses, which has become the fashionable bathing-resort of the Newport cottagers.
From Bailey’s Beach begins the beautiful Ocean or Ten Mile Drive, which skirts the coast of the peninsula to the south of the town for about ten miles, commanding magnificent views.
The locality of Newport has many natural curiosities, including the Hanging Rocks, Spouting Cave, and the Glen, or “Purgatory,” already referred to. Newport is the seat of the United States Naval War College, United States Training Station, Torpedo Station, Naval Hospital, Newport Hospital, and Hazard Memorial School.
The manufactures are flour, cotton goods, copper, brass, oil, etc.
Newport was settled in 1638 by eighteen adherents of Roger Williams, and was an important commercial town prior to the Revolutionary war, which effected its ruin and transferred its trade to New York. During the war it was occupied for three years by the British, and for a while by the French under Rochambeau. It was the birthplace of Commodore Perry and William Ellery Channing, and for a while the place of residence of Bishop Berkeley, the English philosopher.
New York City, N. Y. [The “Empire City”; also “Gotham”; named from the State which was named in honor of James, Duke of York, afterwards James II.]
It is the largest and most important city on the American continent, the second wealthiest on the globe, and, next to London, the most populous in the world. Situated on New York Bay at the confluence of the Hudson and East Rivers, about twelve miles from the Atlantic Ocean, it consists of the boroughs of Manhattan, The Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond, which have a joint area of three hundred and twenty-six square miles. Its extreme length, north and south, is thirty-five miles, its extreme width nineteen miles.
Manhattan, or New York proper, consists mainly of Manhattan Island, a long and narrow tongue of land bounded by the Hudson or North River on the west and the East River (part of Long Island Sound) on the east and separated from the mainland on the north and northeast by the narrow Harlem River and Spuyten Duyvil Creek; but also includes several small islands in New York Bay and the East River.
Manhattan Island is thirteen and one-half miles long, with an average breadth of one and three-fifths miles, and with the exception of a small, wild, and rocky portion, which is utilized for ornamental purposes, the entire island is laid out in avenues and streets. It includes several greens and parks, and its area has been considerably extended by filling in on the two river-sides.
The strikingly beautiful landlocked harbor of New York includes the lower bay, the upper bay, the East River, and the North, or Hudson River. Ocean steamships enter it from the sea by Sandy [608] Hook through the Narrows, and coasting ships from the north through Long Island Sound. The North River averages a mile wide; the East River is not so wide, but both are deep enough for the largest ships, and furnish many miles of wharfage. The Harlem River, at the north end of Manhattan Island, connects the two great rivers.
The bar at Sandy Hook, eighteen miles south of the city, which divides the Atlantic Ocean from the outer or lower bay, is crossed by two ship-channels, from twenty-one to thirty-two feet deep at ebb-tide. The lower bay covers eighty-eight square miles. The Narrows, through which all large ships pass on their way to the inner harbor, is a strait between Long Island and Staten Island, about a mile in width, and like other approaches is defended by forts. New York’s harbor or inner bay covers about fourteen square miles; it is one of the amplest, safest, and most picturesque on the globe, open all the year round.
Liberty Island, for a long time known as Bedloe’s Island, is situated in the harbor, about one and three-fourths miles from the lower end of the city. In 1886 the famous Bartholdi statue was erected on this spot, and occupies its central surface. It is a colossal bronze female figure one hundred and fifty-one feet in height, on a pedestal one hundred and fifty-five feet high, and holding aloft a torch which is lit by electricity at night.
Immense bridges span the East River and Harlem River, and there are some thirty steam-ferries.
The New York and Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, opened in 1883, which cost twenty million dollars, was soon found inadequate for the enormous traffic, and a second bridge from Canal Street to Brooklyn was opened in 1909.
The Williamsburg Suspension Bridge, between Manhattan and Williamsburg, was opened in 1903. It cost twelve million dollars.
The Queensboro Bridge, of cantilever type, between Long Island and Fifty-ninth Street, was opened in 1909. Its cost was twenty million dollars.
In 1909 another bridge from Manhattan to Brooklyn, built at a cost of twenty-six million dollars, was completed.
The Harlem River is crossed by several bridges, of which the Washington is noteworthy as being one of the finest in America.
Hell Gate Arch Bridge spans the East River at Hell Gate, between Ward’s Island and Astoria, Long Island. It was designed and built by Gustav Lindenthal for the New York Connecting Railroad to connect the Pennsylvania and New York, New Haven systems, at a cost, including approaches, of twenty-five million dollars. It is the longest arch in the world. The span is one thousand and sixteen feet ten inches between tower faces. The upper chord of the arch is three hundred feet above mean high water at the center and one hundred and eighty feet at the ends of the span; the lower chord is two hundred and sixty feet above mean high water at the center and forty feet at the ends; the roadway is one hundred and forty feet above mean high water.
Old New York is laid out very irregularly. Here the money interests and wholesale traffic are centered; Wall, New, and Broad Streets being the great centers of banking and speculative enterprises.
The newer part of the city, from Fourteenth Street to the end of the island, northward, is divided into twelve great avenues and several smaller ones, from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet in width, running north and south. These are crossed at right angles by streets, mostly sixty feet in width, running from river to river.
Fifth Avenue, the great modern central thoroughfare, divides the city into eastside and westside. Here or hereabout are the largest banks, churches, museums, libraries, shops, palaces, and tenements in America.
Fifth Avenue below Fifty-ninth Street is now largely occupied by store and office buildings where once were palatial private houses; and between Madison Square and Fifty-ninth Street contains many hotels and clubs, and the New York Public Library.
The original great thoroughfare, Broadway, runs a northwesterly course through the regular cross street arrangement, making some slight deflections, quite through the middle of the island.
For a distance of two and one-half miles from Fifty-ninth to One Hundred and Tenth Street, Central Park divides the city into two parts.
Other parks are Van Cortlandt, one thousand and sixty-nine acres; Pelham Bay, one thousand seven hundred acres; and Bronx Park, six hundred and sixty-one and sixty-one hundredths acres, containing the Botanical and Zoological Gardens. Prospect Park, Brooklyn, contains five hundred and sixteen and one-quarter acres. A recreation course, skirting the Harlem River, and reserved for fast driving, is the “Speedway,” and extending along the Hudson for three miles is Riverside Drive, with its striking views of the Palisades. On an abrupt elevation is Morningside Park, on which are located the new buildings of Columbia University, St. Luke’s Hospital, and the Cathedral of St. John the Divine. Beyond Morningside Park is a rocky ridge known as Washington Heights.
The most thickly settled part of Brooklyn borough is in the north, and the business portion is that part fronting on East River and the upper harbor. The southern part is largely marshland. At the southwestern extremity of Long Island, in this borough, stretches a sandbar known as Coney Island, on which are the widely-known popular summer resorts. Queensboro has several large population centers, among them Long Island City and Flushing. Richmond borough (Staten Island) contains numerous villages.
Communication throughout the city is afforded by an extensive system of electric surface, electric elevated roads, the great subway railroad system, and by ferries plying between the boroughs.
The subway has, for part of its course, four tracks, two of which are for express trains. It begins at the City Hall and traverses the whole length of Manhattan Island. The first length of eight miles to Washington Heights was opened in 1904. The following year the line was extended to the Battery, and also under the Harlem River into Bronx. In 1908 a further extension was opened between the Battery and Brooklyn by way of a tunnel. In 1909, a double-tube tunnel, the McAdoo, connected the city at Sixth Avenue and Twenty-third Street with Hoboken, N. J.
In 1910 several tunnels under the Hudson and East Rivers were opened. Other great works of development are almost constantly in progress to deal with the traffic requirements, including further subways, a number of river tunnels, and additional railroad terminals. A recent gigantic railway enterprise is the construction of the Pennsylvania tunnel under the Hudson River.
Some of the larger features of New York call for more detailed notice.
The architecture of New York exhibits great contrasts, including styles as diverse as the quaint old Dutch houses, and skyscrapers of twenty-five and thirty stories.
At the extreme south end of the island is the Custom House, a large quadrangular granite building, in the French Renaissance style, which occupies the site of Fort Amsterdam. The facade toward Bowling Green is adorned with colossal groups of Europe, Asia, Africa, and [609] America, and with twelve heroic figures representing the great sea-powers.
In Whitehall Street, opposite the Custom House, is the Produce Exchange, a huge brick and terra cotta structure in the Italian Renaissance style, containing numerous offices and a large hall. The tower, two hundred and twenty-five feet high, commands a fine view of the city and harbor.
Broadway begins at the Bowling Green, extending hence all the way to Yonkers, a distance of nineteen miles. Up to Thirty-third Street, Broadway is the scene of a most busy and varied traffic, which reaches its culminating point in the lower part of the street during business-hours. This part of the street is almost entirely occupied by wholesale houses, insurance offices, banks, and the like; but farther up are numerous fine shops. Broadway is no longer the broadest street in New York, but it is still the most important. The number of immensely tall office buildings with which it is now lined give it a curiously canyon-like appearance.
No. 1 Broadway, to the left, is the Washington Building, which is adjoined by the Bowling Green Building (sixteen stories), designed by English architects. Other conspicuous business buildings in the lower part of Broadway are the large Welles and Standard Oil Co. Buildings, Nos. 18, 26, the 42 Broadway Building, twenty stories, and Aldrich Court, on the site of the first habitation of white men on Manhattan Island. At Nos. 64-68 is the Manhattan Life Insurance Co., the tower of which is three hundred and sixty feet high. To the left, at the corner of Rector Street, is the imposing Empire Building, twenty stories, the hall of which forms a busy thoroughfare between Broadway and the Rector Street “L” station.
FAR-FAMED BROADWAY AT NIGHT
Wall Street diverging from Broadway to the right, at this point, is the great financial street of New York, the financial barometer of the country. On this street stands the United States Sub-Treasury, a marble structure with a Doric portico, occupying the site of the old Federal Hall, in which the first United States Congress assembled, and Washington was inaugurated as President; the Drexel Building, a white marble structure in the Renaissance style, occupied by J. Pierpont [610] Morgan & Co.; the National City Bank, largest in the country, occupying the old Custom House.
Trinity Church, on the west side of Broadway, is a handsome Gothic edifice of brown stone, with a spire two hundred and eighty-five feet high. The present building dates from 1839-1846, but occupies the site of a church of 1696. The church owns property to the value of at least twenty million dollars used in the support of several subsidiary churches and numerous charities.
Just above Trinity Church are the enormous Trinity and United States Realty buildings, two dignified structures, the former with an admirable facade in a modified Gothic style, and nearly opposite are the Union Trust Co. and the twenty-three story building of the American Surety Co., the latter containing the United States Weather Bureau (“Old Probabilities”). On the same side, between Pine Street and Cedar Street, is the office of the Equitable Life Insurance Co.
The block to the left, between Liberty Street and Cortland Street, is occupied by the buildings of the Singer Manufacturing Co., the City Realty Co., and the City Investing Co. The tower of the Singer Building, with its forty-one stories, rises to a height of six hundred and twelve feet. Between Broadway and Park Row is the Post Office, a large Renaissance building.
City Hall, containing the headquarters of the Mayor of Greater New York and other municipal authorities, is a well-proportioned building of marble in the Italian style, with a central portico, two projecting wings, and a cupola clock tower.
To the north of the City Hall is the Court House, a large building of white marble, with its principal entrance, garnished with lofty Corinthian columns, facing Chambers Street. The interior, which contains the State Courts and several municipal offices, is well fitted up. This building, one of the “Tweed ring” structures, is said to have cost twelve million dollars. Opposite the Court House, in Chambers Street, are various City Offices. These include the new Register Office or Hall of Records, a handsome building in the French Renaissance style, erected at a cost of six million dollars and faced with granite. The facade is adorned with sculptures, and the interior is also elaborately decorated. To the southwest of the City Hall, facing Broadway, is a statue of Nathan Hale.
Park Row, bounding the southeast side of the City Hall Park, contains the offices of many of the principal New York newspapers, the Pulitzer Building, with the World office, Tribune Building, New York Press, and Park Row Building with its lofty towers. Opposite the newspaper offices, in Printing House Square, is a bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin, and in front of the Tribune Building is a seated bronze figure of its famous founder, Horace Greeley.
Beyond Astor Place, Broadway passes the large building occupied by John Wanamaker, but originally erected for A. T. Stewart & Co. With its new annexes, it is heralded as the largest department store in the world.
Broadway now inclines to the left. At the bend rises Grace Church, which, with the adjoining rectory, chantry, and church-house, forms one of the most attractive ecclesiastical groups in New York. The church is of white limestone and has a lofty marble spire. The interior is well-proportioned, and all the windows contain stained glass.
At Fourteenth Street Broadway reaches Union Square, which is beautified with pleasure grounds, statues, and an ornamental fountain. At the corner of East Sixteenth Street is the massive office building of the Bank of Metropolis. Near the southeast corner is a good equestrian statue of Washington, in the center of the south side is a bronze statue of Lafayette, in the southwest corner is a statue of Abraham Lincoln, and on the west side is the James Fountain.
Broadway, between Union Square and Madison Square, is one of the chief shopping-resorts of New York, containing many fine stores for the sale of furniture, dry goods, etc. At Twenty-third Street it intersects Fifth Avenue and at the point of intersection stands the daring Fuller Building, generally known as the “Flat-iron Building” on account of its strange triangular shape. It is two hundred and ninety feet high, has twenty stories, and cost four million dollars.
Broadway now skirts the west side of Madison Square, a prettily laid out public garden, containing a bronze statue of Admiral Farragut, an obelisk to the memory of General Worth, a statue of Roscoe Conkling, a statue of President Arthur, and a statue of William H. Seward. The statue of Farragut is among the finest in New York, and the imaginative treatment of the pedestal is very beautiful. On the west side of the square is the new Fifth Avenue Building.
On the east side is the new Appellate Court House, a handsome building, perhaps somewhat overloaded with ornamentation.
On the east side of the square, between Twenty-third and Twenty-fourth Streets, is the enormous building of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., the tower of which has fifty stories and reaches a height of six hundred and ninety-three feet. Two elevators run to a height of five hundred and forty-four feet. Adjacent is the Madison Square Presbyterian Church, with its massive dome. At the southeast corner of Twenty-sixth Street stands the Manhattan Club, and at the northeast corner is the huge Madison Square Garden, with its Moorish tower capped by a fine statue of Diana.
The Herald Office, a Venetian palace, stands at Broadway and Thirty-fifth Street, in Herald Square.
West of Herald Square, at Seventh Avenue and Thirty-third Street, is the magnificent station of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, covering an area four hundred and fifty by one thousand eight hundred feet, the largest structure of the kind in the world, connected by tunnels under the Hudson River with New Jersey, and under the East River with Long Island. The tracks are forty feet below the level of the city streets.
The Metropolitan Opera House, opened in 1883 and rebuilt ten years later, after a fire, stands between Thirty-ninth and Fortieth Streets.
At Forty-second Street and Broadway is the Times Building, an ornamental structure sixteen stories high, upon a triangle of ground.
To the east of Madison Avenue is the Grand Central Station, the terminus of the New York Central, the New York, New Haven and Hartford, and the Harlem Railways. Opposite the station is the Belmont Hotel, twenty-two stories high.
The corner at Broadway and Forty-second Street is the recent heart of the theatrical and hotel district, for clustered there are a dozen hotels, the immense Astor and Knickerbocker among them, and there are twenty theaters within half a mile, six of them almost side by side on Forty-second Street.
Beyond Times Square, Broadway is rather uninteresting, but there are some lofty specimens of apartment houses or French flats farther up. From Forty-fifth Street on, Broadway is largely occupied by automobile stores and garages. At the corner of Fifty-sixth Street is the new Broadway Tabernacle and at Fifty-ninth Street Broadway reaches the southwest corner of Central Park and intersects Eighth Avenue.
At the intersection, the so-called Circle, stands the Columbus Monument by Gaetano Russo, [611] erected in 1892, and consisting of a tall shaft surmounted by a marble statue, in all seventy-seven feet high. Beyond Seventy-eighth Street, Broadway, now a wide street with rows of trees, is usually known as the Boulevard. From One Hundred and Eighth Street to One Hundred and Sixty-second Street it coincides with Eleventh Avenue, at One Hundred and Sixteenth Street it passes Columbia University, and from One Hundred and Sixty-second Street it, as Kingsbridge Road, runs on to Yonkers.
Fifth Avenue, the chief street in New York from the standpoint of wealth and fashion, begins at Washington Square to the north of West Fourth Street and a little to the west of Broadway, and runs north to the Harlem River, a distance of six miles. Below Forty-seventh Street the Avenue has now been largely invaded by shops, tall office buildings, and hotels. The avenue has been kept sacred from the marring touch of the street railway or the elevated railroad, and is traversed by a line of motor omnibuses. The avenue is wide and well-paved, and many of the buildings are of brown sandstone. On a fine afternoon Fifth Avenue is alive with carriages and horsemen on their way to and from Central Park and it is, perhaps, seen at its best on a fine Sunday.
At Twenty-third Street the Avenue intersects Broadway and skirts Madison Square. To the right is the Flat-iron Building. At Twenty-sixth Street is the Café Martin.
The whole block between Thirty-third and Thirty-fourth Streets, to the left, is occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, a huge double building of red brick and sandstone in a German Renaissance style. The restaurants and other large halls in the interior are freely adorned with mural paintings by American artists.
The Union League Club, the chief Republican club of New York, is a handsome and substantial building at the corner of Thirty-ninth Street.
Between Fortieth Street and Forty-second Street, to the left, on the site of the old reservoir of the Croton Aqueduct, stands the New York Public Library, a very dignified and imposing structure of white marble, built at a cost of ten million dollars.
A little to the east of this point, in Forty-second Street, is the Grand Central Station already referred to. At the southeast corner of Forty-second Street rises the tasteful Columbia Bank. The Temple Emanu-El, or chief synagogue of New York, at the corner of Forty-third Street, is a fine specimen of Moorish architecture with a richly decorated interior.
At the northeast corner of Forty-fourth Street is Delmonico’s Restaurant, a substantial building with elaborate ornamentation; and at the southwest corner is Sherry’s, a rival establishment, equally patronized by the fashionable world.
The Collegiate Church of St. Nicholas (Dutch Reformed), at the corner of Forty-eighth Street, is one of the handsomest and most elaborately adorned ecclesiastical edifices in the city. It is in decorated Gothic style and has a spire two hundred and seventy feet high. Just below Fiftieth Street, on the right, is the Democratic Club, the stronghold of Tammany and popularly known as “Tamany Hall” or the “Wigwam.”
Between Fiftieth and Fifty-first Streets, to the right, stands St. Patrick’s Cathedral, an extensive building of white marble in the decorated Gothic style, and the most important ecclesiastical edifice in the United States. It is four hundred feet long, one hundred and twenty-five feet wide and one hundred and twelve feet high, and the two beautiful spires are three hundred and thirty-two feet high. The building, which was designed by James Renwick, was erected in 1850-1879, at a cost of three million five hundred thousand dollars.
Adjoining the cathedral, to the right, is the handsome Union Club, and at the corner of Fifty-fourth Street is the University Club, adorned with carvings of the seals of eighteen American colleges. The library contains admirable mural paintings, adapted from Pinturicchio’s work in the Borgia apartments of the Vatican. At the corner of Fifty-fifth Street are the St. Regis Hotel and the Gotham Hotel. The Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church has one of the loftiest spires in the city.
Between Fifty-ninth and One Hundred and Tenth Streets Fifth Avenue skirts the east side of Central Park, having buildings on one side only. Among these, many of which are very handsome, is the Metropolitan Club.
At Fifty-ninth Street, where Fifth Avenue reaches Central Park, are three huge hotels: the New Plaza, the Savoy, and the Netherland. In the middle of the Plaza rises a bronze-gilt equestrian statue of General Sherman, of fine artistic merit.
Mt. Sinai Hospital is between One Hundredth and One Hundred and First Streets.
In Central Park, close to Fifth Avenue at Eighty-second Street, is the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
At One Hundred and Twentieth Street Fifth Avenue reaches Mount Morris Square, the mound in the center of which commands good views. Beyond Mt. Morris Square the Avenue is lined with handsome villas, some of them surrounded by gardens. It ends in a district of tenements and small shops at the Harlem River.
New York has many public parks, the finest of which is the Central Park. The district in which it is located was once a wilderness of rocks and swamps. Plans by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were so admirably carried out as to make the Central Park in ten years one of the most beautiful pleasure-grounds in the world.
Of its eight hundred and forty acres, four hundred are wooded. There are nine miles of drives, with thirty miles of paths, several lakes used for boats in summer and for skating in winter, immense lawns for baseball, tennis, etc., a zoological garden, and conservatories.
The chief promenade is the Mall, near the Fifth Avenue entrance, which is lined with fine elms and contains several statues and groups of sculpture, including Shakespeare, Scott, Burns, Halleck, Columbus, and the Indian Hunter. From the Terrace, at the north end of the Mall, flights of steps descend to the Bethesda Fountain and to the Lake, used for boating in summer and skating in winter. The most extensive view in the park is afforded by the Belvedere, which occupies the highest point of the Ramble, to the north of the Lake.
The North Park, beyond the Croton Reservoir, has fewer artificial features than the South Park, but its natural beauties are greater, and the Harlem Mere, of twelve acres, is very picturesque. Near the southeast corner of the park (nearest entrance in Sixty-fourth Street) are the Old State Arsenal and a small Zoological Garden. On the west side of the park is the American Museum of Natural History, and on the east side is the Metropolitan Museum of Art. To the west of the latter museum rises Cleopatra’s Needle, an Egyptian obelisk from Alexandria, presented by Khedive Ismail Pasha to the City of New York in 1877. The obelisk is of red syenite, is sixty-nine feet high and weighs two hundred tons. Among the other monuments in the park are statues of Webster, Bolivar, Hamilton and Morse, allegorical figures of Commerce and the Pilgrim, and several busts and animal groups. Just outside the park, beside the Sixth Avenue entrance, is a statue of Thorwaldsen.
In Manhattan Square, on the west side of Central Park, between Seventy-seventh and [612] Eighty-first Streets, stands the American Museum of Natural History, which contains collections of natural history, paleontology and ethnology.
CENTRAL PARK TERRACE, NEW YORK
The Metropolitan Museum contains paintings, statuary, ivories, tapestries, porcelains, Greek, Roman, and Egyptian antiquities. Beginning with one structure erected by the city at a cost of five hundred thousand dollars in 1880, it now comprises a series of buildings which cost several million dollars. The collections of paintings, sculpture, antiquities, porcelains, jades, armor, etc., are valued at ten million dollars, most of which has been contributed by art lovers of the city. In 1903 the institution received a bequest of six million dollars from the well-known locomotive builder John T. Rogers, which has enabled it to compete with other great museums.
At the corner of Morningside Avenue and One Hundred and Twelfth Street is the new Episcopal Cathedral of St. John the Divine, designed by Heins and La Farge, the corner-stone of which was laid in 1892, but the building of which has not progressed very far. The Crypt, including the curious Tiffany Chapel of mosaic glass, and the Belmont or St. Saviour’s Chapel are the only portions completed. To the north of this, in the block bounded by Morningside Avenue, Tenth Avenue, One Hundred and Thirteenth Street, and One Hundred and Fourteenth Street, is the large building of St. Luke’s Hospital, constructed of white marble and white pressed brick, with a tower and clock over the main entrance.
To the northwest of this point, on a magnificent site extending from One Hundred and Fourteenth Street to One Hundred and Twenty-first Street, one hundred and ten to one hundred and fifty feet above the Hudson River, are the new buildings of Columbia University, the oldest, largest, and most important educational institution in New York. The finest building in the center of the group is the Low Memorial Library, built at a cost of one million dollars.
On a commanding site bounded by One Hundred and Thirty-eighth Street, Amsterdam Avenue, One Hundred and Fortieth Street, and St. Nicholas Terrace, are the imposing new buildings of the College of the City of New York, erected in 1903-1908 by Mr. George B. Post, in the low-arch Gothic style, at a cost of nearly five million dollars, and notable for their uniformity of design and symmetry of grouping.
Among other educational institutions are the Normal College, at Sixty-ninth Street and Park Avenue; the College of Physicians and Surgeons; the New York University; Cooper Union, in which nearly all the courses are free; St. John’s (Fordham), Manhattan, and St. Francis Xavier, Roman Catholic colleges; the National Academy of Design; Society of American Artists; the Art Students’ League; Chase Art School; New York Institute of Music, and various theological schools.
Riverside Drive or Park, skirting the hills fronting on the Hudson from Seventy-second Street to One Hundred and Twenty-seventh Street, affords beautiful views of the river and is one of the most striking roads of which any city can boast. It has become, perhaps, the most attractive residential quarter of New York, though a great architectural opportunity has been lost in the buildings that border it, these consisting largely of apartment hotels, remarkable mainly for their size.
Near the north end of the drive, on Claremont Heights (West One Hundred and Twenty-second Street), is the Tomb of General Ulysses S. Grant, a huge and solid mausoleum of white granite, erected in 1891-1897 at a cost of six hundred thousand dollars, from a design by J. H. Duncan. The monument consists of a lower story in the Doric style, ninety feet square, surmounted by a cupola borne by Ionic columns. The total height is one hundred and fifty feet.
John Verrazani, a Florentine navigator, was the first European who entered New York Bay (1525). In 1614 the Dutch built a fort on Manhattan Island, and in 1623 a permanent settlement was made, named Nieuw Amsterdam. In 1674 Manhattan Island came into the possession of Great Britain. At the Revolution the population was less than that of Philadelphia or Boston. It was evacuated by the forces of Great Britain in 1783, and from 1785 to 1789 was the seat of government of the United States. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 gave a vast impetus to New York City’s growth. The city by 1874 [613] had extended beyond the Harlem River and a part of Westchester County was incorporated in it. In 1896 a law was passed consolidating with New York City, Brooklyn (Kings County), Long Island City, Staten Island, Westchester, Flushing, Newtown, Jamaica, and parts of Eastchester, Pelham, and Hempstead. By the charter adopted in 1897 this territory was divided into the boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Bronx, Richmond, and Queens. A new charter was secured in 1907 under which the mayor presides over the entire city, with absolute power of appointment and removal of the heads of all city departments. In 1911 a new charter was drawn up which evoked considerable opposition, as it seemed to place still greater powers in the hands of the mayor.
GRANT’S TOMB, RIVERSIDE DRIVE, NEW YORK
Philadelphia (fĭl-ȧ-del´fĭ-ȧ), Pa. [The “Quaker City”; named from two Greek words meaning “loved or friendly,” and “brother,” applied as “brotherly love.” The Indian name of the locality was Coaquannok, “grove of tall pine trees.”]
The chief city of Pennsylvania and the third city in population and importance of the United States, it is situated on the Delaware River, about one hundred miles by ship-channel (via Delaware Bay) from the Atlantic Ocean, ninety miles by railroad southwest of New York City, and one hundred and thirty-six miles northeast of Washington.
The city occupies mainly a broad plain between the Delaware and the Schuylkill Rivers. It is twenty-two miles long from north to south and five to ten miles wide, covering one hundred and thirty square miles, and is laid out with chessboard regularity. The characteristic Philadelphia house is a two-storied or three-storied structure of red pressed brick, with white marble steps. The two rivers give it about thirty miles of water-front for docks and wharfage, and it is the headquarters of two of the greatest American railways—the Pennsylvania and the Reading.
The great wholesale business thoroughfare is Market Street, running east and west between the two rivers, while Chestnut Street, parallel with it on the south, contains the finest shops, many of the newspaper offices, etc. Broad Street is the chief street running north and south. Among the most fashionable residence quarters are Rittenhouse Square and the west parts of Walnut, Locust, Spruce, and Pine Streets. Eighth Street is the great district for shops and amusements.
The City Hall (or Public Buildings) is in the center of the city at the intersection of Broad and Market Streets. The structure is the largest exclusively municipal building in the world. It is built of white marble upon a granite base, in French Renaissance style, and covers an area of four hundred and eighty-six by four hundred and seventy feet. The height of the tower and dome is five hundred and thirty-seven feet four and one-half inches; or five hundred and seventy-three feet four and one-half inches with the colossal figure of Penn (thirty-six feet), to surmount the whole. The entire cost, when completely furnished for occupancy, was estimated at twenty-five million dollars.
The broad pavement round the City Hall is adorned with statues of General Reynolds, General McClellan, Stephen Girard, John C. Bullitt, President McKinley, and Joseph Leidy, the naturalist, and with the “Pilgrim” by Saint-Gaudens.
On the west side of City Hall Square, opposite the City Hall, is the enormous Broad Street Station of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The waiting-room contains a large allegorical relief, while one wall is covered with a mammoth railway map of the United States. On the north side of the square, at the corner of Broad Street and Filbert Street, is the Masonic Temple, a huge granite structure with a tower two hundred and fifty feet high and an elaborately carved Norman porch.
On the east side of the square, occupying the block bounded by the square, Market Street, Thirteenth Street, and Chestnut Street, is Wanamaker’s Store, one of the largest in the United States. On the south side of the square is the Betz Building, with heads of the Presidents of the United States in the bronze cornice above the third-story windows.
Chestnut Street is the chief street of Philadelphia, containing many of the handsomest and most interesting buildings. To the left, at the corner of Broad Street and adjoining the Betz Building, is the Franklin National Bank, while to the right rises the fine office of the Real Estate Trust Co. At the corner of Twelfth Street is the tall Commonwealth Trust Building, and at the corner of Tenth Street, on the same side, is the New York Mutual Life Insurance Co.
Between Tenth and Ninth Streets, to the left, are the Mortgage Trust Co., the Penn Mutual Life Building, with an elaborate facade, and the office of the Philadelphia Record. At the corner of Ninth Street, extending on the north to Market Street, is the Post Office, a large granite building in the Renaissance style, erected at a cost of five million dollars. It also contains the United States Courts and the offices of various Federal officials. In front of the Post Office is a colossal seated figure of Benjamin Franklin. Between Eighth and Seventh Streets is the ornamented [614] front of the Union Trust Co. This neighborhood contains several newspaper offices. At the corner of Sixth Street, on the Public Ledger Building, is another statue of Franklin.
In Seventh Street, a little to the north of Chestnut Street, is the Franklin Institute with a library, museum and lecture-hall.
Between Fifth and Sixth Streets is Independence Hall, or the old State House, a modest brick edifice (1732-1735), which is in some respects the most interesting building in the United States. Here the Continental Congress met during the American Revolution (1775-1781), and here, on July 4th, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted. In 1897-1898 the whole building was restored as far as possible to its original condition.
The Custom House, with a Doric portico, was originally erected in 1819-1824 for the United States Bank. It is copied from the Parthenon, and considered one of the best examples of Doric architecture in the world.
A lane diverging to the right between Fourth and Third Streets, opposite the Fidelity Trust Co., leads to Carpenters’ Hall, where the First Colonial Congress assembled in 1774. It contains the chairs used at the Congress, various historical relics, and the inscription: “Within these walls Henry, Hancock, and Adams inspired the delegates of the colonies with nerve and sinew for the toils of war.” Chestnut Street ends at the Delaware River.
Walnut Street runs parallel to Chestnut Street, one block to the south. In this street, at the intersection of Dock Street and Third Street, is the Stock Exchange, formerly the Merchants Exchange, with a semi-circular portico facing the river. Near it, in Third Street, is the Girard Bank, built for the first United States Bank and long owned by Stephen Girard. At Fourth Street is the building of the Manhattan Insurance Co.
Walnut Street now crosses Broad Street, to the west of which it consists mainly of private residences. Between Eighteenth and Nineteenth Streets we pass Rittenhouse Square, a fashionable residence quarter.
At the corner of Broad and Chestnut Streets are the white marble building of the Girard Trust Co., with a rotunda, and the tall Land Title Building.
North Broad Street, beginning on the north side of the City Hall Square, a handsome street one hundred and thirteen feet wide, contains in its upper portion many of the finest private residences in Philadelphia. To the right, at the corner of Filbert Street, is the Masonic Temple, which is adjoined by the Arch Street Methodist Episcopal Church. On the opposite side of the street are the tall buildings of the United Gas Improvement Co. and the Fidelity Mutual Life Association. To the right is the Odd Fellows’ Temple.
To the left, at the corner of Cherry Street, is the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, a building in the Venetian style of architecture. The Academy was founded in 1805. Besides its collections it supports an important art-school, the lecture hall of which is adorned with effective decorations by the pupils. Its collections include five hundred paintings, numerous sculptures, several hundred casts, and fifty thousand engravings. The early American school is especially well represented.
On the west side of Broad Street, between Race and Vine Streets, are the Hahnemann College and Hospital, one of the chief homœopathic institutions of the kind. To the right, at the corner of Spring Garden Street, is the Spring Garden Institute for instruction in drawing, painting, and the mechanic arts. Opposite are the Baldwin Locomotive Works, a highly interesting industrial establishment.
A little farther on is the Boys’ Central High School, an unusually large and handsome structure, and the Synagogue Rodef Shalom, in a Moorish style.
Farther up Broad Street are numerous handsome private houses, churches, and other edifices. At the northwest corner of Broad Street and Girard Avenue is the handsome Widener Mansion, presented to the city and used as a branch of the Free Library. Beyond Master Street, to the left, is the elaborate home of the Mercantile Club. Beyond this Broad Street runs out to Germantown, six miles from the City Hall.
Girard Avenue runs west from North Broad Street to Girard College, one of the richest and most notable philanthropic institutions in the United States. It was founded by Stephen Girard, a native of France, for the education of male orphans. The original bequest of over five million dollars has increased to about thirty-five million dollars.
The main building is a dignified marble structure in the Corinthian style, resembling the Madeleine at Paris. In the vestibule are a statute of Stephen Girard, and his sarcophagus. A room on the ground floor contains several relics of him.
Market Street is the chief wholesale business thoroughfare of the city. A little to the east of City Hall Square it passes the Philadelphia & Reading Railway Station, a tall Renaissance building with a train shed little smaller than that of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The department store of Gimbel Brothers, on the south side of the street, between Eighth and Ninth Streets, is one of the largest in the world. The Penn National Bank, at the corner of South Seventh Street, occupies the site of the house in which Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence.
South Broad Street leads to the south from City Hall Square. Its intersection with Chestnut Street, just to the south of the City Hall, is environed with tall office buildings. To the right is the annex of the Land Title Building, extending to Sansom Street. Opposite, adjoining the Real Estate Trust Co., is the North American Building, named after the newspaper which occupies it. Below is the Union League Club, the chief Republican club of Pennsylvania. On the same side is the large Bellevue-Stratford Hotel, the leading hotel of Philadelphia, and one of the great hostelries of the country. Farther on, to the right, is the Art Club, in the Renaissance style, in which exhibitions of paintings, concerts, and public lectures are held. At Locust Street, to the right, is the Academy of Music, while to the left is the Pennsylvania School of Industrial Art, incorporated in 1876, with a special view to the development of the art industries of Pennsylvania. A characteristic feature is the department of weaving and textile design. The Industrial Museum Hall is connected with this excellent institution.
Below Pine Street, Broad Street contains few important buildings. Of special note, however, is the Ridgway Library, which stands to the left, between Christian and Carpenter Streets, nearly one mile from the City Hall. This handsome building was erected with a legacy of one million five hundred thousand dollars left by Dr. Rush in 1869, as a branch of the Philadelphia Library. Adjoining the main hall is the tomb of the founder.
Broad Street ends, four miles from the City Hall, at League Island Park, three hundred acres in extent. League Island itself, in the Delaware, contains a United States Navy Yard.
West Philadelphia, the extension of the city beyond the Schuylkill, contains many of the chief residence streets and several public buildings and charitable institutions.
The University of Pennsylvania, founded in 1740, and removed to West Philadelphia in 1872, occupies a group of more than thirty buildings scattered over an area of sixty acres bounded by Woodland and Cleveland Avenues and Pine and Thirty-second Streets.
The College, the Medical School, Dental School, and Law School, are all provided with spacious and well-equipped buildings. Houston Hall, behind College Hall, is the social center of the University student life. The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology is recognized as the headquarters of anatomical research in the United States and contains the first museum of human anatomy founded in America. The Morgan Laboratory of Physics, the Harrison Laboratory of Chemistry, the Gymnasium, and the Dormitories are all notable structures. Franklin Field, adjoining Thirty-third Street, is the athletic ground of the University and contains a large stadium.
The Museum of Science and Art occupies a tasteful building in South Street, owing part of its inspiration to the Certosa at Pavia, and is divided into five sections. Its value is largely due to the fact that many of its contents were found by expeditions organized by the University itself.
A little to the northeast, at the corner of Chestnut Street and Thirty-second Street, is the Drexel Institute, founded by A. J. Drexel, and opened in 1892. The total cost of buildings and equipment was four million five hundred thousand dollars.
Fairmount Park, the chief park of Philadelphia, is one of the largest in the world, and covers an area of three thousand three hundred and forty acres. The park proper extends along both banks of the Schuylkill for about four miles, and the narrow strip along the Wissahickon, six miles, and one of the noted drives of the world, is also included in the park limits. The principal entrances are at the end of Green Street, which is connected with the City Hall by the wide Park Boulevard, and at Girard Avenue.
In this park, in 1876 was held the Centennial Exhibition; and in its environs are the Zoological Garden, the Fairmount Waterworks, which supply to the city one hundred million gallons of water daily, the beautiful Horticultural Hall and Memorial Hall, built as part of the Centennial Exhibition of 1876 at a cost of one million five hundred thousand dollars, and now containing a permanent collection of art and industry known as Pennsylvania Museum of Industrial Art.
At Sackamaxon, in Beach Street, is the small Penn Treaty Park, supposed to occupy the spot where Penn made his treaty with the Indians in 1682, under an elm that has long since vanished, a treaty, in the words of Voltaire, “never sworn to and never broken.”
In its manufacturing products Philadelphia ranks next to New York. There are upward of twenty thousand manufacturing establishments, the combined output of which amounts to more than eight hundred million dollars. The chief products are locomotives, sugar and molasses, men’s clothing, foundry and machine-shop products, carpets and rugs, hosiery and knit goods, woolen and cotton goods, malt liquors, morocco, chemicals, packed meat, refined petroleum and silk, and silk goods. The great Cramp ship-building yards are on the Delaware River. The Baldwin Locomotive Works are the largest in the world.
Philadelphia was founded by William Penn in 1682, the year after was made the capital of Pennsylvania, and soon became a place of importance. It was the central point in the War of Independence, where the first Continental Congress met, September 4, 1774, and where the Declaration of Independence was adopted in 1776. At Philadelphia, also, the Federal Union was signed, in 1778; and here, too, the Constitution of the United States was framed, in 1787. An interest of another kind attaches to the fact that the Protestant Episcopal Church of North America was organized here in 1786. From 1790 to 1800 Philadelphia was the Federal Capital; and the first mint was established here in 1792. Later events have been the holding of the Centennial Exhibition, in 1876, and the commemoration of Penn’s landing in 1882.
Pittsburgh, Pa. [The “Smoky City,” “Iron City”; named in 1758, when the French had been driven out by Washington; Fort Pitt, after William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, the name Pittsburgh being adopted in 1769.]
It is the second city of Pennsylvania and one of the chief industrial centers of the United States, and occupies the tongue of land between the Monongahela and the Allegheny, which here unite to form the Ohio, and also a strip of land on the south side of the Monongahela. The sister city, Allegheny, situated on the north bank of the Allegheny and extending down to the Ohio, was incorporated with Pittsburgh in 1907 and is now known as the North Side. The rivers are crossed by numerous bridges.
Smithfield Street, diverging from Liberty Avenue, not far from the Union Station, leads to the river Monongahela, on the other side of which, from Washington Heights, may be obtained a fine view of the city. On Liberty Avenue, to the right, is the City Hall a fine structure of white sandstone. A little farther on, to the left, is the Post Office. At the bridge are the Monongahela Hotel and the Baltimore & Ohio Station.
Crossing the Smithfield Street Bridge, Mt. Washington (three hundred and seventy feet) may be ascended by one of the three inclined railways on this side. These interesting, but at first somewhat startling, pieces of apparatus are worked by cables and transport horses and carriages as well as persons.
The finest building in Pittsburgh is the Allegheny County Court House, in Grant Street, a splendid example of H. H. Richardson’s treatment of Romanesque, erected in 1888 at a cost of two million five hundred thousand dollars. The massive Prison is connected with the Court House by a finely handled stone bridge. The main tower is three hundred and twenty feet high. The government building cost one million five hundred thousand dollars.
Other buildings of importance are the Frick Building, a granite office structure of twenty stories at the corner of Fifth Avenue and Grant Street; the Carnegie Building and the Farmers’ Bank Building (these two also in Fifth Avenue); the Union National Bank Building and the Commonwealth Trust Co. Building, in Fourth Avenue; the First Presbyterian Church, in Sixth Avenue; the Fulton Building, and the Bessemer Building (the last two at the corner of Sixth Street and Duquesne Way).
More to the east are the Academy of Our Lady of Mercy and the new Calvary Episcopal Church (at the corner of Shady Avenue and Walnut Street), a beautiful example of thirteenth century Gothic. The Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Paul stands in Fifth Avenue, at the corner of Craig Street.
To the east of the city lies Schenley Park, containing the fine Phipps Conservatory and the Hall of Botany. Near the Forbes Street entrance to the Park is the great central building of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, in which are housed not only the main collection of the library, but also two of the three departments of the Carnegie Institute. The structure, originally built in the Italian Renaissance style at a cost of eight hundred thousand dollars, was remodeled [616] and enlarged in 1904-1907 at an additional cost of five million dollars. The city is also the seat of Pittsburgh University, Holy Ghost College, and Penn’s College for Women. The great iron and steel works have made the prosperity and reputation of Pittsburgh. Among these are the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, the Homestead Steel Works, the Duquesne Steel Works, the American Bridge Co., the Jones & Laughlin Works, the Oliver Iron & Steel Co., the Crescent Steel Works, and the Pressed Steel Car Co.
Its manufactures include everything, indeed, which can be made of iron, from a fifty-eight-ton gun to nails and tacks; steel in its various applications; electrical machinery and appliances; all descriptions of glass and glassware; silver and nickel-plated ware; Japan and Britannia ware; pressed tin, brass, copper, bronzes; Portland cement, earthenware, crucibles, fire-pots, bricks; furniture, wagons and carriages; brushes, bellows, mechanical supplies of all kinds; natural-gas fittings, and tools for oil and gas wells. Pittsburgh has, also, the largest manufactory of cork, and the largest pickling and preserving establishment in the world.
In 1754 a few English traders built a stockade here, but were driven away by the French. The latter replaced the stockade by a fort, which, in honor of the Governor of Canada, they called Duquesne. In 1758 it was taken by the English, who next year commenced a large and strong fortification, which, in honor of the elder Pitt, then Prime Minister, they called Fort Pitt. The settlement became a borough in 1804, and in 1816 was incorporated as the city of Pittsburgh. In 1872 the limits of the city were extended across the Monongahela, and by 1906 it extended over twenty-eight square miles. In 1907 Allegheny City (in spite of the opposition of a large majority of its inhabitants) was annexed; the Supreme Court of the United States declared the act valid, and thus Allegheny became the North Side of the present Pittsburgh.
Richmond, Va. [Named from Richmond-on-the-Thames, a suburb of London; the name suggested owing to analogy in situation.]
It is the capital of Virginia, on the left bank of the James River, at the head of tide water, one hundred and fifty miles from its mouth, and one hundred and sixteen miles by rail south of Washington. It is a port of entry, and vessels drawing sixteen feet of water can come up to the lower end of the city, where there are large docks. Richmond is picturesquely situated on a group of hills, and fine water power is afforded by the James River, which descends one hundred and sixteen feet in nine miles.
Near the center of the city, on Shockoe Hill, is Capitol Square, a tree-shaded area of twelve acres. The Capitol, or State House, partly designed after the Maison Carrée at Nîmes, France, occupies the highest point of the square and dates from 1785. The wings were added in 1906.
In the Central Hall, surmounted by a dome, are Houdon’s statue of Washington (which Washington himself is said to have seen in its present position) and a bust of Lafayette by the same artist. The Senate Chamber, to the right, was used as the Confederate House of Representatives during the Civil War. The House of Delegates, to the left, contains portraits of Chatham and Jefferson, and was the scene of Aaron Burr’s trial for high treason in 1807, and of the State Secession Convention in 1861.
Capitol Square also contains a fine equestrian statue of Washington, with figures of Patrick Henry, George Mason, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Nelson, Andrew Lewis, and Chief Justice Marshall round the pedestal; a statue of Stonewall Jackson; a statue of Hunter Holmes McGuire, the most noted surgeon of the South; and a statue of Henry Clay. At the northeast corner of the square stands the Governor’s Mansion.
On the north side, in Broad Street, is the City Hall, a handsome Gothic structure with a clock-tower. To the east of the Capitol is the State Library. In Twelfth Street, at the corner of Clay Street, a little to the north of Capitol Square, is the Jefferson Davis Mansion, or “White House of the Confederacy,” occupied by Mr. Davis as President of the Southern Confederacy. It is now fitted up as a Museum of Confederate Relics.
St. John’s Church, erected in 1740, but since much enlarged, is at the corner of Broad and Twenty-fourth Streets. The Virginia Convention was held in this church in 1775, and it was here that Patrick Henry made his famous “give me liberty or give me death” speech.
On Monument Avenue (a prolongation of Franklin Street) is the equestrian statue of General Lee. Adjacent is an equestrian statue of General J. E. B. Stuart, and a half mile farther on, at the west end of the avenue, is the Jefferson Davis Monument, consisting of a semi-circular colonnade with a pillar supporting an allegorical female figure and inscribed “Deo Vindice,” with a heroic statue of the ex-president in front. A little to the east of the Lee Statue is Richmond College, a leading educational institution of Virginia.
Among other points of interest in Richmond are the Westmoreland Club, at the corner of Grace and Sixth Streets; the Commonwealth Club, at the corner of Franklin and Madison Streets; the Virginia Club, 2311 East Grace Street; Chief Justice Marshall’s House; the Tobacco Exchange, Shockoe Slip; the University College of Medicine; the Medical College of Virginia; the National Cemetery, two miles to the northeast of the city; the Sheltering Arms Hospital, and Idlewood Park, a favorite summer-resort, close to the city on the west.
Hollywood Cemetery is the most interesting of the cemeteries. Near the west gate of the cemetery is the Confederate Monument, a rude pyramid of stone ninety feet high, erected as a memorial to the sixteen thousand Confederate soldiers buried here. On President’s Hill, in the southwest corner of the cemetery, overlooking the river, are the graves of Monroe and Tyler, two of the seven presidents born in Virginia. John Randolph, Jefferson Davis, General Pickett, General J. E. B. Stuart and Commodore Maury are also buried here. Patrick Henry is buried in St. John’s Churchyard.
During the last three years of the Civil War (1862-1865) battles raged all round Richmond, and remains of the fortified lines constructed to protect the city are visible in various parts of the environs.
The leading industry is the manufacture of tobacco. Other important products are lumber and planing-mill supplies, foundry and machine-shop products (including locomotives), fancy and paper boxes, packing boxes, saddlery and harness, carriages and wagons, confectionery, flavoring extracts, patent medicines and compounds, etc. There are also large railroad repair shops, establishments for grinding and roasting coffee, etc. Richmond was formerly noted as a center of the flour-milling industry.
Richmond was settled in 1733 and incorporated in 1742. Captain John Smith’s settlement of “None Such” in 1609 and Fort Charles, erected in 1645, were both near the site of the present city. In 1779 it became the capital of the state. During the American Revolution the place was taken by a British force under Benedict Arnold, January 5, 1781, and the warehouses and public buildings were burned. The following year the city was chartered. Richmond, as the capital of the Confederacy, was the main objective of Federal [617] operations during the Civil War. It was evacuated April 2, 1865. The warehouses and a considerable part of the business section of the city were burned by the Confederates.
Salt Lake City, Utah. [The “City of the Saints;” named for the famous lake of that state.]
It is the chief town and ecclesiastical capital of the State of Utah, and is situated on the river Jordan, eleven miles from Great Salt Lake. It is built at the base of the Wasatch Mountains, four thousand three hundred and thirty-four feet above sea-level. The valley is world-famed for its beauty, resources, climate, and health-giving properties. By rail it is thirty-six miles south of Ogden, on the Union Pacific Railroad; eight hundred and thirty-three miles from San Francisco, and one thousand and thirty-one miles from Omaha.
The city is regularly laid out and the streets are wide and shaded with trees. Each house in the residence quarters stands in its own garden.
Temple Block, “the sacred square of the Mormons,” covering ten acres, is the center of the city. Here are the Great Temple, and the Tabernacle, the latter one hundred and fifty by two hundred and fifty feet, with a self-supporting roof shaped like a tortoise shell, supported by forty-four sandstone pillars, and having a seating capacity of eight thousand, accommodations for twelve thousand, and one of the finest pipe organs in America.
A little to the east of the Tabernacle is the Temple, a large and handsome building of granite, erected at a cost of over four million dollars. At each end are three pointed towers, the loftiest of which, in the center of the east or principal facade, is two hundred and ten feet high and is surmounted by a colossal gilded figure (twelve and one-half feet high) of the Angel Moroni, by C. E. Dallin. The interior is elaborately fitted up and artistically adorned.
The Assembly Hall, to the south of the Tabernacle, is a granite building with accommodation for three thousand people, intended for divine service.
At the corner of North Temple and Main Streets stands the Latter-Day Saints University. At the southeast corner of Temple Square is the Pioneer Monument, surmounted by a copper statue of Brigham Young, which was unveiled in 1897.
On South Temple Street towards the east is the Deseret News Block, a large brown-stone building where the oldest newspaper to the west of the Missouri is published. To the left are the Tithing Office and Tithing Storehouse where the Mormons pay their tithes in kind. A little farther on, also to the left, are the Lion House, one of the residences of Brigham Young; the office of the president of the Mormon Church; and the Beehive House, another of Brigham Young’s houses. On the opposite side of the street are the huge shoe-factory and warehouse of Zion’s Coöperative Mercantile Institution; the office of the Juvenile Instructor; the office of the Historian of the Mormon Church; and the Gardo House, or Amelia Palace, opposite the Beehive House.
A little farther to the northeast, through the Eagle Gate, is Brigham Young’s grave, surrounded by an ornamental iron railing.
The imposing City and County Building is in Washington Square, and the Federal Building is in Main Street, between Third and Fourth South Streets. A new Capitol is in contemplation in Capitol grounds, near Prospect Hill. Among the educational establishments are the Utah State University, to the east of the city, near Fort Douglas, and the High School, in Union Square. The Roman Catholic Cathedral and several other religious edifices also are represented, including Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Methodist churches. St. Mark’s Cathedral is a handsome building. Other noteworthy edifices are those of the museum, the Mining Institute, St. Mary’s Hospital, the University of Utah, and the theaters and opera house.
The city is more important as a trading center than for manufactures. The leading industries are beet-sugar refining, smelting, salt making, and the manufacture of boots and shoes, glass, woolens, paper, cutlery, pottery, etc. A large business is done in bullion and mining stocks. The city has a large jobbing trade, being the distributing center for an immense mining agricultural and stock raising region in Utah, West Wyoming, South Idaho, and East Nevada.
Salt Lake City was founded in 1847 by Brigham Young and incorporated in 1851. Until 1870 it was almost wholly a Mormon city.
San Antonio (săn ăn-to´nĭ-ō), Texas. [Named for the Roman Catholic mission, San Antonio de Valero, otherwise the Alamo.]
After Dallas it is the largest city in the state, and is located on the San Antonio River, two hundred and ten miles by railroad west of Houston, one hundred and eighty-eight miles west of Galveston, on both banks of the San Antonio Creek, at the mouth of San Pedro River. Built on a level plateau, with an elevation of six hundred and sixty feet above the sea, it includes the old Mexican town of San Fernando, west of San Pedro Creek, inhabited chiefly by Americans and largely rebuilt since 1860. The San Antonio River winds for thirteen miles through the city, and San Pedro Creek for ten miles. These are spanned by numerous little bridges. It is one of the most interesting in the United States.
The first object of interest in San Antonio is the Church of the Mission del Alamo, situated in the Alamo Plaza, in the quarter to the east of the San Antonio River. The church, which seems to have derived its name from being built in a grove of alamo or cottonwood trees, is a low and strong structure of adobe, with very thick walls. It was built in 1744, but has lost many of its original features. It is now preserved as a national monument for its historical interests.
At the north end of the Alamo Plaza, in Houston Street, is the handsome Federal Building. On the west side of the plaza is the building containing the San Antonio Club and the Grand Opera House.
Houston Street towards the west crosses the San Antonio and reaches Soledad Street, which leads to the left to the Main Plaza (Plaza de Las Yslas), pleasantly laid out with gardens. On its south side rises the imposing Court House and on its west side stands the Cathedral of San Fernando, dating in its present form mainly from 1868 to 1873, but incorporating parts of the earlier building, where Santa Ana had his headquarters in 1836. To the west of the Cathedral is the Military Plaza (Plaza de Armas), with the City Hall.
The Military Post (Fort Sam Houston), on Government Hill, one mile to the north of the city, costing over two million dollars, is one of the largest in the United States and deserves a visit. The tower (eighty-eight feet high), in the center of the quadrangle, commands a splendid view of the city and its environs.
The old Spanish Missions near the city most often visited are the First and Second Missions, but, the Third and Fourth Missions have much interest also.
The Mission of the Conception, or First Mission, lies about two and a quarter miles to the south of the city (reached via Garden Street), dates from 1731 to 1752, and is well preserved. The church has two towers and a central dome. The Mission San Jose de Aguayo, or Second Mission, four miles to the south of the city, dates from 1720 to 1731 and is the most beautiful of all.
OLD SPANISH CHURCH OF THE ALAMO, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS
During the war of Texan independence, the Alamo, then converted into a fort, was the scene of an extraordinary conflict, the fort being held by Colonel David Crockett and Colonel James Bowie. Though almost continually assailed from February 23 to March 6, 1836, it only yielded when the defenders were all slain but five; these were captured by the Mexicans and cruelly slain. “Remember the Alamo,” thereafter became a war cry, and the place itself has been called the “Thermopylæ of America.”
Among the educational institutions are St. Louis College (Roman Catholic), St. Mary’s Hall, St. Mary’s College, Wolfe Memorial School, and the Ursuline Convent and School.
San Antonio is the natural trading center for an immense area, its jobbing houses have an extensive trade in Mexico as well as in Texas. The industrial establishments are machine shops, foundries, breweries, flour mills, binderies, cotton presses, ice plants, tanneries, marble works, cement works, and manufactories of brooms, carriages and wagons, candy, soda and mineral waters, mattresses, bricks and tiles. It is a leading cattle, horse, and mule market, ships large quantities of cotton, wool, and hides; and is the financial center of the largest stock raising interests of the Southwest. The surrounding district, irrigated by water, obtained from deep artesian wells, is extensively engaged in truck farming for Northern markets.
Although the Spaniards built a fort at San Antonio in 1689, its real settlement began in 1714. In 1718 the Franciscan mission of San Antonio de Valero was founded, and, about 1722, on another site was built the Alamo, the “cradle of Texans’ liberty,” in which in 1836 a garrison of about one hundred and eighty men, among them Davy Crockett and James Bowie, for eleven days resisted General Santa Ana’s Mexican army, numbering thousands of men. Eight battles for independence were fought in or near San Antonio between 1776 and 1836, successively under Spanish, French, Mexican, and Texan flags. It received a city charter in 1873.
San Francisco, Cal. [The “City of the Golden Gate”; said by some to have been named for the old Spanish mission of San Francisco de Assisi, by others to have been named for the founder of the order to which Father Junipero, the discoverer of the bay, belonged.]
It is grandly situated at the north end of a peninsula thirty miles long, separating the Pacific Ocean from San Francisco Bay, two thousand four hundred and thirty-four miles west of St. Louis, and three thousand four hundred and fifty-two miles from New York. The city lies mainly on the shore of the bay and on the steep hills rising from it, but is gradually extending across the peninsula (here six miles wide) to the ocean. On the north it is bounded by the famous Golden Gate, the narrow entrance (one mile across and about five miles long) to San Francisco Bay. The commercial part of the town is fairly level and lies along the bay. The chief business thoroughfare is Market Street, three and one-half miles long, with which the streets from the north and west hills intersect. This feature gives the city a striking skyline.
San Francisco Bay, a noble sheet of water, gives San Francisco one of the finest harbors in the world and affords numerous charming excursions. It gives the city much of its commercial importance, also, and extends from Fort Point past the city in a southerly direction for about fifty miles, varying in width from six to twelve miles. Northward this bay connects by a strait with San Pablo Bay, ten miles in length, having at its northerly end Mare Island and the United States Navy Yard.
Across the bay are Oakland, Alameda, and Berkeley.
In 1906 a large part of the city was destroyed by earthquake and fire, the estimated loss reaching over three hundred million dollars. The business district has since been largely rebuilt, and many costly buildings of marble, granite, and terra cotta, and iron and steel-framed “skyscrapers” have been constructed. Before the earthquake of 1906 the most conspicuous public buildings were the City Hall, erected at a cost of six million dollars, and which occupied twenty-five years in building; the Post Office, completed at a total cost of five million dollars; the Hall of Justice, the Custom House, a Mint and a Sub-treasury; the building of the Society of California Pioneers, and stock and merchants’ exchanges; and the Ferry Building containing a display of the mineral resources of California.
NIGHT VIEW, SHOWING ILLUMINATION OF SOUTH GARDENS AND MAIN ENTRANCE, PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO, 1915
The Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco was open from February 20 to December 4, 1915. The total attendance was 18,871,957. The last day made the record, 458,558 persons having passed through the turnstiles. The Fine Arts Palace remained open until May 1, 1916.
Market Street, the chief business thoroughfare, extends to the southwest from the Union Ferry Depot, a handsome structure, with a tower two hundred and fifty feet high, to a point near the twin Mission Peaks, a distance of about three and one-half miles.
Following Market Street towards the southwest, at the intersection with Battery Street is the Labor Monument, a vigorous bronze group dedicated to the memory of Peter Donahue of the Union Iron Works. At the southwest corner of Market and Montgomery Streets stands the Palace Hotel, opposite which is the Union Trust Building, the first of the buildings whose steel and concrete frame withstood the fire. Close by, at the corner of Montgomery and Post Streets, are the Crocker Building, another survivor, and the new stone structure of the First National Bank.
At the corners of Kearney and Third Streets rise the Chronicle Building and the tall Spreckels or Call Building, the top of either of which affords a good bird’s-eye view of the city.
Market Street, towards the southwest from the Chronicle Building, contains many large office buildings, including the tall Humboldt Savings Building. At the corner of Fourth Street is the Pacific Building, a huge structure of re-enforced concrete, with a facade of green and brown tiles. In the same block is the Emporium, which has been rehabilitated since the disaster of 1906. On the right, at the corner of Powell Street, is the large Flood Building, another survivor of the fire. It is chiefly occupied by railway offices.
Powell Street leads to Union Square, with the St. Francis Hotel and a Naval Monument commemorating the exploits of the United States fleet in the Philippines during the war with Spain (1898).
At the junction of Market Street with Mason Street is a monument commemorating the admission of California to the Union (1850). To the left, at the corner of Seventh Street, we catch a glimpse of the long frontage of the Post Office with its fine granite carvings. Just beyond this corner, in a small triangular park, is the large Californian Monument, presented to the city by James Lick. The stately monument erected in honor of the achievements of the navy in the Spanish-American war remains uninjured.
The district containing the United States Appraisers Stores and the large new Custom House was spared by the great fire.
The United States Branch Mint, in Fifth Street, at the corner of Mission Street, contains interesting machinery and a collection of coins and relics. The effect of the fire may be clearly seen on the granite at the north end of the building.
Montgomery Street and the southern part of Sansome Street, form the center of the banking district. On the former is the Union Trust Building, and a series of large office buildings, of which the most important are the Mills Building, corner of Montgomery and Bush Streets; the Merchants Exchange, California Street, near Montgomery Street; Kohl Building, corner Montgomery and California Streets; Italian-American Bank, a one-story building with Doric columns, corner Montgomery and Sacramento Streets; and the Bank of Italy, corner Montgomery and Clay Streets. At the northeast corner of Sansome and California Streets rises the tall Alaska Commercial Building, with the handsome Bank of California opposite.
Nob Hill was the name given about 1870 to that section of California Street, between Powell Street and Leavenworth Street, containing many of the largest private residences in San Francisco. Most of these were of wood, and no expense was spared to make them luxurious dwellings, but with unfortunate architectural results. Few relics of these are now extant. The hill is crowned by the huge Fairmont Hotel, opposite which is the Hopkins Institute of Art.
The present fashionable residential quarter is on [620] Pacific Heights, including the western parts of Jackson Street, Washington Street, Pacific Avenue, and Central Avenue.
The educational institutions of San Francisco, include the Academy of Sciences, endowed by James Lick; the Hopkins Art Academy, situated on Nob Hill; Memorial Museum, in Golden Gate Park; Mechanics’ Institute, which contains property valued at two million dollars, and a library of seventy thousand volumes. Other fine libraries are the Sutro library of two hundred thousand volumes, the public library of one hundred thousand volumes, while the California Historical Society, San Francisco Medical Society, the San Francisco Law Library; the French and Mercantile libraries all have collections of more than thirty thousand volumes. The California School of Mechanical Arts, Cooper Medical College, Cogswell Polytechnic School, College of Notre Dame, Sacred Heart Academy, Irving Institute, the medical and law faculties of the University of California, are also located here.
The city was always conspicuous for its fine churches. The most prominent of these were the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the Jesuit Church of St. Ignatius, and the Mission Dolores, a survival of Spanish occupation.
The largest of the city parks is Golden Gate Park, covering more than one thousand acres and redeemed from a waste of sand-dunes, now one of the most beautiful in the country. It extends from Stanryan Street to the Pacific Ocean, a distance of three miles. Its fine trees and shrubbery, semi-tropical plants and flowers, artificial lakes and Japanese tea gardens combine to make it a veritable wonderland. Through the park a broad, smooth, and well-kept speedway runs out to the ocean beach, and the famous old Cliff House, the Sutro Heights, on the hills of the west or ocean side, from which is a magnificent view of the Seal Rocks and Pacific Ocean.
To the north of the park, beyond the intervening Richmond district, lies the Presidio, the United States military reservation. Here are the harbor fortifications with their big and powerful rapid fire machine guns, the officers’ quarters with picturesque gardens and hedgerows, and the hospital and barracks for the soldiers, while down at the water’s edge is old Fort Mason, a circular brick structure now used as a storehouse.
The population is very heterogeneous, every European nationality being represented here, to say nothing of the Mexicans, Chinese, Japanese, Negroes (relatively few), Filipinos, Hawaiians, and other non-European races.
The Chinese Quarter, rebuilt since the fire, is still one of the most interesting and characteristic features of San Francisco. It lies, roughly defined, between Stockton, Sacramento, Kearney, and Pacific Streets, and now consists mainly of large modern store buildings in a modified Oriental style, and of tall tenements, swarming with Chinese occupants. Chinatown contains about ten thousand inhabitants.
To the north of Chinatown, spreading about the base of Telegraph Hill, is the so-named Latin Quarter, peopled by Italians, Greeks and Mexicans. Their houses, shops, and restaurants are most characteristic. The Japanese Quarter is bounded by Van Ness, Fillmore, Geary, and Pine Streets.
In the pretty park that separates busy Kearney Street from Chinatown, the beautiful golden galleon monument to Robert Louis Stevenson still stands.
San Francisco as the western terminus of the great continental railroads and of many short lines, has important steamship communication with the ports of the world. The bay is accessible to the largest vessels. It is one of the most important grain ports in the United States; and gold and silver, wine, fruit, and wool are exported. There are large sugar refineries, foundries, shipyards, cordage works, wood factories, woolen mills, and many others.
A Spanish post and mission station were established on the site of San Francisco in 1776. The mission was secularized in 1834, and a town was laid out in 1835. A United States man-of-war took possession of it in 1846, and it became an important place in 1849 on account of the discovery of gold (1848). It was devastated by fires, 1849-1851. In 1850 it was incorporated as a city. The original name of the place was Yerba Buena (Spanish, “good herb”). It was changed to San Francisco in 1847. In 1869 railway connection was established with the eastern United States. In 1877 Denis Kearney began a violent agitation against the competition of Chinese labor. This was known as the “sand lots” movement, from the name of the place where the meetings were held. On April 18, 1906, the city was visited with a severe shock of earthquake, and the resultant fires destroyed much of the business section and one-third of the residence portion of the city.
Berkeley, across the Bay from San Francisco, is the seat of the Colleges of Letters and Science of the University of California. The University, founded in 1868, has played a very important part in the educational development of California and of the Pacific Slope. Its other departments are at San Francisco and the Lick Observatory, with the great telescope, is at Mt. Hamilton.
A number of the buildings at Berkeley are handsome, and the picturesque grounds, two hundred and fifty acres in extent, command a splendid view of the Golden Gate and San Francisco. The very interesting open-air Greek Theater, built in 1903 on the general type of the theater at Epidaurus, accommodates twelve thousand spectators and is used for university meetings, commencement exercises, and concerts. The museums, the library, and the laboratories are admirably adapted to their uses.
At Palo Alto, thirty-four miles south of San Francisco, one mile from the station is the Leland Stanford, Jr. University, founded by Mr. and Mrs. Leland Stanford in memory of their only son and endowed by them with upwards of thirty million dollars. The buildings were mainly designed by H. H. Richardson, who took the motif of their architecture from the cloisters of the San Antonio Mission. The material is buff, rough-faced sandstone, surmounted by red-tiled roofs, producing brilliant effects of color in conjunction with the live oak, white oak, and eucalyptus trees outside, and tropical plants in the quadrangle, and the blue sky overhead. In the earthquake of 1906 the buildings suffered severely, the damage done being estimated at nearly two million dollars. Much, however, has been restored or rebuilt. The buildings include a low quadrangle, enclosing a court five hundred and eighty-six feet long and two hundred and forty-six feet wide, with a beautiful colonnade on the inner side; an outer, two-storied quadrangle, with cloisters on the outside; a Chapel; various dormitories; an Art Museum; a mechanical department; and a village of professors’ houses.
Seattle (sē-ăt´t´l), Wash. [Named for the chief of the Duwamish tribe of Indians, See-aa-thl.]
It is finely situated on Elliot Bay, an arm of Puget Sound, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-eight miles from St. Paul. It occupies a series of terraces rising from the shore of the Sound, with steep hills rising from the water, the heights commanding superb views of the snow-crowned Olympic Mountains and the Cascades, including Mounts Rainier and Baker.
The residence streets run up the slope of a hill, with the business portion built on the level ground at the foot, stretching along the excellent harbor, with its many wharves.
Among the finest edifices are the Roman [621] Catholic Cathedral, the Union or King Street Passenger Station, with Carnegie Library, the American Bank, and the Alaska, Lowman, White, Central, and Empire Buildings.
Its notable buildings include, also, the County Court House, County Almshouse, Opera House, High School, and Hospital. The city is beautified with monuments and statues, unique among which is the Totem Pole, in Pioneer Square, near the Union Station, which was brought from Alaska and is one of the best examples of its kind. There is a good statue of Wm. H. Seward, by Richard Brooks, and in the campus of the University of Washington is a colossal statue of Washington, by Lorado Taft.
The University has grounds three hundred and fifty-five acres in extent, and furnished the site for the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition of 1909.
Other leading educational institutions are Seattle Seminary (Methodist), Seattle Female College, College of the Immaculate Conception and Academy of the Holy Name (both Roman Catholic).
There are several fine parks connected, together with the lakes, by a system of boulevards. Fort Lawton, a military post, is within the city limits.
The harbor, which is in Lake Washington and is four miles long and two miles wide, admits the largest vessels at all times. As the terminal of two transcontinental railroads and as an oceanic seaport, Seattle has extraordinary commercial advantages. It has direct steamship lines to Japan, China, the Philippines, and to Honolulu, and is also connected with European and South American ports. It is the chief outfitting port for the Yukon and Alaskan gold fields, and the chief trading center for the numerous ports on the extensive coast-line of Puget Sound. It has abundant electric power generated by falls in the rivers of the Cascades at a very low cost. Snoqualnite Falls, nineteen miles distant, are one hundred and twenty-six feet higher than Niagara, and supply an immense power.
Seattle largely owes its phenomenal growth to the lumber trade. The manufactures include beside, flour, iron and steel products, boots and shoes, beer, etc. Other industries are bridge-works, shipyards, meat-packing, and fish-canning. The city has also smelting and refining works, and a United States assay office. The chief exports are lumber, coal, meats, fruits, wheat, and hops.
Seattle was first settled in 1852. The place was laid out in 1853 and was incorporated in 1865 as a town and in 1880 as a city. In 1889 it was almost wiped out by fire, but one business building escaping destruction. From June 1 to November 30, 1909, the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition was held here, the average daily attendance being twenty-eight thousand. In the spring of 1910 a Municipal Plans Commission of twenty-one members was created by an amendment to the city charter of Seattle, and in 1911 their report was issued containing sketches and plans illustrating their proposals for the beautification and future growth of the city.
St. Louis (sānt lōō´ĭs or lōō´ĭ), Mo. [Named in honor of Louis XV. of France; the name originally applied to a depot established at this point February 15, 1764, by Pierre Láclede Liguest.]
It is the principal city of Missouri, and is located on the west bank of the Mississippi River, twenty-one miles south of the mouth of the Missouri River, and by rail one thousand one hundred and eight miles southwest of New York, two thousand four hundred and thirty-four miles east of San Francisco, and six hundred and ninety-six miles north of New Orleans. It has a frontage of nearly twenty miles on the river and rises from it in three terraces, the third of which is about two hundred feet above the river level.
The city is regularly laid out, on the Philadelphia plan, Market Street running east and west, being the dividing line between north and south. The streets running north and south are numbered, though many of them are also known by names. Broadway or Fifth Street is the chief shopping thoroughfare, while other important business streets are Fourth Street, Olive Street, Washington Avenue, Third Street, and First Street (or Main) and Second Streets. The city is also divided into a north and south section by the valley of Mill Creek (now filled in), which is spanned by seven bridges. The city has recently extended greatly to the west, and commerce is steadily encroaching on the residential quarters.
The Court House, in Broadway, between Market and Chestnut Streets, is a substantial building in the form of a Greek Cross. It is surmounted by a dome, one hundred and seventy-five feet high, the gallery of which commands an excellent view of the city and river. A little to the east, in Third Street, corner of Chestnut Street, is the Merchants’ Exchange, the main hall of which, with a painted ceiling, is two hundred and twenty feet long. The grand ball of the Veiled Prophet is held here. The Cotton Exchange is at the corner of Main and Walnut Streets.
By following Market Street to the west from the Court House, the square, named Washington Park, is reached, and also the City Hall. A little to the south, in the square enclosed by Clark Avenue and Spruce, Eleventh and Twelfth Streets, are the so-called Four Courts, built on the model of the Louvre, in Paris, with a large semi-circular jail at the back. A little to the north of the City Hall runs the busy Olive Street, which toward Broadway, passes the Post Office on the left. Among the numerous substantial business buildings in this part of Olive Street are the Star, Century, Frisco, Chemical, Missouri Trust, Commercial, Laclede, Commonwealth Trust, National Bank of Commerce, and Third National Bank, a large and very fine structure. In Broadway, at the corner of Locust Street, is the Mercantile Library, which contains one hundred and fifty thousand volumes, statues by Harriet Hosmer, and others.
Other important buildings in this business section of the city are the Security Building (at the southwest corner of Fourth and Locust Streets); the Mercantile Trust Co., at the northeast corner of Eighth and Locust Streets (with vaults closed by a circular steel door of marvelous mechanism weighing four and one-half tons); the St. Louis Union Trust Co., at the northwest corner of Fourth and Locust Streets; the Mercantile Club, southeast corner of Seventh and Locust Streets; the Public Library, Locust Street, corner of Ninth Street; the Lincoln Trust and Wainwright Buildings, corner of Seventh and Chestnut Streets; and the Missouri Pacific Building, northwest corner of Market and Seventh Streets.
On the block between Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Olive and St. Charles Streets is the new Carnegie Central Library, erected at a cost of one million dollars.
At the corner of Locust and Nineteenth Streets is the handsome School of Fine Arts, which is connected with Washington University.
The Episcopal Cathedral, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, old and new, and many of the new Protestant churches in the West End are architecturally striking.
The parks of St. Louis are among the most notable in the United States, and their area (two thousand three hundred acres) is exceeded by those of Philadelphia alone. The finest are Forest Park (one thousand three hundred and seventy acres); Tower Grove Park (two hundred and sixty-six acres); Carondelet Park, O’Fallon Park, and the Missouri Botanical Garden, which is one of the foremost in North America.
To the west of Forest Park is the new home of Washington University, forming one of the most [622] successful and appropriate groups of collegiate buildings in the New World. They were designed by Messrs. Cope & Stewardson in a Tudor-Gothic style and enclose several quadrangles. The material is red Missouri granite. Among the buildings already completed are University Hall, the Chemical and Physical Laboratories, the Architectural and Engineering Buildings, the Chapel (resembling King’s College Chapel at Cambridge, England), the library (with a fine reading room), various dormitories, and the gymnasium. The university grounds are one hundred and ten acres in extent.
The other institutions of higher education are St. Louis University, the College of the Christian Brothers, Maria Consilia Convent, training school for nurses, several medical colleges, dental college, the theological seminaries, manual training school, the State School for the Blind, and the St. Louis Day School for Deaf Mutes.
In Forest Park, not far from the University, is the handsome Museum of Fine Arts, originally erected as the Fine Arts Building of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. In front of the entrance is a colossal equestrian bronze statue of St. Louis.
The great St. Louis or Eads Bridge, across the Mississippi, is deservedly one of the monuments of the city. It was designed by Capt. James B. Eads and was constructed in 1869-1874 at a cost of ten million dollars. It consists of three steel spans (center five hundred and twenty feet, others five hundred and two feet each) resting on massive limestone piers. The total length is two thousand and seventy yards. The bridge is built in two stories, the lower for the railway, the upper for the roadway and foot passengers. Trains enter the lower track by a tunnel, one thousand six hundred and thirty yards long, beginning near the corner of Twelfth and Cerre Streets. The highest part of the arches is fifty-five feet above the water.
The Merchants’ Bridge, three miles farther up the river, is a steel truss bridge, and was built in 1889-1890, at a cost of three million dollars. It is used by railways only. It has three spans, each five hundred feet long and seventy feet high.
St. Louis ranks fourth among the manufacturing cities of the United States. It is the largest tobacco manufacturing city in the world, and also has a large production of malt liquors, flour, boots and shoes, hardware, stoves, railways and electric cars, woodenware, brick, biscuit, crackers, etc. The city is also the largest mule mart in the world, and noted as a drug market.
Founded from New Orleans in 1764, by Pierre Làclede-Liguest and Auguste Chouteau, St. Louis remained a fur-trading post until the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Its first era of marked development began with the arrival of the first steamboat, 1817. Steam navigation of its river connection made it the most important point in the settlement of the trans-Mississippi West. It had repeatedly doubled its population before the first period of German immigration, following the German revolution of 1848. In 1875 St. Louis was separated from the County of St. Louis and given an independent government of its own. In 1896 the city was swept by a destructive tornado. In 1903 an exposition was held in St. Louis to celebrate the Louisiana Purchase.
Its population of American birth heavily predominates, but its German population is large and every element of European population is represented, with a recent increase from Southern Europe and Russia in excess of all other elements.
St. Paul, Minn. [Named from the Chapel of St. Paul, a log chapel erected here by Roman Catholics. Indian name, imnijaska, “white rock,” a reference to the sandstone bluff on which the city stands.]
It is the capital of Minnesota, and located on both banks of the Mississippi River, immediately below Minneapolis, the suburbs of the “Twin Cities” being contiguous.
It has a picturesque site at an elevation of six hundred and seventy to eight hundred and eighty feet above sea level on a series of terraces, the highest of which is two hundred and sixty-six feet above the river. The two divisions of the city are connected by three municipal bridges. In addition to these there are a number of railway bridges and scores of smaller bridges over ravines, valleys, railway crossings, etc. The municipal limits include the suburbs of Merriam, St. Anthony, Union, Groveland, Macalester, and Desnoyer Parks, Arlington Hills, and others.
Of the three plateaus, the first contains the railway yards, Union Station, wholesale houses and factories. Above the flats are the business section and part of the residential district; still higher are the bluffs, the most fashionable residential quarter, with extensive views of the river and the lower terraces.
The business part of the town is well built and regularly laid out, and the suburban quarters contain many fine streets and handsome residences.
The new State Capitol, erected in 1898-1906, at a cost of four million five hundred thousand dollars, is a large and handsome edifice of granite and Georgia marble, with an unusually successful central dome.
The most impressive parts of the interior are the central rotunda, the two great staircases, the Supreme Court, and the Senate Chamber. The dominant note in the color scheme is furnished by Minnesota yellow limestone. The mural paintings are by La Farge, Simmons, Blashfield, Garnsey, Kenyon Cox, and H. O. Walker. In the Governor’s reception room are paintings by F. P. Millet, Howard Pyle, Douglas Volk, and others. The State Law Library and that of the State Historical Society are both housed in the Capitol.
Four blocks to the south of the Old Capitol are the Custom House and the City Hall, the latter a handsome building erected at a cost of one million dollars. Among other important buildings in the business quarter are the Public Library; the Auditorium, a hall for meetings and theatrical performances; the new Y. M. C. A. Building; the New York Life Insurance Building, corner Sixth and Minnesota Streets; the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Paul, Sixth Street, corner of St. Peter Street; the High School, corner Tenth and Minnesota Streets; the Globe Building, Fourth Street, corner Cedar Street; the Germania Life Insurance Office; the former Bank of Minnesota, now used for various offices; the Manhattan Building, corner of Fifth and Robert Streets; the Gilfillan Building; the Endicott Arcade; the Central Presbyterian Church; the Bethel Hotel, resembling the Mills House of New York; the Minnesota Club House; the People’s Church; the Field, Mahler & Co. Building, Fourth Street; and the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific Railway Offices.
The finest residence street is Summit Avenue. It begins at Wabasha Street and runs from Summit Park along a high ridge. The most prominent dwelling is the large brown stone mansion of the late James J. Hill, containing a good collection of paintings by Corot, Delacroix, Courbet, Troyon, Decamps, etc.
A Roman Catholic Cathedral is being erected at Summit Park; and to the west of the town, near the west end of Summit Avenue, by the river, is the extensive Roman Catholic Seminary of St. Thomas Aquinas. On the bluff above, at the end of Grand Avenue (parallel to Summit Avenue) are the various buildings of the Hill Seminary.
It is also the seat of Hamline University (Methodist Episcopal), Concordia College (Lutheran), Macalester College (Presbyterian), several medical colleges, a State Reform School, and an Academy of Natural Sciences.
St. Paul has a park system of remarkable beauty. Como and Phalen Parks have picturesque lakes, and Indian Mound Park is said to have views unsurpassed anywhere else on the Mississippi River. Harriet Island, in the river opposite the business district, is provided with public baths. There are twenty-two miles of park and boulevard driveways, not including the River Boulevard. The total park area is one thousand two hundred and four acres. Fort Snelling, attractively located at the mouth of the Minnesota River, occupies a large tract adjacent to the city on the southwest.
The manufactures of St. Paul include machinery, farming implements, furniture, carriages, boots and shoes, and malt liquors. Here also are located the extensive meat packing plants of Swift & Co., and quarries of fine limestone. It is the center of the wholesale grocery and dry-goods business in Minnesota. It is also an important printing and publishing center, and has large car shops, lumber and planing mills, and breweries.
In 1841 Father Galtier, a French Canadian, induced the settlers, chiefly French Catholic hunters and traders in furs and whiskey, to build a log church which was dedicated to St. Paul. In 1849 the town became the capital of the newly organized territory of Minnesota, and was incorporated. It received its city charter in 1854.
WASHINGTON, AMERICA’S CITY BEAUTIFUL
1. THE CAPITOL
2. MEMORIAL TO LINCOLN 3. THE WHITE HOUSE, (SOUTH FRONT)
4. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
Washington, D. C. [The “City of Magnificent Distances,” from its being laid out on a large and regular scale; originally named Georgetown, but when selected in 1790 as the Federal Capital was re-named Washington in honor of the first President of the United States.]
The City of Washington, the Capital of the United States, lies on the left bank of the Potomac River, in the District of Columbia, one hundred and fifty-six miles from Chesapeake Bay, one hundred and eighty-five miles from the Atlantic Ocean, two hundred and twenty-six miles southwest of New York, one hundred and thirty-six miles of Philadelphia, and forty miles of Baltimore.
The city lies on a plain with slight elevations and surrounded by hills, and is generally accepted as the most beautiful in the United States, being finely laid out, with wide asphalted streets, opening up vistas of handsome public buildings, monuments, or leafy squares, with the Capitol and the Washington Monument dominating the entire view.
The original plan of Washington City was made by L’Enfant, a French engineer, who had adopted America as his residence. Based largely upon the topography of Versailles, its characteristic features are the crossing of the rectangular streets by frequent broad transverse avenues, one hundred and twenty to one hundred and sixty feet wide, lined with trees and named for various States of the Union. The streets running north and south are numbered, those running east and west are named by the letters of the alphabet. The circles formed by the intersection of the streets and avenues are one of the most charming features of the city.
Pennsylvania Avenue, between the Capitol and the White House (a distance of one and one-third miles), is the chief thoroughfare, and other important business streets are Seventh Street, Fourteenth Street, Ninth Street, and F Street. Among the finest residence streets are New Hampshire Avenue, Massachusetts Avenue, Vermont Avenue, Connecticut Avenue, and Sixteenth Street.
The new Union Railway Station, completed in 1908 at a cost of fifteen million dollars, including grounds and tunnels, is undoubtedly one of the most successful buildings in the country. It is situated at the junction of Massachusetts and Delaware Avenues, about one-third of a mile, and in full view of the Capitol. In front is a large plaza, embellished with shrubbery, fountains, and the finely sculptured Columbus monument.
The Capitol, splendidly situated on a hill ninety feet above the level of the Potomac, dominates the entire city with its soaring dome and ranks among the most beautiful buildings in the world. It stands in a park of about fifty acres, is seven hundred and fifty-one feet in length and one hundred and twenty-one to three hundred and twenty-four feet wide, and consists of a main edifice of sandstone, painted white, and of two wings of white marble. The building covers an area of three and one-half acres.
The cornerstone was laid by Washington in 1793. The main building, with its original low-crowned dome, was completed in 1827; the wings and the new iron dome were added in 1851-1865. The general style is classic, with Corinthian details. The principal facade looks towards the east, as the city was expected to spread in that direction, and the Capitol thus turns its back upon the main part of the city and on the other government buildings.
A fine marble terrace, eight hundred and eighty-four feet long, approached by two broad flights of steps, has been constructed on the west side of the Capitol and adds great dignity to this view of the building. The dome, which is two hundred and sixty-eight and one-half feet high, is surmounted by a figure of Liberty, nineteen and one-half feet high. The total cost of the building has been sixteen million dollars.
The front or east facade is preceded by three porticos, the main entrance being in the center. To the right of the central portico is the Settlement of America, a marble group by Greenough; to the left is the Discovery of America, a figure of Columbus by Persico. In the pediment above the portico is a relief of the Genius of America, by Persico; and in the pediment above the north portico is a group representing the Civilization of the United States, by Crawford.
The inauguration of the Presidents of the United States takes place on the broad steps in front of the main doorway.
In the interior beside the rotunda with its historical paintings, are the Senate Chamber in the north wing; the House of Representatives in the south wing, the Supreme Court in the central building, and the old Hall of Representatives, now used for historical statues.
To the north and south of the Capitol and connected with it by subways are the Senate and House of Representatives office buildings, two white marble edifices in a classic style, containing offices for senators and representatives.
To the southeast of the Capitol stands the Library of Congress, an enormous structure in the Italian renaissance style, four hundred and seventy feet long and three hundred and forty feet wide, erected in 1888-1897, at a cost of six million one hundred and eighty thousand dollars. It is in the form of a quadrangle, enclosing four courts and a central rotunda surmounted by a flat gilded dome and lantern. The main entrance, on the west side, is preceded by a broad flight of steps and a granite terrace, against the retaining wall of which is an effective fountain.
The interior of the Congressional Library is sumptuously adorned with paintings, sculptures, colored marbles, and gilding. To the right and left are massive marble staircases, richly adorned with sculptures and with bronze figures as lamp-bearers. The ceiling of the hall, seventy-two feet above the marble flooring, is resplendent in blue, green, and yellow.
The reading room rotunda is perhaps the finest and most thoroughly satisfactory part of the whole building. The chamber, which is one hundred feet in diameter and one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, accommodates about three hundred readers, is richly adorned [624] with dark marble from Tennessee, red marble from Numidia, and yellow marble from Siena. The eight massive piers are surmounted by symbolical female figures.
At the foot of the flights of steps descending from the terrace on the west side of the Capitol is an heroic statue of Chief Justice Marshall, by Story. The broad walk to the north leads to the Naval or Peace Monument, by Simmons. The walk to the south leads to the statue of President Garfield, by J. Q. A. Ward.
Diagonally to the southwest and northwest extend two grand avenues as far as eye can see—Maryland Avenue to the left leading down to the Potomac and carrying the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad to the river, where it crosses over the Long Bridge into Virginia; and Pennsylvania Avenue to the right stretching to the distant colonnade of the Treasury Building and the tree covered park south of the Executive Mansion. Between these diverging avenues and extending to the Potomac, more than a mile away, is the Mall, a broad inclosure of lawns and gardens. Upon it in the foreground is the government Botanical Garden, and behind this the spacious grounds surrounding the Smithsonian Institution; and the National Museum; while beyond, near the river bank, rises the tall, white shaft of the Washington Monument with its pointed apex; on either side spreads out the city, the houses bordering the foliage lined streets and having at frequent intervals the tall spires of churches and the massive marble, granite, and brick edifices that are used for government buildings.
The Smithsonian Institution is a red stone building in the late Norman style, erected in 1847-1856 at a cost of four hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The loftiest of the nine towers is one hundred and forty-five feet high. In front of it is a statue of Prof. Joseph Henry, the first secretary of the Institution, by Story.
CORCORAN ART GALLERY, WASHINGTON
New buildings for the National Museum, on the Mall between Ninth and Twelfth Streets, and the new one million five hundred thousand dollar marble building of the Department of Agriculture, west of the Smithsonian grounds, are notable. The former, originally established to exhibit the rich contributions given to the government by various countries from the Centennial at Philadelphia in 1876, has become a most extensive and instructive collection of antiquities, ethnology, geology, and natural history generally; and there are many museums, libraries and art galleries.
The Bureau of Engraving and Printing, where the paper money, bonds and stamps of the United States are printed, is at the corner of B Street and the Mall, southwest.
The national monument to Washington, popularly known as the “Washington Monument,” is a towering obelisk of white marble, on the bank of the Potomac, erected at a cost of one million two hundred and thirty thousand dollars. It has a total height of five hundred and fifty-five feet, an area at the foundation of sixteen thousand feet, and a weight of thirty-six thousand nine hundred and twelve gross tons. The apex has an aluminum point, and there is an elevator and an iron stairway of nine hundred steps in the interior of the shaft.
From the Washington Monument the Treasury Department at Pennsylvania Avenue and Fifteenth Street comes into full view. It is an immense edifice, five hundred and ten feet long and two hundred and eighty feet wide, with an Ionic colonnade on the east front and porticos on the other three sides. The materials are freestone and granite, and it cost seven million dollars to erect the edifice. Among the chief objects of interest are the United States Cash Room, in the north corridor; the Redemption Division, in the basement; the Silver Vaults, containing bullion and coin to the value of hundreds of millions of dollars; and the Secret Service Division, with its collection of forged money and portraits of forgers.
On the south, opposite the Treasury, is the fine equestrian monument of General Sherman, by Rohl-Smith, erected in 1903. The pedestal is embellished with bronze reliefs, medallions, and figures of Indian women, and at the corners are four sentinels.
Following Pennsylvania Avenue towards the west, Lafayette Square, is approached. Here are bronze statues of General Andrew Jackson, by Clark Mills; the Rochambeau Monument, by F. [625] Hamar; and the Lafayette Monument, by Falguiére and Mercié. On the east side of the square is the Belasco Theater, occupying the site of the house in which an attempt was made to assassinate Secretary Seward in 1865.
Opposite Lafayette Square is the entrance to the White House or Executive Mansion of the President of the United States. The White House is a two-story stone building, painted white, one hundred and seventy feet long and eighty-six feet deep, with an Ionic portico. It was first built in 1792, occupied by President Adams in 1800, burned by the British in 1814, and rebuilt in 1818. In 1902-1903 the whole building was admirably restored, within and without. The esplanade or terrace on the west side connects the house with the new Executive Offices and Cabinet Room. The large East Room (eighty by forty by twenty-two feet) is open to the public from ten to two. The Reception Rooms, which contain portraits of Presidents and valuable gifts, and the handsome Dining Room are shown by special order only. The rest of the house is private. The grounds surrounding the house are seventy-five acres in extent.
To the west of the White House is the huge building of the State, War, and Navy Departments, enclosing two courts and measuring five hundred and sixty-seven feet in length by three hundred and forty-two feet in breadth. It is a granite building, in Renaissance style, the largest public edifice in Washington, covering four and one-half acres, has five hundred and sixty-six rooms, and cost eleven million dollars. The north and west wings are occupied by the War Department. The Navy Department is in the eastern part of the building.
The Department of State occupies the southern part of the building. Among the finest rooms are the Diplomatic Reception Rooms, containing portraits of the Secretaries of State from 1789 to the present day, and the Library, with Jefferson’s original draft of the Declaration of Independence and other relics.
In Seventeenth Street, to the southwest of the State Building, between New York Avenue and E Street, is the Corcoran Gallery of Art, built and endowed by the late W. W. Corcoran. The present building, erected in 1894-1897, is a handsome white marble structure in a Neo-Grecian style, by Ernest Flagg. The semicircular hall at the north end is used for occasional exhibitions, while the rest of this part of the building is occupied by a School of Art. The steps to the main entrance are flanked by colossal bronze lions, modeled after those by Canova at the tomb of Pope Clement XIII. The Gallery contains more than two hundred paintings, the finest collection of Barye bronzes, Power’s Greek Slave, and Vela’s Dying Napoleon in marble.
Also in Seventeenth Street, south of the Corcoran Gallery, are the new Continental Hall, built by the Daughters of the American Revolution, and the new building of the International Bureau of the American Republics, erected at a cost of one million dollars by Andrew Carnegie.
The Interior Department occupies an entire square in the heart of the city, and is constructed of white marble in pure Doric, costing three million dollars. The General Land Office opposite is a Corinthian marble edifice.
In Judiciary Square on the north side stands the Pension Office, an enormous structure of brick, four hundred feet long and two hundred feet wide. It is surrounded by a terra cotta frieze illustrating military and naval operations. The interior, with its mammoth columns (seventy-five feet high), can accommodate about twenty thousand people at an inauguration ball, or other occasions.
ST. JOHN’S CHURCH, WASHINGTON
Nearby, in B Street, is the large Census Bureau, in which a large staff is constantly at work. The enumerating machines are especially interesting.
To the northeast of this point, at the corner of North Capitol and H Streets, is the Government Printing Office, a twelve-story building erected at a cost of two million dollars.
Ford Theater, in which President Lincoln was assassinated by Booth on April 14, 1865, is in Tenth Street. A house opposite bears a tablet stating that Lincoln died there, and contains a collection of Lincoln relics.
On the south side of Pennsylvania Avenue, between Eleventh and Twelfth Streets, is the Post Office Department, with a tower three hundred feet high. At the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and Fourteenth Streets is the new District or Municipal Building, a fine marble structure completed in 1908, and occupied by the District Commissioners and other officials of the local government.
At the intersection of Massachusetts Avenue and New York Avenue is Mt. Vernon Square, containing the Public Library, a white marble building, presented by Mr. Andrew Carnegie.
Beyond the Capitol to the southeast are the Washington Barracks, at the junction of the Potomac and its Eastern Branch, an artillery post, and the War College, a fine brick building, erected 1903-1908. In front of the latter is a statue of Frederick the Great by T. Uphues, presented to the United States by Emperor William II.
About one mile to the northeast, on the Anacostia River, is the Washington Navy Yard, with a museum, an important gun foundry, and manufactories of naval stores.
There are more than two hundred and fifty churches in Washington, of which the more important are St. John’s (the “President’s [626] Church”), and St. Thomas’ Episcopal; the New York Avenue, and Church of the Covenant, Presbyterian; the Metropolitan and Foundry, Methodist; St. Matthew’s and St. Aloysius’, Roman Catholic; Calvary, Baptist; Garfield Memorial, Christian; and Mount St. Sepulchre, with its reproduction of the sacred places of the Holy Land.
The National Soldiers’ Home, two miles above the city, founded in 1851, has six hundred acres of park and forest, which serve as a public driving park and rural resort. To the north lies the National Military Cemetery, with the graves of General Logan, General Kearney, and seven thousand soldiers. On the west this is adjoined by Rock Creek Cemetery, containing Saint-Gauden’s beautiful monument to Mrs. Henry Adams. To the east of the Soldiers’ Home Park is the important Catholic University of America, around which has grown up a somewhat remarkable group of ecclesiastical establishments, including a Franciscan Convent, houses of the Dominicans, Paulists and Marists, and Trinity College for young women. The university has a number of fine stone buildings of striking architectural effect. The other colleges of note are: George Washington University, with academic, scientific, graduate, medical, and technological departments, and a famous law school; Georgetown University, a Jesuit institution with academic and professional schools; American University, for graduate instruction only; and the National Deaf-Mute College, founded in 1864, a government institution for the education of deaf and dumb pupils from the army, the navy, and the District of Columbia. Its fine stone buildings lie just north of the city.
Among the more important private buildings may be mentioned those of the Washington Post and Evening Star, and the Munsey buildings, all on Pennsylvania Avenue; the Riggs National Bank, American Security and Trust Company, Washington Loan and Trust, Union Trust and Storage Company, and the National Metropolitan Bank. The larger office buildings are the Bond, the Colorado, the Ouray, the Southern, and Woodward buildings. The Masonic Temple, the Scottish Rite Temple, and the Y. M. C. A. buildings, are important structures.
More and more Washington is becoming the home of a class of wealthy Americans, many of whom have erected beautiful residences, and among those of conspicuous architectural value are the Leiter, Townsend, Walsh, McLean, Belmont, Hale, Anderson, Boardman, Patterson, Thomas Nelson Page, Wayne McVeagh, Henderson, and Gale houses. Of similar interest are the embassy buildings of the British, Chinese, French, Russian, and other nations. The Metropolitan, the Cosmos, the Army and Navy, University, National Press, and the Washington (for women) are the principal clubs, and have homes of their own.
An elaborate park system is in course of development, which will ultimately surround the city with parks and connecting boulevards. The principal park is Rock Creek Park, to the north of the city, containing two thousand acres extending along both sides of Rock Creek. Its natural beauties are very great. On Mt. St. Alban, near Woodley, to the northwest of Georgetown, is the Peace Cross, a large Celtic cross erected at the close of the war with Spain (1898) on the grounds of the new Episcopal Cathedral, of which the cornerstone was laid in 1907. It affords a fine view of Washington. On the Chevy Chase Road, to the northwest of the Zoölogical Park, are the National Bureau of Standards and the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, the administration building of which latter is in Sixteenth Street.
South of Rock Creek Park, on Rock Creek, lies the National Zoölogical Park of one hundred and seventy acres, reached from Washington in a half hour.
On a commanding site overlooking Rock Creek, north of Georgetown, in handsome grounds, is the United States Naval Observatory, of white marble, with its twenty-six-inch equatorial telescope.
Scattered throughout the city are numerous squares, circles, and small parks, nearly all of which contain statues.
Of bronze statues erected in honor of famous men, Washington has an abundance—mainly to military characters. Equestrian statues of Washington, Jackson, Greene, Scott, Thomas, and McPherson are erected, besides full-length statues of Lafayette, Luther, Franklin, Chief Justice Marshall, Lincoln, Garfield, Professor Henry Farragut, General Rawlins, and Admiral Dupont.
ARLINGTON HOUSE, HOME OF GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE
At Arlington, across the river from Washington, on commanding heights, is the National Cemetery containing the graves of about sixteen thousand soldiers. Arlington House, in the middle of the grounds, two hundred feet above the river, was once the residence of George Washington Parke Custis (step-grandson of Washington) and afterwards of General Robert Lee, who married Miss Custis. Near the house are the graves of General Sheridan, Admiral Porter, General Lawton, General Wheeler, and other distinguished officers.
To the south is a tomb containing the remains of two thousand one hundred and eleven unknown soldiers. The sailors destroyed by the blowing up of the “Maine” in 1898 and other victims [627] of the war with Spain are buried in the southern part of the cemetery.
The cornerstone of a splendid military memorial or Hall of Fame was laid here in 1916, to be erected in classic style, of marble, and to cost several millions of dollars.
MOUNT VERNON
WASHINGTON’S TOMB, MT. VERNON
Mount Vernon, Washington’s home and burial place, is in Fairfax County, Va., about fifteen miles below the city. It is in full view, standing among the trees on the top of a bluff rising about two hundred feet above the river. As the steamboat approaches, its bell is tolled, this being the universal custom on nearing or passing Washington’s tomb. The estate was originally a domain of about eight thousand acres, and Augustine Washington, dying in 1743, bequeathed it to Lawrence Washington, who, having served in the Spanish wars under Admiral Vernon, named it Mount Vernon in his honor. General Washington, in 1752, inherited Mount Vernon from Lawrence. After his death the estate passed to his nephew, Bushrod Washington, subsequently descending to other members of the family.
Congress repeatedly endeavored to have Washington’s remains removed to the crypt under the rotunda of the Capitol, originally constructed for their reception, but the family always refused, knowing it was his desire to rest at Mount Vernon.
In 1856 the mansion and surrounding property were saved from the auctioneer’s hammer, and secured as a national possession by the Ladies’ Mount Vernon Association, assisted principally by Edward Everett, at a cost of two hundred thousand dollars.
Washington, originally called Federal City, was named after Washington in 1791, and became the capital in 1800. In 1814 the Capitol, White House, and other public buildings, were burned by the British.
Leading Events in the Colonial History of the United States in the Form of Parallel Outlines
I. PERIOD OF AUTHENTIC DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION, FROM 1492 TO 1607
Preceding this Period there are some legendary accounts of discoveries by Norsemen, Irish missionaries and even Asiatics. Little importance attaches to any except those of the Norse discoverers, chief of which was Lief Ericsson and his brother Thorwald who came upon the mainland of North America about 1000 to 1004. The discoveries of Columbus and Vasco da Gama opened a new era, during which the Spaniards explored and settled the West Indies, Mexico, and the southern part of the present United States; while the English and French explored, claimed, and made unsuccessful attempts at settlement in the North.
| Dates | Spanish Explorers and Rulers | Portuguese Explorers and Rulers | English Explorers and Rulers | European Events | Dates |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ferdinand and Isabella, 1474-1516. | Emanuel I., the Great, 1469-1521. | Henry VII., 1485-1509 | |||
| 1492 | 1492. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, an Italian, supported by Ferdinand and Isabella, set sail from Palos, Spain (August 3), and discovered America (October 12), landing at one of the Bahamas, which he named San Salvador. During the following three months he visited the islands of Cuba and Hayti. | 1492. End of the Moorish dominion in Spain. Death of Lorenzo de Medici, the “Magnificent” at Florence. | 1492 | ||
| 1494. Beginning of a series of Italian wars, lasting till 1539. | |||||
| 1497. JOHN CABOT, an Italian in the service of Henry VII. of England discovered the coast of NORTH AMERICA, probably at Labrador. He was accompanied by his son, Sebastian. | |||||
| 1498. Columbus made a THIRD voyage, discovering the island of Trinidad and the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco River. | 1498. Sebastian Cabot, on a SECOND voyage, probably explored the Atlantic coast from Labrador to Carolina. These voyages were not followed by any attempt at colonization. | ||||
| 1499-1507. Amerigo Vespucci wrote a letter to a friend claiming to have discovered a part of the South American coast in 1499, and an account of this voyage was published. The new continent, therefore, was named after him by the German geographer Waldseemüller, who had read the account. | 1499. Vasco Da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope and reached India. Another route to India was thus revealed. | 1499. The Swiss gain their independence from the Emperor Maximilian. | |||
| 1500 | 1500. Cortereal, a Portuguese, explored the coast from Labrador to Nova Scotia. | 1500 | |||
| 1502. Columbus made a FOURTH voyage. He explored the coast of Central America and Panama, returned to Spain discouraged and died four years later in the belief that he had discovered India by sailing west. | 1502. Outbreak of war between France and Spain in Italy. | ||||
| 1510 | Henry VIII., 1509-1547. | 1510 | |||
| 1512. Ponce De Leon, seeking a legendary fountain of youth, discovered Florida, so named because he landed on Easter Sunday, the Spanish “Feast of Flowers.” | 1511. Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League against France and Spain. | ||||
| 1513. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific, which he took possession of, with its coast and islands, for Spain. Charles I. of Spain and Charles V. of Germany, Emperor. 1516-1556. | French Explorers and Rulers | 1513. James IV. of Scotland invades England, and is killed at battle of Flodden Field. | |||
| Francis I., 1515-1547. | |||||
| 1515. Wolsey appointed Chancellor by Henry VIII. of England. | |||||
| 1519-1521. Cortez conquered Mexico for Spain. This conquest led to the establishment of Spain’s Empire in the new world. The mines brought great wealth to Spain and formed thebasis of Spanish prosperity in the following years. | 1519. The German Empire, Spain, Netherlands, Two Sicilies and the Spanish Indies united under Charles V. | ||||
| 1520 | 1520. Magellan, a Portuguese in Spain’s service, discovered the strait named after him. He reached and named the Pacific Ocean. | 1520 | |||
| 1521. Magellan discovered the Philippine Islands. His followers, after his death, continued westward and completed the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. | 1524. Verrazano, sailing in the service of France, traced the American coast northward from Cape Fear, and discovered New York harbor. | 1521. Beginning of the wars between Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France. | |||
| 1527. Captain John Rut explores the coast of North America. | 1527. Expulsion of the Medici from Florence. | ||||
| 1530 | 1539. Coronado and a force of Spaniards marched northward from Mexico to Colorado and Kansas and discovered the Grand Canon of the Colorado River. De Soto, at the same time, led an army of about a thousand into northwest Florida. He reached the Mississippi in 1541. | 1535. Cartier, in search of a northwest passage, ascended the St. Lawrence to Lachine Rapids and Mont Réal (Montreal). | 1535. Henry VIII. of England assumes the title of supreme head of the Church in England. | 1530 | |
| 1540 | 1541. Roberval and Cartier made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a French colony on the St. Lawrence. | 1543. England enters into an alliance with Charles V. against France. | 1540 | ||
| 1550 | Philip II., 1556-1598. | Elizabeth 1558-1603. | 1550 | ||
| 1560 | Charles IX., 1560-1574. | 1560 | |||
| 1562. Jean Ribault establishes a Huguenot settlement at Port Royal. | 1562. Beginning of the Huguenot wars. | ||||
| 1565. The Spaniards, under MENENDEZ, founded ST. AUGUSTINE, Florida. | 1565. The Huguenot settlement destroyed by Menendez. | ||||
| 1570 | 1570 | ||||
| 1576-1578. Frobisher, in the interest of England, made three attempts to find a northwest passage to Asia. | |||||
| 1578. Drake explored the Pacific coast as far north as the state of Washington. He had previously doubled Cape Horn. He claimed the land for England. | |||||
| 1580 | 1582. Spanish monks planted missions in New Mexico and Arizona. | 1581. Declaration of independence by the Dutch. | 1580 | ||
| 1583. Humphrey Gilbert landed at St. John’s, Newfoundland, and took possession of the country for England. | Queen Elizabeth was financially interested in many of the expeditions which followed, and she knighted most of the men who commanded expeditions. | ||||
| 1584. Sir Walter Raleigh sent out an expedition under Captain Arthur Barlow. The expedition landed at Pamlico Sound and the region was named Virginia in honor of Elizabeth. | |||||
| Henry IV., 1589-1610. | 1587. Raleigh despatched another expedition, consisting of two ships with one hundred and fifty men and women, to Roanoke Island. John White was the Governor. Virginia Dare, the first white child born in America, was born here. | 1587. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. 1588. Battle of the Spanish Armada. | |||
| 1590 | 1598. A Spanish settlement was planted by Oñate near Santa Fe, New Mexico. | 1595. France declares war against Spain. | 1590 | ||
| 1600 | 1602. Gosnold, an English merchant, made a settlement at Buzzard’s Bay, R. I. James I., 1603-1625. | 1600 | |||
| 1603. Champlain entered the St. Lawrence. The French occupation of Canada began with Champlain. His maps, reports, and settlements stimulated French enterprise. | 1603. Martin Pring enters the present harbor of Plymouth. | 1604. Charles IX. ascends throne of Sweden. | |||
| 1605. Champlain founded Port Royal (Annapolis, N. S.), and sailed in an exploring expedition as far south as Cape Cod. | 1606. In England there was organized the Virginia Company for the purpose of establishing trading colonies in America. |
| Dates | Spanish Explorers and Rulers | Portuguese Explorers and Rulers | English Explorers and Rulers | European Events |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ferdinand and Isabella, 1474-1516. | Emanuel I., the Great, 1469-1521. | Henry VII., 1485-1509 | ||
| 1492 | 1492. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, an Italian, supported by Ferdinand and Isabella, set sail from Palos, Spain (August 3), and discovered America (October 12), landing at one of the Bahamas, which he named San Salvador. During the following three months he visited the islands of Cuba and Hayti. | 1492. End of the Moorish dominion in Spain. Death of Lorenzo de Medici, the “Magnificent” at Florence. | ||
| 1494. Beginning of a series of Italian wars, lasting till 1539. | ||||
| 1497. JOHN CABOT, an Italian in the service of Henry VII. of England discovered the coast of NORTH AMERICA, probably at Labrador. He was accompanied by his son, Sebastian. | ||||
| 1498. Columbus made a THIRD voyage, discovering the island of Trinidad and the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco River. | 1498. Sebastian Cabot, on a SECOND voyage, probably explored the Atlantic coast from Labrador to Carolina. These voyages were not followed by any attempt at colonization. | |||
| 1499-1507. Amerigo Vespucci wrote a letter to a friend claiming to have discovered a part of the South American coast in 1499, and an account of this voyage was published. The new continent, therefore, was named after him by the German geographer Waldseemüller, who had read the account. | 1499. Vasco Da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope and reached India. Another route to India was thus revealed. | 1499. The Swiss gain their independence from the Emperor Maximilian. | ||
| 1500 | 1500. Cortereal, a Portuguese, explored the coast from Labrador to Nova Scotia. | |||
| 1502. Columbus made a FOURTH voyage. He explored the coast of Central America and Panama, returned to Spain discouraged and died four years later in the belief that he had discovered India by sailing west. | 1502. Outbreak of war between France and Spain in Italy. | |||
| 1510 | ||||
| 1512. Ponce De Leon, seeking a legendary fountain of youth, discovered Florida, so named because he landed on Easter Sunday, the Spanish “Feast of Flowers.” | 1511. Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League against France and Spain. | |||
| 1513. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific, which he took possession of, with its coast and islands, for Spain. Charles I. of Spain and Charles V. of Germany, Emperor. 1516-1556. | French Explorers and Rulers | 1513. James IV. of Scotland invades England, and is killed at battle of Flodden Field. | ||
| Francis I., 1515-1547. | ||||
| 1515. Wolsey appointed Chancellor by Henry VIII. of England. | ||||
| 1519-1521. Cortez conquered Mexico for Spain. This conquest led to the establishment of Spain’s Empire in the new world. The mines brought great wealth to Spain and formed thebasis of Spanish prosperity in the following years. | 1519. The German Empire, Spain, Netherlands, Two Sicilies and the Spanish Indies united under Charles V. | |||
| 1520 | 1520. Magellan, a Portuguese in Spain’s service, discovered the strait named after him. He reached and named the Pacific Ocean. | |||
| 1521. Magellan discovered the Philippine Islands. His followers, after his death, continued westward and completed the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. | 1524. Verrazano, sailing in the service of France, traced the American coast northward from Cape Fear, and discovered New York harbor. | Henry VIII., 1509-1547. | 1521. Beginning of the wars between Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France. | |
| 1527. Captain John Rut explores the coast of North America. | 1527. Expulsion of the Medici from Florence. | |||
| 1530 | 1539. Coronado and a force of Spaniards marched northward from Mexico to Colorado and Kansas and discovered the Grand Canon of the Colorado River. De Soto, at the same time, led an army of about a thousand into northwest Florida. He reached the Mississippi in 1541. | 1535. Cartier, in search of a northwest passage, ascended the St. Lawrence to Lachine Rapids and Mont Réal (Montreal). | 1535. Henry VIII. of England assumes the title of supreme head of the Church in England. | |
| 1540 | 1541. Roberval and Cartier made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a French colony on the St. Lawrence. | 1543. England enters into an alliance with Charles V. against France. | ||
| 1550 | Philip II., 1556-1598. | Elizabeth 1558-1603. | ||
| 1560 | Charles IX., 1560-1574. | |||
| 1562. Jean Ribault establishes a Huguenot settlement at Port Royal. | 1562. Beginning of the Huguenot wars. | |||
| 1565. The Spaniards, under MENENDEZ, founded ST. AUGUSTINE, Florida. | 1565. The Huguenot settlement destroyed by Menendez. | |||
| 1570 | ||||
| 1576-1578. Frobisher, in the interest of England, made three attempts to find a northwest passage to Asia. | ||||
| 1578. Drake explored the Pacific coast as far north as the state of Washington. He had previously doubled Cape Horn. He claimed the land for England. | ||||
| 1580 | 1582. Spanish monks planted missions in New Mexico and Arizona. | 1581. Declaration of independence by the Dutch. | ||
| 1583. Humphrey Gilbert landed at St. John’s, Newfoundland, and took possession of the country for England. | Queen Elizabeth was financially interested in many of the expeditions which followed, and she knighted most of the men who commanded expeditions. | |||
| 1584. Sir Walter Raleigh sent out an expedition under Captain Arthur Barlow. The expedition landed at Pamlico Sound and the region was named Virginia in honor of Elizabeth. | ||||
| Henry IV., 1589-1610. | 1587. Raleigh despatched another expedition, consisting of two ships with one hundred and fifty men and women, to Roanoke Island. John White was the Governor. Virginia Dare, the first white child born in America, was born here. | 1587. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. 1588. Battle of the Spanish Armada. | ||
| 1590 | 1598. A Spanish settlement was planted by Oñate near Santa Fe, New Mexico. | 1595. France declares war against Spain. | ||
| 1600 | 1602. Gosnold, an English merchant, made a settlement at Buzzard’s Bay, R. I. James I., 1603-1625. | |||
| 1603. Champlain entered the St. Lawrence. The French occupation of Canada began with Champlain. His maps, reports, and settlements stimulated French enterprise. | 1603. Martin Pring enters the present harbor of Plymouth. | 1604. Charles IX. ascends throne of Sweden. | ||
| 1605. Champlain founded Port Royal (Annapolis, N. S.), and sailed in an exploring expedition as far south as Cape Cod. | 1606. In England there was organized the Virginia Company for the purpose of establishing trading colonies in America. |
II. THE COLONIAL PERIOD OF UNITED STATES HISTORY, INCLUDING ITS SETTLEMENT (1607 TO 1689); AND ITS CONSOLIDATION (1689 TO 1763)
The real history of the United States begins with this period. Within it the original Thirteen Colonies were established; New England and Virginia grew in influence and population; the Indian power in the East was subdued; the Colonies increased in strength and self-reliance, and the struggle between England and France for control of the New World was settled in favor of the English.
| THE SOUTHERN COLONIES | NEW ENGLAND COLONIES | THE MIDDLE COLONIES | Progress and Population | English Rulers and Events | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virginia | Massachusetts | New York | ||||||||||
| 1603-1625. James I. 1603. Union of England and Scotland. | ||||||||||||
| 1607. The London Company made THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA, AT JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA (May 13). Jamestown was named after the English King, James I. | 1607. The Plymouth Company established a colony on the Kennebec River, in Maine under Sir Ferdinando Gorges. The colony failed. | 1609. Henry Hudson, employed by the Dutch East India Company, sailed up the Hudson River searching for a passage to the Indies. | ||||||||||
| 1614. The Dutch established trading stations on Manhattan Island and at Fort Orange (Albany) on the Hudson. They called their possessions New Netherland. | 1616. Tobacco first cultivated by the English in Virginia. | |||||||||||
| 1619. Virginia settlers establish the FIRST REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY IN AMERICA, called The House of Burgesses. The FIRST SLAVES were sold in Virginia. | 1620. The Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape Cod November 11, and formed the FIRST SETTLEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND AT PLYMOUTH (December 22), under the FIRST REPUBLICAN FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA. | |||||||||||
| 1622. An Indian attack was made on Jamestown. | New Hampshire | New Jersey | ||||||||||
| 1624. Virginia was made into a royal colony. | 1623. First settlement on Piscataqua River, by John Mason. | 1623. The Dutch founded a settlement on Manhattan Island which they called NEW AMSTERDAM (later New York City). | 1623. Ft. Nassau (now Gloucester, N. J.) established by the Dutch. | 1625-1649. Charles I. | ||||||||
| 1626. Peter Minuit, director-general of New Netherland, purchased Manhattan Island from the Indians for $24. | Delaware | |||||||||||
| 1628. The permanent settlement of Massachusetts Bay Colony began by the settlement of Salem under John Endicott. | 1627. Swaanendael (now Lewis, Del.) founded. | 1627. War with France, over the Huguenots. | ||||||||||
| Maryland | 1629-1640. The “Great Migration” of Puritans to Massachusetts. | 1629. Establishment of the patroon system to encourage settlement in New Netherland. | ||||||||||
| 1630. BOSTON WAS FOUNDED by the English Puritans. The first general court in New England met there October 19. | Connecticut | |||||||||||
| 1632. Lord Baltimore obtained a charter to Maryland. | 1633. Settled at Windsor by Pilgrims. 1633-1636. Colonization of Connecticut River valley. | |||||||||||
| 1634. First permanent settlement made at St. Mary’s by Calvert. | Rhode Island | |||||||||||
| 1636. Roger Williams settles at Providence. | 1637. Pequot Indian War. | 1636. Wealthy colonists from Holland settle at Ft. Orange. | 1636. First college in America founded by Massachusetts. Two years later it is named Harvard in honor of John Harvard. | |||||||||
| 1638. Ann Hutchinson settled in Rhode Island. | 1638. A Swedish settlement was made near Wilmington, on the Delaware. | |||||||||||
| 1639. Newport founded. | 1639. First press in America set up at Cambridge. Stephen Daye was the printer, and the first American Book was The Bay Psalm Book. | |||||||||||
| 1640. Provisional government established at Dover. | 1640. English settlements begun on Salem Creek. | 1640. Whole number of emigrants to New England previous to this time about 21,200. | 1640. Meeting of the Long Parliament. | |||||||||
| 1642-1652. William Berkeley governor of Virginia, which became a refuge for Cavaliers from England. | 1641. Massachusetts Bay Colony adopted laws known as the Body of Liberties. | 1642. Civil war begins. | ||||||||||
| 1643. THE FIRST INTER-COLONIAL UNION IN New England. It was formed for protection. | ||||||||||||
| 1645. Maryland Catholics and Virginia Puritans engaged in rebellion. | 1647-1664. Peter Stuyvesant governor of New Netherland. | 1645. Massachusetts established free schools supported by the State. | ||||||||||
| 1649. The Maryland Assembly passed a TOLERATION Act. | 1649. Execution of Charles I. 1649-1660. The Commonwealth under Cromwell. | |||||||||||
| 1652. Puritan Commissioners with an army compelled Virginia to accept the rule of the Puritan Commonwealth. | Carolinas | |||||||||||
| 1653. Settlement of Albemarle, North Carolina, by Virginia pioneers. | ||||||||||||
| 1658. Massachusetts made it a capital offense for Quakers to return to the colony after expulsion. | 1657. Proclamation issued against the Quakers. | 1655. The Swedish settlements on the Delaware conquered by the Dutch. | ||||||||||
| 1660. The restoration of Charles II. in England brought about the return of Berkeley in Virginia. The restoration was welcomed by the Cavaliers of Virginia, but the Massachusetts Puritans delayed a year before proclaiming Charles king. A second influx of Puritan immigrants followed the restoration. | 1663. Carolina granted to a company of proprietors. | 1661. Charles Calvert appointed governor. | 1663. Charter granted to Rhode Island. | 1662. Charter granted to Connecticut. | 1661. Eliot’s “Indian Testament” printed at Cambridge. | 1660. Restoration of the Stuarts. 1660-1685. Charles II. | ||||||
| 1669. John Locke drafts a constitution for Carolina. | 1664. Delaware passes under English rule. | 1664. New Jersey granted to Berkeley and Carteret. | 1664. Eliot’s “Indian Bible” printed at Cambridge. | 1668. Triple alliance of England, Sweden and Holland against France. | ||||||||
| 1670. Charleston, S. C., settled and territory divided into North and South Carolina. | 1670. Staten Island purchased from the Indians. | |||||||||||
| 1675. KING PHILIP’S WAR broke out in New England. | ||||||||||||
| Pennsylvania | ||||||||||||
| 1676. BACON’S REBELLION broke out in Virginia. | 1677. Maine became part of Massachusetts by purchase. | 1676. Population of New England estimated at 60,000. | ||||||||||
| 1680. New Hampshire declared a royal province. | 1681. Grant of Pennsylvania to William Penn. | 1680. John Buckner brings a printing press to Virginia and prints the session laws. | ||||||||||
| 1684. Massachusetts becomes a royal colony. | 1683. First Assembly in New York under English rule. | 1682. Philadelphia laid out by Penn, and Quaker emigration encouraged. Penn’s treaty with the Indians. | 1682. Delaware becomes part of Pennsylvania. | 1685-1689. James II. | ||||||||
| 1686-1689. Andros governor of all New England by royal appointment. | 1689-1690. Leisler’s rebellion in New York. | 1689. First American newspaper published in Boston; suppressed by Massachusetts government. | 1688-1689. The “Glorious Revolution.” 1689-1702. William III. and Mary. | |||||||||
| 1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America. | ||||||||||||
| 1691-1693. Salem witchcraft. | 1692. The College of William and Mary was established in Virginia. | |||||||||||
| 1700. Population of colonies about 260,000. | ||||||||||||
| 1701. Penn granted a Charter of Privileges to Pennsylvania which remained in force until 1776. | 1701. Yale College was established in Connecticut. | 1701. War of the Spanish succession. | ||||||||||
| 1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR began between France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French attacking New England, and the New Englanders retaliating. | ||||||||||||
| 1702. Joseph Dudley appointed governor. | 1703. Delaware is made a separate colony. | 1702. New Jersey becomes a royal province under the governor of New York. | 1704. Appearance of “The Boston News Letter,” the first newspaper in America. | 1702-1714. Queen Anne. 1702. Queen Anne war against France and Spain. | ||||||||
| 1710. First post office in America at New York. | 1714-1727. George II. | |||||||||||
| 1719. First Spinning-wheel and cultivation of potatoes introduced by the settlers of Londonderry, N. H. | 1718. War with Spain. | |||||||||||
| 1721-1729. The Carolinas are royal colonies. | 1720. Tea begins to be used in New England. | |||||||||||
| 1728. Boundary established between Virginia and North Carolina. | 1729. North and South Carolina permanently divided into two provinces. | 1729. Baltimore founded. | 1728-1731. Final boundaries established with New York and Rhode Island. | 1729. “Pennsylvania Gazette” started by Franklin. | 1727-1760. George II. | |||||||
| Georgia | ||||||||||||
| 1733. Last of the thirteen original colonies settled by Oglethorpe at Savannah. | 1734. Assembly meets for first time at Greenwich. | 1735. Zenger’s trial and acquittal in New York, establishes freedom of the press. | 1733. Treaty with the “Six Nations.” | 1733. Delaware boundaries defined after twenty years’ litigation. | 1736. Appearance of “The Virginia Gazette,” first newspaper in the South. | |||||||
| 1740. Boundaries of New Hampshire determined. | 1738. Separate charter granted to New Jersey. | 1740. University of Pennsylvania founded. | 1739. War with Spain. | |||||||||
| 1742. Spaniards attacked Georgia; defeated by Oglethorpe. | 1742. Peter Faneuil builds “Faneuil Hall.” | 1743. Sir George Clinton, governor. | 1741. Moravians first settle in United States at Bethlehem. | |||||||||
| 1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists. | ||||||||||||
| 1744. Treaty with the “Six Nations.” | 1745. One thousand men sent against Louisburg. | 1744. George Whitefield preaches in New Hampshire. | 1746. Thomas and Richard Penn sole proprietors of Pennsylvania. | 1746. New Jersey College, afterwards Princeton. | 1744. War between England, France and Austria. | |||||||
| 1749. First English ship reaches Georgia. | 1749. Famous Indian treaty renewed at Falmouth. | 1750. Trenton public library founded. | 1749. White population of the colonies 1,046,000. | |||||||||
| 1753. GEORGE WASHINGTON was sent by Governor Dinwiddie to order the French out of the Ohio valley. | 1753. The Potomac River explored to its source. | 1754. Providence library chartered. | 1754. Convention at Albany to consider a colonial confederacy. | 1752. English Bible first printed in America. Franklin experiments in electricity. | ||||||||
| 1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY OF PARIS in 1763. | 1754. King’s College (now Columbia), New York City, founded. | 1756-1763. Seven Years’ war. | ||||||||||
| THE SOUTHERN COLONIES | ||
|---|---|---|
| Virginia | ||
| 1607. The London Company made THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA, AT JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA (May 13). Jamestown was named after the English King, James I. | ||
| 1619. Virginia settlers establish the FIRST REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY IN AMERICA, called The House of Burgesses. The FIRST SLAVES were sold in Virginia. | ||
| 1622. An Indian attack was made on Jamestown. | ||
| 1624. Virginia was made into a royal colony. | ||
| Maryland | ||
| 1632. Lord Baltimore obtained a charter to Maryland. | ||
| 1634. First permanent settlement made at St. Mary’s by Calvert. | ||
| 1642-1652. William Berkeley governor of Virginia, which became a refuge for Cavaliers from England. | ||
| 1645. Maryland Catholics and Virginia Puritans engaged in rebellion. | ||
| 1649. The Maryland Assembly passed a TOLERATION Act. | ||
| 1652. Puritan Commissioners with an army compelled Virginia to accept the rule of the Puritan Commonwealth. | Carolinas | |
| 1653. Settlement of Albemarle, North Carolina, by Virginia pioneers. | ||
| 1660. The restoration of Charles II. in England brought about the return of Berkeley in Virginia. The restoration was welcomed by the Cavaliers of Virginia, but the Massachusetts Puritans delayed a year before proclaiming Charles king. A second influx of Puritan immigrants followed the restoration. | 1663. Carolina granted to a company of proprietors. | 1661. Charles Calvert appointed governor. |
| 1669. John Locke drafts a constitution for Carolina. | ||
| 1670. Charleston, S. C., settled and territory divided into North and South Carolina. | ||
| 1676. BACON’S REBELLION broke out in Virginia. | ||
| 1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America. | ||
| 1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR began between France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French attacking New England, and the New Englanders retaliating. | ||
| 1721-1729. The Carolinas are royal colonies. | ||
| 1728. Boundary established between Virginia and North Carolina. | 1729. North and South Carolina permanently divided into two provinces. | 1729. Baltimore founded. |
| Georgia | ||
| 1733. Last of the thirteen original colonies settled by Oglethorpe at Savannah. | ||
| 1742. Spaniards attacked Georgia; defeated by Oglethorpe. | ||
| 1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists. | ||
| 1744. Treaty with the “Six Nations.” | ||
| 1749. First English ship reaches Georgia. | ||
| 1753. GEORGE WASHINGTON was sent by Governor Dinwiddie to order the French out of the Ohio valley. | 1753. The Potomac River explored to its source. | |
| 1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY OF PARIS in 1763. | ||
| NEW ENGLAND COLONIES | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Massachusetts | |||
| 1607. The Plymouth Company established a colony on the Kennebec River, in Maine under Sir Ferdinando Gorges. The colony failed. | |||
| 1620. The Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape Cod November 11, and formed the FIRST SETTLEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND AT PLYMOUTH (December 22), under the FIRST REPUBLICAN FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA. | |||
| New Hampshire | |||
| 1623. First settlement on Piscataqua River, by John Mason. | |||
| 1628. The permanent settlement of Massachusetts Bay Colony began by the settlement of Salem under John Endicott. | |||
| 1629-1640. The “Great Migration” of Puritans to Massachusetts. | |||
| 1630. BOSTON WAS FOUNDED by the English Puritans. The first general court in New England met there October 19. | Connecticut | ||
| 1633. Settled at Windsor by Pilgrims. 1633-1636. Colonization of Connecticut River valley. | |||
| Rhode Island | |||
| 1636. Roger Williams settles at Providence. | 1637. Pequot Indian War. | ||
| 1638. Ann Hutchinson settled in Rhode Island. | |||
| 1639. Newport founded. | |||
| 1640. Provisional government established at Dover. | |||
| 1641. Massachusetts Bay Colony adopted laws known as the Body of Liberties. | |||
| 1643. THE FIRST INTER-COLONIAL UNION IN New England. It was formed for protection | |||
| 1658. Massachusetts made it a capital offense for Quakers to return to the colony after expulsion. | |||
| 1663. Charter granted to Rhode Island. | 1662. Charter granted to Connecticut. | ||
| 1675. KING PHILIP’S WAR broke out in New England. | |||
| 1677. Maine became part of Massachusetts by purchase. | |||
| 1680. New Hampshire declared a royal province. | |||
| 1684. Massachusetts becomes a royal colony. | |||
| 1686-1689. Andros governor of all New England by royal appointment. | |||
| 1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America. | |||
| 1691-1693. Salem witchcraft. | |||
| 1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR began between France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French attacking New England, and the New Englanders retaliating. | |||
| 1702. Joseph Dudley appointed governor. | |||
| 1728-1731. Final boundaries established with New York and Rhode Island. | |||
| 1734. Assembly meets for first time at Greenwich. | |||
| 1740. Boundaries of New Hampshire determined. | |||
| 1742. Peter Faneuil builds “Faneuil Hall.” | |||
| 1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists. | |||
| 1745. One thousand men sent against Louisburg. | 1744. George Whitefield preaches in New Hampshire. | ||
| 1749. Famous Indian treaty renewed at Falmouth. | |||
| 1754. Providence library chartered. | |||
| 1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY OF PARIS in 1763. | |||
| THE MIDDLE COLONIES | Progress and Population | English Rulers and Events | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| New York | |||||
| 1603-1625. James I. 1603. Union of England and Scotland. | |||||
| 1609. Henry Hudson, employed by the Dutch East India Company, sailed up the Hudson River searching for a passage to the Indies. | |||||
| 1614. The Dutch established trading stations on Manhattan Island and at Fort Orange (Albany) on the Hudson. They called their possessions New Netherland. | 1616. Tobacco first cultivated by the English in Virginia. | ||||
| New Jersey | |||||
| 1623. The Dutch founded a settlement on Manhattan Island which they called NEW AMSTERDAM (later New York City). | 1623. Ft. Nassau (now Gloucester, N. J.) established by the Dutch. | 1625-1649. Charles I. | |||
| 1626. Peter Minuit, director-general of New Netherland, purchased Manhattan Island from the Indians for $24. | Delaware | ||||
| 1627. Swaanendael (now Lewis, Del.) founded. | 1627. War with France, over the Huguenots. | ||||
| 1629. Establishment of the patroon system to encourage settlement in New Netherland. | |||||
| 1636. Wealthy colonists from Holland settle at Ft. Orange. | 1636. First college in America founded by Massachusetts. Two years later it is named Harvard in honor of John Harvard. | ||||
| 1638. A Swedish settlement was made near Wilmington, on the Delaware. | |||||
| 1639. First press in America set up at Cambridge. Stephen Daye was the printer, and the first American Book was The Bay Psalm Book. | |||||
| 1640. English settlements begun on Salem Creek. | 1640. Whole number of emigrants to New England previous to this time about 21,200. | 1640. Meeting of the Long Parliament. | |||
| 1642. Civil war begins. | |||||
| 1647-1664. Peter Stuyvesant governor of New Netherland. | 1645. Massachusetts established free schools supported by the State. | ||||
| 1649. Execution of Charles I. 1649-1660. The Commonwealth under Cromwell. | |||||
| 1657. Proclamation issued against the Quakers. | 1655. The Swedish settlements on the Delaware conquered by the Dutch. | ||||
| 1661. Eliot’s “Indian Testament” printed at Cambridge. | 1660. Restoration of the Stuarts. 1660-1685. Charles II. | ||||
| 1664. Delaware passes under English rule. | 1664. New Jersey granted to Berkeley and Carteret. | 1664. Eliot’s “Indian Bible” printed at Cambridge. | 1668. Triple alliance of England, Sweden and Holland against France. | ||
| 1670. Staten Island purchased from the Indians. | |||||
| Pennsylvania | |||||
| 1676. Population of New England estimated at 60,000. | |||||
| 1681. Grant of Pennsylvania to William Penn. | 1680. John Buckner brings a printing press to Virginia and prints the session laws. | ||||
| 1683. First Assembly in New York under English rule. | 1682. Philadelphia laid out by Penn, and Quaker emigration encouraged. Penn’s treaty with the Indians. | 1682. Delaware becomes part of Pennsylvania. | 1685-1689. James II. | ||
| 1689-1690. Leisler’s rebellion in New York. | 1689. First American newspaper published in Boston; suppressed by Massachusetts government. | 1688-1689. The “Glorious Revolution.” 1689-1702. William III. and Mary. | |||
| 1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until the downfall of French power in America. | |||||
| 1692. The College of William and Mary was established in Virginia. | |||||
| 1700. Population of colonies about 260,000. | |||||
| 1701. Penn granted a Charter of Privileges to Pennsylvania which remained in force until 1776. | 1701. Yale College was established in Connecticut. | 1701. War of the Spanish succession. | |||
| 1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR began between France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French attacking New England, and the New Englanders retaliating. | |||||
| 1703. Delaware is made a separate colony. | 1702. New Jersey becomes a royal province under the governor of New York. | 1704. Appearance of “The Boston News Letter,” the first newspaper in America. | 1702-1714. Queen Anne. 1702. Queen Anne war against France and Spain. | ||
| 1710. First post office in America at New York. | 1714-1727. George II. | ||||
| 1719. First Spinning-wheel and cultivation of potatoes introduced by the settlers of Londonderry, N. H. | 1718. War with Spain. | ||||
| 1720. Tea begins to be used in New England. | |||||
| 1729. “Pennsylvania Gazette” started by Franklin. | 1727-1760. George II. | ||||
| 1735. Zenger’s trial and acquittal in New York, establishes freedom of the press. | 1733. Treaty with the “Six Nations.” | 1733. Delaware boundaries defined after twenty years’ litigation. | 1736. Appearance of “The Virginia Gazette,” first newspaper in the South. | ||
| 1738. Separate charter granted to New Jersey. | 1740. University of Pennsylvania founded. | 1739. War with Spain. | |||
| 1743. Sir George Clinton, governor. | 1741. Moravians first settle in United States at Bethlehem. | ||||
| 1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the dissatisfaction of the New England colonists. | |||||
| 1746. Thomas and Richard Penn sole proprietors of Pennsylvania. | 1746. New Jersey College, afterwards Princeton. | 1744. War between England, France and Austria. | |||
| 1750. Trenton public library founded. | 1749. White population of the colonies 1,046,000. | ||||
| 1754. Convention at Albany to consider a colonial confederacy. | 1752. English Bible first printed in America. Franklin experiments in electricity. | ||||
| 1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY OF PARIS in 1763. | 1754. King’s College (now Columbia), New York City, founded. | 1756-1763. Seven Years’ war. | |||
History of the United States
When first visited by Europeans, the country now comprised within the United States was exclusively inhabited by the race commonly called American Indians.
Period of Discovery.—According to the Scandinavian sagas, Leif, a Norwegian, sailed about 1001 from Iceland for Greenland, but was driven southward by storms till he reached a country called Vinland, which is supposed to have been Rhode Island or some other part of the coast of New England.
It is possible that some vague rumors of the Norse journeys had come to Christopher Columbus when he set out on Friday, August 3, 1492, to discover the western route to India. He sighted one of the Bahama Islands on October 12, and landed the following day. After cruising about for some time, he returned to Spain. He made in all four voyages to the New World for treasure-getting and discovery. His discoveries, it should be remembered, did not extend to the territory now occupied by the United States, but were confined to certain of the West India Islands, and parts of Central, and possibly, South America. (See further, under Outlines of American History.)
Among the earliest of his followers was Amerigo Vespucci, who in 1497-1498 explored the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, and who has given his name to the whole continent.
In 1497, about five years after the discovery of America by Columbus, John Cabot sailed westward from Bristol, England, and on June 24 discovered land (Labrador), along which he coasted to the southwest nearly one thousand miles. In 1498 his son, Sebastian Cabot, sailed from the same port in search of a northwest passage to China, but finding the ice impenetrable, he turned to the south and coasted as far as Chesapeake Bay.
In 1513 the Spaniard Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. In 1539 took place the expedition of the Spaniard De Soto, who in the course of two years penetrated overland from Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida to a point two hundred miles beyond the Mississippi.
FOREFATHERS’ ROCK, PLYMOUTH, MASS.
Plymouth is of abiding interest as the landing place of the Pilgrim Fathers (December 21st, 1620) and the site of the first settlement in New England. Pilgrim Hall contains numerous interesting relics of the Pilgrims, paintings of their embarkation and landing, old portraits, etc. North Street leads to the so-called Plymouth Rock, a granite boulder enclosed by a railing and covered with a canopy. This, however, is only a fragment (broken off in 1774) of the flat rock where the Pilgrims landed, which lies nearer the sea and is now covered by a wharf. Cole’s Hill, opposite the rock, was the burial-place of the early settlers (1620-1621). Leyden Street was the site of the first house. From the Town Square a path ascends to the right to the ancient Burial Hill, with the graves of many of the early settlers, including Governor Bradford. A fortified church was erected here in 1622. To the south is Watson’s Hill, where the Pilgrims made a treaty with Massasoit in 1621. The National Monument to the Pilgrims, consisting of a granite pedestal forty-five feet high, surmounted by a figure of Faith, thirty-six feet high, and surrounded by seated figures twenty feet high, representing Law, Morality, Freedom and Education is about one-fourth mile from the railway station, on Allerton Street. The three hundredth anniversary of the landing of the Pilgrims will be elaborately celebrated here in 1920.
Period of Settlement.—In 1565 the Spaniards founded St. Augustine, the first permanent settlement in the United States. In 1585 an expedition sent by Sir Walter Raleigh made a settlement on Roanoke Island, N. C., which failed. In 1607 the English founded Jamestown on James River, Virginia, their first permanent settlement.[11] The master spirit of this enterprise was Captain John Smith. Plymouth, Mass., was founded in 1620 by the “Pilgrim Fathers,” a body of Puritans led by John Carver and others, who sailed from England in the Mayflower. Salem was settled by John Endicott in 1628. In 1630 John Winthrop settled Boston. In 1692 Plymouth colony was united to Massachusetts. Portsmouth and Dover, in New Hampshire, were settled in 1623. The first permanent English settlements in Maine were made about the same time. These settlements ultimately fell under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. Connecticut was colonized in 1635-1636 by emigrants from Massachusetts, who settled at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. Rhode Island was first settled at Providence in 1636 by Roger Williams. In 1623 permanent settlements were made by the Dutch at Fort [635] Orange (now Albany) and at New Amsterdam on the present site of New York. The Swedes settled on the Delaware in 1638, and were expelled in 1655 by the Dutch army. The English seized New Amsterdam in 1664, and with it the whole of New Netherland, which they named New York from the Duke of York, to whom it had been granted by Charles II. New Jersey at this time acquired its distinctive name. In 1681 the territory west of the Delaware was granted to William Penn, who colonized it chiefly with Friends or Quakers, and founded Philadelphia in 1682. Maryland was settled in 1634 by Roman Catholics sent out by Lord Baltimore. The first permanent settlement in North Carolina appears to have been made about 1663, on Albemarle Sound, by emigrants from Virginia. The first permanent settlement in South Carolina was made in 1670 by colonists from England on the Ashley River, near the site of Charleston, which began to be settled about the same time. Georgia was settled by General James Oglethorpe, who in 1733 founded Savannah.
[11] Jamestown is seven miles from Williamsburg, formerly the ancient capital of Virginia and seat of the colonial governor. The only remains of the ancient town are the tower of the church (in which Pocahontas was married in 1614; church itself rebuilt in 1907) and a few tombstones.
How Europe First Divided the American Colonies.—It will thus be seen that what is now the territory of the United States has been derived from six European nations. Resting on the discovery by Columbus and the bulls of the popes, Spain claimed the whole continent, but has been in actual possession only of the Gulf coast from Florida to Texas, and of the interior from the Mississippi to the Pacific. The Swedes once had settlements on the Delaware. The Dutch, following up the voyage of Hudson to the river bearing his name, claimed and held the country from the Delaware to the Connecticut. The French discovered the St. Lawrence and explored and held military possession of the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio and the Great Lakes. The English, by virtue of the voyages of the Cabots, claimed the Atlantic coast, and there founded the colonies which grew into the thirteen United States.
In the course of the struggle, sometimes peaceful, often bloody, by which the rule of these nations has been thrown off, the Dutch conquered the Swedes; the English conquered the Dutch and the French; the United States expelled the English, and in time, by purchase or conquest, drove out the Spaniards and the Mexicans.
Struggle of England and France for America.—The first serious struggle for possession occurred in the middle of the eighteenth century, when the English, moving westward, met the French moving eastward at the source of the river Ohio. In that struggle, which has come down to us as the “French and Indian war,” France was worsted, and, retiring from this continent, divided her possessions between England and Spain. To England she gave Canada and the islands and shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and, entering what is now the United States, drew a line down the middle of the Mississippi River, and gave all to the east of that line (save the island on which is the city of New Orleans) to Great Britain, and all to the west of it to Spain; Spain at the same time gave Florida to England as the price of Cuba.
Oppression of the Colonies under British Rule.—Having thus come into possession of all the country to the east of the Great River, King George determined to send out an army of ten thousand men to defend the colonies, and have the latter bear a part of the expense. This part he attempted to collect by duties on goods imported, and by a Stamp Tax (1765) on legal documents and printed matter. No tax for revenue had before been laid on America by act of Parliament. The colonists, therefore, resisted this first attempt, and raising the cry, “No taxation without representation,” they forced Parliament to repeal the Stamp Tax in 1766. The right to tax was at the same time distinctly asserted, and in 1767 was again used, and duties laid on paints, oils, lead, glass, and tea. Once more the colonists resisted, and, by refusing to import any goods, wares, or merchandise of English make, so distressed the manufacturers of England that Parliament repealed every tax save that on tea. All the tea needed in America was now smuggled in from Holland. The East India Company, deprived of the American market, became embarrassed, and, calling on Parliament for aid, was suffered to export tea, a privilege never before enjoyed.
Selecting commissioners in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, cargoes of tea were duly consigned to them by the East India Company; but the people agreed not to buy any of this tea or allow it to be sold. At Boston men disguised as Indians boarded the tea ships, overcame the guards, and destroyed the tea by throwing the boxes into the harbor. This has gone down in history as the “Boston Tea Party.”
The Continental Congress and the Revolution.—As a punishment for this, Parliament shut the port of Boston and deprived the people of Massachusetts of many functions of local government. The Assembly of Massachusetts thereupon called for a General Congress to meet at Philadelphia on September 5, 1774. The colonies gladly responded and this congress, having issued a Declaration of Rights and Addresses to the king, to Parliament, and to the people of England, adjourned to await the result.
The day for the reassembling of Congress was May 10, 1775; but, before that day came, the attempt of General Gage to seize military stores brought on a fight at Lexington, April 19, 1775. The fight at Lexington was followed by the siege of the British in Boston, by the formation of the “Continental Army,” by the appointment of George Washington to command it, by the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775, and by an expedition against Quebec, which came to naught, on the last day of the year.
General William Howe meantime had succeeded Gage in command of the British at Boston, and, finding himself hard pressed by Washington, evacuated the city and sailed for Halifax. Believing New York was to be attacked, Washington now hurried to Long Island, where, August 27, 1776, Howe defeated him, took possession of New York, and drove him first up the Hudson and then southward across New Jersey.
American Independence Declared.—Congress, which, July 4, 1776, at Philadelphia, had declared the colonies to be free and independent states, now fled from that city to Baltimore. But Washington, turning in his retreat, surprised and captured the British outpost at Trenton. Cornwallis instantly hurried toward that town, but Washington, passing around the British rear, attacked and captured at Princeton, January 3, 1777, a detachment on its march to Trenton, and then went into winter quarters at Morristown.
With the return of spring Howe, finding that he could not reach Philadelphia by land without passing in front of the Continental army stretched out on a strongly intrenched line across New Jersey, went by sea. Washington met him at Chadd’s Ford on the Brandywine, was defeated, and on September 25, 1777, Howe entered Philadelphia. In the attempt to dislodge him Washington fought and lost the battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777; the loss of Philadelphia was more than made good by the capture of Burgoyne and his army at Saratoga, October 17, 1777, while on his way from Canada to New York City.
The fruits of this victory were the recognition of the independence of the United States by France, the treaty of alliance with France, February 8, 1778, and the evacuation of Philadelphia by General Clinton, who had succeeded Howe. Washington, who had spent the winter at Valley Forge, instantly followed, and overtaking Clinton at Monmouth fought and won the battle at that place, June 29, 1778. Clinton escaped to New York, and Washington, drawing his army in a circle about the city from Morristown on the south to West Point on the north, awaited further movements.
PRINCIPAL CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
The leading battles are indicated in bold-face; successful commanders in italics
| Names, Dates and Places of Campaigns and Battles | Commanders | Engaged | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| American | British | Amer. | British | |
| 1775-1776 Campaign in New England | ||||
| Lexington, Concord (April 19, 1775) | Barret and Butterick | Smith and Lord Percy | ... | 1,700 |
| Ticonderoga (May 10, 1775) | Ethan Allen and Eaton | Delaplace | 83 | 48 |
| Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775) | Warren, Prescott and Putnam | Howe and Pigot | 3,000 | 4,500 |
| Quebec (December 6-31, 1775) | Schuyler, Montgomery and Arnold | M’Lean and Carleton | 900 | 1,200 |
| Norfolk, Va. (Dec. 9, 1775) | Woodford | Lord Dunsmore | ... | ... |
| Boston (March 17, 1776) | The British evacuate the city and harbor. | ... | ... | |
| Charleston (Ft. Moultrie) (June 28, 1776) | Moultrie, Lee and Armstrong | Clinton | 400 | 4,000 |
| 1776-1778 Campaign in Middle States | ||||
| Brooklyn, L. I. (Aug. 26, 1776) | Green and Sullivan | Howe, Clinton, and Cornwallis | 10,000 | 20,000 |
| Harlem Plains, N. Y. (Sept. 16, 1776) | Washington | ... | ... | ... |
| White Plains, N. Y. (Oct. 28, 1776) | Washington | Howe | 1,600 | 2,000 |
| Fort Washington, N. Y. (Nov. 16, 1776) | Magaw | Howe | 3,000 | 5,000 |
| Trenton, N. J. (Dec. 26, 1776) | Washington | Lord Cornwallis and Rahl | 2,400 | 1,000 |
| Princeton, N. J. (Jan. 3, 1777) | Washington | Mawhood | 3,000 | 1,800 |
| Bennington, Vt. (Aug. 15, 16, 1777) | Stark and Warner | Baum and Beyman | ... | 1,200 |
| Brandywine, Pa. (Sept. 11, 1777) | Washington | Howe | 11,000 | 18,000 |
| Bemis Heights, N. Y. (Sept. 19, 1777) | Gates | Burgoyne | 2,500 | 3,000 |
| Germantown, Pa. (Oct. 4, 1777) | Washington | Howe | 11,000 | 15,000 |
| Stillwater (Saratoga) (Oct. 7, 1777) | Gates | Burgoyne | 8,000 | 6,000 |
| Monmouth, N. J. (June 28, 1778) | Washington | Sir Henry Clinton | 12,000 | 11,000 |
| 1778-1781 Campaign in the South | ||||
| Savannah, Ga. (Dec. 29, 1778) | Robert Howe | Campbell | 900 | 2,000 |
| Brier Creek, Ga. (Mar. 3, 1779) | Ashe | Prevost | 1,200 | 1,800 |
| Stony Point, N. Y. (July 16, 1779) | Wayne | Clinton | 1,200 | 600 |
| Chemung, N. Y. (Aug. 29, 1779) | Sullivan | Brant | 4,000 | 1,500 |
| Savannah, Ga. (Oct. 9, 1779) | Lincoln | Prevost | 4,500 | 2,900 |
| Charleston, S. C. (May 12, 1780) | Lincoln | Clinton | 3,700 | 9,000 |
| Camden, S. C. (Sanders Creek) (Aug. 15, 1780) | Gates | Cornwallis | 3,000 | 2,200 |
| King’s Mountain, S. C. (Oct. 7, 1780) | Campbell | Ferguson | 900 | 1,100 |
| Cowpens, S. C. (Jan. 17, 1781) | Morgan | Cornwallis and Tarleton | 900 | 1,100 |
| Guilford C. H., N. C. (Mar. 15, 1781) | Greene | Cornwallis | 4,400 | 2,400 |
| Hobkirk’s Hill, S. C. (April 25, 1781) | Greene | Rawdon | 1,200 | 900 |
| New London, Conn., Fort Griswold (Sept. 6, 1781) | Ledyard | Benedict Arnold and Eyre | 150 | 800 |
| Eutaw Springs, S. C. (Sept. 8, 1781) | Greene | Lord Rawdon | 2,000 | 2,800 |
| Yorktown, Va. (Oct. 17-19, 1781) | Washington | Cornwallis | 16,000 | 7,500 |
Treason of Arnold and Execution of André.—Turning towards the Southern states, the British commander now dispatched an expedition which took Savannah and overran the State of Georgia. The year which followed (1779) is memorable for the capture of Stony Point by Anthony Wayne; for the treason of Benedict Arnold; for the execution of Major John André; for the capture of the “Serapis” by Paul Jones after one of the most desperate naval battles on record, and by the failure of an attempt by the Americans to retake Savannah. In 1780 Clinton led an expedition from New York to Charleston, took the city, swept over South Carolina, and, leaving Cornwallis in command, hurried back to New York. Gates, who now attempted to dislodge the British, was beaten. Greene now succeeded Gates, and Morgan, the commander of his light troops, won the battle of the Cowpens, January 17, 1781. This victory brought up Cornwallis, who chased Greene across the State of North Carolina to Guilford Court House, where Greene was beaten and Cornwallis forced to retreat to Wilmington. Moving southward, Greene was again beaten in two pitched battles, but forced the British to withdraw within their lines at Charleston and Savannah.
Cornwallis meantime moved from Wilmington into Virginia and took possession of Yorktown. And now Washington, who had long been watching New York, again took the offensive, hurried across New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and, while a French fleet closed the Chesapeake Bay, he besieged Cornwallis by land, till, October 19, 1781, the British general surrendered. This practically ended the war.
The treaty of peace, at Paris, in 1783, actually ended it, secured the independence of the United States, and fixed her boundaries, roughly speaking, as the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the Mississippi on the west, New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence, and the Great Lakes on the north, and the parallel of thirty-one degrees on the south.
Articles of Confederation and their Weakness.—While the war was still raging Congress had framed an instrument of government, which the states ratified and put in force on March 1, 1781. This instrument of government which bound the thirteen states in perpetual union was known as the Articles of Confederation, and established a government as bad as any yet devised by man. There was no executive, no judiciary, and only the semblance of a legislature. The Congress consisted of not more than seven nor less than two delegates from each state; sat in secret session; was presided over by a president elected from its own members; and could not pass any law unless the delegates of nine states assented. It could wage war, make treaties, and borrow money; but it could not lay a tax of any kind whatsoever; nor regulate commerce between the states, or with foreign powers; and was dependent entirely on the liberality of the states for revenues. This defect proved fatal. Inability to regulate foreign commerce by duties stripped the country of its specie. Lack of specie forced the states to issue paper money. Paper money was followed by tender acts and force acts, and in some places by a violent stoppage of justice to the debtor class. A commercial and financial crisis followed and the people of the states, reduced to desperation, gladly acceded to a call for a national trade convention, which met in Philadelphia in May, 1787. The instructions of the delegates bade them suggest amendments to the Articles of Confederation. But the convention, considering the Articles too bad to be mended, framed the Constitution, which the people, acting through conventions in the various states, ratified during 1787 and 1788.
Adoption of the Constitution and Organization of Parties.—On March 4, 1789, the Constitution became the supreme law of the land. In the first Congress no trace of party lines is visible. But the work of establishing government had not gone far when differences of opinion sprang up; when the cry of partial legislation was raised, and the people all over the country began to divide into two great parties—those who favored and those who opposed a liberal construction of the language of the Constitution and the establishment of a strong national government.
The friends of national government took the name of Federalists, and under the lead of Alexander Hamilton, who as Secretary of the Treasury marked out the financial policy of the administration, they funded the foreign and domestic debt occasioned by the war for independence, assumed the debts incurred by the states in that struggle, set up a national bank with branches, and laid a tax on distilled liquors.
Each one of these acts was met with violent opposition, as designed to benefit a class, as unconstitutional, and as highly detrimental to the interests of the South. Against the Federalists were now brought charges of a leaning towards monarchy and aristocracy. Great Britain, it was said, has a funded debt, a bank, and an excise. These things are, therefore, monarchial institutions. But the Federalists have introduced them into the United States. The Federalists, therefore, are aristocrats, monarchists, and monopolists.
Of all who believed these charges, none believed them more sincerely than Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State. Seeing in these acts a wide departure from the true principles of democracy, he set himself to work to organize a party of opposition, and was soon looked up to as the recognized leader of the Federal Republicans.
Hardly had the two parties thus been called into existence by difference of opinion on questions of home affairs, when they were parted yet more widely, and the dispute between them intensely embittered by questions of foreign affairs.
Effect of the French and English Affairs Upon the New Nation.—In 1793 the French Republic declared war against England, and sent a minister to the United States. As the [638] United States was bound to France by the treaty of alliance and by a treaty of amity and commerce, and was not bound to Great Britain by any commercial treaty whatever, it seemed not unlikely that she would be dragged unwillingly into the war. But Washington, with the advice of his secretaries, proclaimed neutrality, and from that time every Republican was the firm friend of France and every Federalist the ally of England. Then began a seven years’ struggle for neutrality. France threw open her colonial ports to neutral commerce; Great Britain asserting the “Rule of the War of 1756,” a rule prescribing that no neutral should have in time of war a trade it did not have in peace, declared this trade was contraband, and seized the ships of the United States engaged in it. The Republicans denounced neutrality and attempted to force a war. The Federalists in alarm dispatched John Jay, the Chief Justice, to London, with offers of a commercial treaty. England responded and on February 29, 1796, the first treaty of amity and commerce between her and the United States became law. At this France took offense, rejected the new minister (C. C. Pinckney) from the United States, and drove him from her soil, suspended the treaties, insulted a special commission (sent out in the interest of peace), with demands for bribes and tribute, and almost brought on war.
Never since the days of Bunker Hill had the country been so stirred as this act of the French Directory stirred it in the summer of 1798. Then was written our national song, “Hail Columbia.” Then was established the department of the navy. Then, under the cry, “Millions for defense; not a cent for tribute,” went forth that gallant little fleet which humbled the tri-color in the West Indies and brought France to her senses.
Causes and Events of the War of 1812.—With the elevation of Napoleon to the First Consulship came peace in 1800. In that same year the Federalists fell from power, never to return. Once in power, the Republicans began to carry out the principles they had so long preached. They reduced the national debt; they repealed the internal taxes. They sold the navy; boldly assaulted the Supreme Court; and in 1811, when the charter of the National Bank expired, refused to renew it. Their doctrine of strict construction, however, was ruined, when, in 1803, they bought the Province of Louisiana from France and added to the public domain that splendid region which lies between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains.
At that moment it seemed as if the people were about to enter on a career of unwonted prosperity. But Napoleon suddenly made war on England, and by 1806 the United States was involved in a desperate struggle of nine years, both with France and England, for commercial independence. Great Britain searched our ships, impressed our sailors, violated the neutrality of our ports, and by the decisions of her admiralty courts and by orders in council sought to ruin our neutral commerce with Europe, unless carried on through her ports and under her license. Napoleon attacked us with his decrees of Berlin and Milan, and sought to ruin our neutral commerce with England. The United States retaliated by means of the embargo and non-intercourse, and, in 1812, declared war.
CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES OF THE WAR OF 1812-1815
Principal Land Battles
1812.—August 16, the surrender of Detroit by Hull to Brock.
October 13, defeat of Van Rensselaer by Brock at Queenstown.
1813.—January 18-22, the Americans were defeated at Frenchtown by General Proctor, whose Indians massacred the wounded Americans.
April 27, York (Toronto) was captured by the Americans under General Pike.
October 5, General Harrison forced General Proctor to retreat into Canada, and October 5 at the battle of the Thames routed the British and their Indian allies. Tecumseh was killed, the territory lost by Hull regained, and Upper Canada was retained to the end of the war.
November 11, the Americans moved on Montreal, but were defeated at Chryslers Field, and retreated.
1814.—July 25, Winfield Scott again invaded Canada and gained victories at Chippewa (July 5) and at Lundy’s Lane.
August 24, capture of Washington and burning of the Capitol, the White House, and other buildings.
1815.—January 8, a large body of English veterans were landed in Louisiana, and attacked New Orleans; in this battle, which took place before the news of the treaty of peace reached the combatants, Jackson won a decisive victory.
Principal Naval Battles
1812.—August 19, the Constitution destroys the British Guerriere, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
October 18, the American Wasp captures the Frolic.
October 25, Captain Decatur in the United States took the Macedonian.
December 29, the Constitution captures the Java.
1813.—February 24, the American Hornet captures the Peacock.
June 1, the Chesapeake is captured by the British Shannon.
September 10, Commodore Perry with a fleet of nine vessels destroys the British squadron of six vessels on Lake Erie.
1814.—September 3, naval attack on Fort McHenry by the British fails.
September 11, Captain Macdonough, on Lake Champlain, completely defeated a British fleet stronger than his own; this checked a serious invasion of the enemy.
Treaty and Results of the War
December 24, 1814, a treaty of peace was made at Ghent, the end of the Napoleonic wars having removed the cause for England’s offensive policy at sea.
The provisions included:
(1) A return of captured territory.
(2) Nothing was said about impressment.
(3) No compensation was secured by the Americans for ships captured previous to 1812.
The results of the war were:
(1) An increase of debt.
(2) An outburst of national patriotism.
(3) The removal of America from participation in European politics.
(4) The development of manufacturing.
(5) The establishment of the protective tariff policy.
With the Cessation of Hostilities Another Epoch in Our History Begins.—From the day when Washington proclaimed neutrality in 1793, to the day when the people celebrated, with bonfires and with fireworks, and with public dinners, the return of peace, in 1815, the political and industrial history of the United States is deeply affected by the political history of Europe. It was questions of foreign policy, not of domestic policy, that divided the two parties, that took up the time of Congress, that raised up and pulled down politicians. But after 1815 foreign affairs sank into insignificance, and for the next thirty years the history of the United States is the history of political and economic development of the country to the east of the Mississippi River.
Fall of the Federalists, or Pro-British Party.—The opposition which the Federalists made to the war completed their ruin. In 1816 for the last time they put forward a presidential candidate, carried three states out of nineteen, and expired in the effort. During the eight years of Monroe’s administration (1817-1825) but one great and harmonious party ruled the political destinies of the country. This remarkable period has come down to us in history as the “era of good feelings.” It was indeed such an era, and so good were the feelings that in 1820 when Monroe was re-elected no competitor was named to run against him. Every state, every electoral vote save one was his. Even that one was his. But the elector who controlled it threw it away on John Quincy Adams lest Monroe should have the unanimous vote of the presidential electors, an honor which has been bestowed on no man save Washington.
Rise of the Protective Tariff Policy.—In the midst of this harmony, however, events were fast ripening for a great schism. Under the protection offered by the commercial restrictions which began with the embargo and ended with the peace, manufactures had sprung up and flourished. If they were to continue to flourish they must continue to be protected, and the question of free trade and protection rose for the first time into really national importance.
The rush of population into the West led to the admission of Indiana (1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), Alabama (1819), and Missouri (1820) into the Union, and brought up for serious discussion the uses to be made of public lands lying within them.
The steamboat, which had been adopted far and wide, had produced a demand for some improved means of communication by land to join the greater water highways of the country and opened the era of internal improvements.
The application of Missouri for admission into the Union brought up the question of the admission of slavery to the west of the Mississippi. A series of decisions of the Supreme Court, setting aside acts of the state legislatures, gave new prominence to the question of state rights.
A Decade of Great Political Contests.—The Missouri question was settled by the famous Compromise of 1820 (the first great political compromise), which drew the line thirty-six degrees thirty minutes from the Mississippi to the hundredth meridian, and pledged all to the north of it, save Missouri, to freedom. But the others were not to be settled by compromise, and in the campaign of 1824 the once harmonious Republican party was rent in pieces. Each of the four quarters of the Republic put a candidate in the field and “the scrub-race for the presidency” began.
The new manufacturing interests of the East put forward John Quincy Adams. The West, demanding internal improvements at public expense, had for its candidate Henry Clay. William H. Crawford of Georgia (nominated by a caucus of Congressmen) represented the old Republican party of the South. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee stood for the new Democracy, for the people, with all their hatred of monopolies and class control, their prejudices, their half formed notions, their violent outbursts of feeling.
Behind none of them was there an organized party. But taking the name of “Adams men” and “Clay men,” “Crawford men” and “Jackson men,” the friends of each entered the campaign and lost it. No candidate secured a majority of the electoral college, and the House of Representatives chose John Quincy Adams.
The Triumph of Democracy and Industrial Expansion.—Under the administration of Adams (1825-1829) the men who wished for protection and the men who wished for internal improvements at government expense united, took the name first of National Republicans, and then of Whigs, and, led on by Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, carried through the high protection tariffs of 1828 and 1832. The friends of Jackson and Crawford took the name of Democrats, won the election of 1829, and during twelve years governed the country.
In the course of these years the population of the United States rose to seventeen million, and the number of states to twenty-six. Steam navigation began on the ocean; two thousand miles of railroad were built in the land; new inventions came into use; and the social and industrial life of the people was completely revolutionized. The national debt was paid; a surplus accumulated in the Treasury; the sale of public lands rose from three million dollars in 1831 to twenty-five million dollars in 1836; and the rage for internal improvements burned more fiercely than ever. A great financial panic spread over the country; the charter of the National Bank expired, a hundred “wild-cat banks” sprang up to take its place, and the question of the abolition of slavery became troublesome.
Early Troubles in Our System of Public Finance.—On the great questions which grew out of this condition of affairs the position of the two parties was well defined. The Democrats demanded a strict construction of the Constitution; no internal improvements at public expense; a surrender of the public lands to the state in which they lay; no tariff for protection; no National Bank; no agitation of the question of the abolition of slavery; the establishment of subtreasuries for the safe [640] keeping of the public funds, and the distribution of the surplus revenue. The Whigs demanded a recharter of the National Bank; a tariff for protection; the expenditure of the surplus on internal improvements; the distribution of the money derived from the sale of public lands; a limitation of the veto power of the President; and no removals from office for political reasons.
The Democrats, true to their principles, and having the power, carried them out. They destroyed the Bank; they defeated bill after bill for the construction of roads and canals; they distributed thirty-eight million dollars of the surplus revenue among the states, and by the cartage of immense sums of money from the East to the far distant West, hastened that inevitable financial crisis known as the “panic of 1837.”
Andrew Jackson had just been succeeded in the presidency by Martin Van Buren (1837-1841) and on him the storm burst in all its fury. But he stood it bravely, held to a strict construction of the Constitution, insisted that the panic would right itself without interference by the Government, and stoutly refused to meddle. Since the refusal of Congress to recharter the Bank of the United States, whose charter expired in 1836, the revenue of the Government had been deposited in certain “pet banks” designated by the Secretary of the Treasury. Every one of them failed in the panic of 1837. Van Buren therefore recommended “the divorce of Bank and State,” and after a struggle of three years his friends carried the “subtreasury” scheme in 1840. This law cast off all connection between the state banks and the Government, put the collectors of the revenue under heavy bonds to keep the money safely till called for by the Secretary of the Treasury, and limited payments to or by the United States to specie.
National Conventions and Rise of Slavery Issue.—The year 1840 was presidential year, and is memorable for the introduction of new political methods; for the rise of a new and vigorous party; and for the appearance of a new political issue. The new machinery consisted in the permanent introduction of the national convention for the nomination of a president, now used by the Democrats for the second time, and by the Whigs for the first; in the promulgation of a party platform by the convention, now used by the Democrats for the first time; and in the use of mass meetings, processions, songs, and all the paraphernalia of a modern campaign by the Whigs.
The new party was the Liberty Party, and the new issue the “absolute and unqualified divorce of the general Government from slavery, and the restoration of equality of rights among men.” The principles of that party were: slavery is against natural right, is strictly local, is a state institution, and derives no support from the authority of Congress, which has no power to set up or continue slavery anywhere; every treaty, every act, establishing, favoring, or continuing slavery in the District of Columbia, in the territories, on the high seas, is, therefore, unconstitutional.
The Short-lived Era of the Whigs.—The candidate of this party was James Gillespie Birney. The Democrats nominated Martin Van Buren. The Whigs put forward William Henry Harrison and elected him. Harrison died one month after his inauguration, and John Tyler, the Vice-President and a Democrat of the Calhoun wing, became President.
The Whig policy as sketched by Clay was the repeal of the Subtreasury Act; the charter of a National Bank; tariff for protection; and the distribution of the sales of public lands. To the repeal of the Subtreasury Act Tyler gladly assented. To the establishment of a bank even when called “Fiscal Corporation,” he would not assent, and, having twice vetoed such bills, was read out of the party by a formal manifesto issued by Whig congressmen.
It mattered little, however, for the question of the hour was not the bank, nor the tariff, nor the distribution of the sales of lands, but the annexation of the republic Texas. Joined to the demand for the reoccupation of Oregon, it became the chief plank in the Democratic platform of 1844. The Whig platform said not a word on the subject, and the Liberty Party, turning with loathing from the cowardice of Clay, voted again for Birney, gave the State of New York to the Democrats, and with it the presidency.
The Annexation of Texas, and Wilmot Proviso.—Accepting the result of the election as “instruction from the people,” Congress passed the needed act and Tyler in the last hours of his administration declared Texas annexed.
The boundary of the new state was ill-defined. Texas claimed to the Rio Grande. Mexico would probably have acknowledged the Nueces River. The United States attempted to enforce the claim of Texas, sent troops to the Rio Grande, and so brought on the Mexican war.
At the close of the Mexican war the boundary of the United States was carried south from forty-two degrees to the Gila River, and what is now California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and more than half of Wyoming and Colorado were added to the public domain. While the war was still raging, Polk, who had succeeded Tyler, asked for two million dollars to aid him in negotiating peace. Well knowing that the money was to be used to buy land from Mexico, David Wilmot moved in the House of Representatives that from all territory bought with the money slavery should be excluded. This was the famous Wilmot proviso. It failed of adoption and the territory was acquired in 1848, with its character as to slavery or freedom wholly undetermined.
The Preliminary Struggle over the Slave Problem.—And now the old parties began to break up. Democrats who believed in the Wilmot proviso, and Whigs who detested the annexation of Texas, the war with Mexico, and the extension of slavery went over in a body to the Liberty Party, formed with it the Freesoil Party, nominated Martin Van Buren, and gave him three hundred thousand votes. In their platform they declared that Congress had no more power to make a slave than to make a king; that they accepted the issue thrust on them by the South; that to the demand for more slave states and more slave territories they answered, no more slave states, no more slave territories; and that on their banner was inscribed “Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men.” As the defection of Whigs to the Liberty Party in 1844 gave New York state to the Democrats and elected Polk, so the defection of Democrats to the Free Soilers in 1848 gave New York to the Whigs and elected Taylor. As Harrison, the first Whig president, died one month after taking office, so Taylor, the second Whig president, died suddenly when a little over one year in office, just as the great Whig compromise of 1850 was closing. The imperative need of civil government in the new territory, the discovery of gold in California, the rush of men from all parts of the earth to the Pacific Coast forced Congress to establish organized territories. The question was: shall they be opened or closed to slavery? But, as the soil had been free when acquired from Mexico, the question really was: shall the United States establish slavery?
THE MEXICAN WAR, 1846-1848
Causes of the War
(1) Long-standing irritation over claims of American citizens upon Mexico, which the latter refused to pay.
(2) The annexation by the United States of Texas, which Mexico claimed as still a part of her territory.
(3) Disputes as to whether the Rio Grande or Nueces River was the boundary of Texas.
Results of the War
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in 1848, closed the war. Its chief provisions were:
(1) The Rio Grande was made the boundary between Texas and Mexico.
(2) California and New Mexico were ceded to the United States.
(3) The United States paid Mexico $15,000,000, and assumed $3,500,000 due American citizens.
The slavery question was intensified in American politics.
PRINCIPAL BATTLES
NOTE: The Americans were victorious in every conflict.
| Place of Battle | Dates | Commanders | Engaged | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| American | Mexican | American | Mexican | ||||
| Bracite | Dec. | 25, | 1846 | Doniphan | Ponce de Leon | 500 | 1,200 |
| Buena Vista | Feb. | 23, | 1847 | Taylor | Santa Anna | 4,700 | 17,000 |
| Cerro Gordo | April | 18, | 1847 | Scott | Santa Anna | 8,500 | 12,000 |
| Chapultepec | Sept. | 13, | 1847 | Scott | Santa Anna | 7,200 | 25,000 |
| Contreras | Aug. | 20, | 1847 | Scott | Valencia | 4,000 | 7,000 |
| Churubusco | Aug. | 20, | 1847 | Scott | Santa Anna | 8,000 | 25,000 |
| Huamantla | Oct. | 9, | 1847 | Lane | Santa Anna | 500 | 1,000 |
| Mexico | Sept. | 14, | 1847 | Scott | Santa Anna | 6,000 | ... |
| Molino del Rey | Sept. | 8, | 1847 | Worth | Alverez | 3,500 | 14,000 |
| Monterey | Sept. | 24, | 1846 | Taylor | Ampudia | 6,600 | 10,000 |
| Palo Alto | May | 8, | 1846 | Taylor | Arista | 2,300 | 6,000 |
| Resaca de la Palma | May | 9, | 1846 | Taylor | Arista | 2,000 | 5,000 |
| Sacramento | Feb. | 28, | 1847 | Doniphan | Trias | 900 | 4,000 |
| Vera Cruz | Mar. | 27, | 1847 | Scott | Landero | 12,000 | 6,000 |
| The only naval engagements of importance during the war with Mexico were the bombardment of Vera Cruz, by Commodore Conner, which lasted four days, and the bombardment of Monterey, Commodore Sloat, both cities being forced to surrender. | |||||||
The Democrats, holding that slaves were property, claimed the right to take them into any territory, and asserting the principle of “squatter sovereignty,” claimed the right of the people living in any territory to settle for themselves whether it should be slave or free. The Free Soilers demanded that the soil having been free when a part of Mexico, should be free as a part of the United States. Between these two Clay now stepped in to act as pacificator. Taking up the grievances of each side, he framed and carried through the measure known as the Compromise of 1850, the third great political compromise in our history. The fruit of this was the admission of California as a free state; the passage of a more stringent law for the recovery of fugitive slaves; the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; and the organization of Utah and New Mexico on the basis of “squatter sovereignty.”
This done, senators and representatives of all parties joined in a manifesto declaring that the issues resting on slavery were dead issues, and that they would neither vote for, nor work for any man who thought otherwise. But thousands did think otherwise. The action of Clay pleased none. Anti-slavery men deserted him in the North; pro-slavery men deserted him in the South; and in 1852 the Whig party carried but four states out of thirty-one and perished. Even its two great leaders, Clay and Webster, were, by that time, in their graves.
Excited by such success, the Democrats, led on by Stephen A. Douglas, now broke through the compromise of 1820 and in 1854 applied “squatter sovereignty” to the organization of the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Against this violation state legislatures, the people, the pulpit, and the press protested vigorously, for every acre of Kansas and Nebraska lay to the north of 36° 30′ and was solemnly pledged to freedom. But the Democratic leaders would not listen and drove from their ranks another detachment of voters. The effect was soon manifest. The little parties began to unite and when, in 1856, the time came to elect another president, the Republican Party of to-day was fully organized and ready. Once more and for the last time for twenty-eight years the Democrats won.
Buchanan’s Administration the Prelude to the Civil War.—The administration of James Buchanan (1857-1861) marks an epoch. The question before the country was that of the extension of slavery into the new territories. Hardly had he been inaugurated when the Supreme Court handed down a decision on the case of Dred Scott, which denied the right of Congress to legislate on slavery, set aside the compromises of 1820 and 1850 as unconstitutional, and opened all the territories to slavery.
Rise of the Republican Party and Election of Lincoln.—From that moment the Whig and Democratic parties began to break up rapidly till, when 1860 came, four parties and four presidential candidates were in the field. The Democratic party, having finally split at the national convention for nominating a president and vice-president, the southern wing put forward Breckenridge and Lane and demanded that Congress should protect slavery in the territories. The northern wing nominated Stephen A. Douglas and declared for squatter sovereignty and the compromise of 1850. A third party, taking the name of “Constitutional Union,” declared for the Constitution and the Union at any price and no agitation of slavery, nominated Bell and Everett, and drew the support of the old Whigs of the Clay and Webster school. The Republicans, declaring that Congress should prohibit slavery in the territories, nominated Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin and won the election.
Secession, and the Formation of the Confederacy.—The State of South Carolina immediately seceded and before the end of February, 1861, was followed by Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Taking the name of the Confederate States of America, they formed first a temporary and then a permanent government, elected Jefferson Davis president, raised an army, and besieged Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The attempt to relieve the fort brought on the bombardment and surrender (April 19, 1861). The Confederate States were now joined by Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Richmond was made the capital, and the Civil war opened.
Civil War between the Union and the Confederacy.—The line of separation between the states then became the Potomac River, the Ohio River, and a line across southern Missouri and Indian Territory to New Mexico. Along this line the troops of the Union were drawn up in many places under many commanders. Yet there were in the main but three great armies. That of the East or Potomac under General McClellan, that of the Center or the Ohio under General Buell, that of the West or Missouri under General Halleck. In command of all as Lieutenant-General was Winfield Scott. Confronting them were the troops of the Confederacy, drawn up in three corresponding armies: that of North Virginia under Johnston and Lee, that of the Cumberland under Albert Sidney Johnston, and that of the trans-Mississippi under McCulloch and Price.
Yielding to the demand of the North for the capture of Richmond before the Confederate Congress could meet there (July 20, 1861), McDowell went forth with thirty-eight thousand three-months volunteers to the ever memorable field of Bull Run.
The Union Successes in the Southwest.—But the serious campaigning did not begin until January, 1862. Then the whole line west of the Alleghanies (made up of the armies of Ohio and Missouri), turning on Pittsburgh as a center, swept southward, captured Forts Henry and Donelson, defeated the Confederates at Shiloh, captured Corinth, took Island Number 10, and drove them from Fort Pillow. Meantime Farragut entered the Mississippi from the Gulf, passed Forts Jackson and St. Philip, captured New Orleans, and sent Commodore Davis up the river to take Memphis. Memphis fell June 6, 1862, and, save for Vicksburg, the Mississippi was open for navigation. When the year closed the Confederates had been driven to the east into the mountains of Tennessee, where, December 31, 1862 to January 2, 1863, was fought the desperate and bloody battle of Murfreesboro. The Union troops won, and the Confederate army fell back to Chattanooga.
The Peninsular Campaign Favors Confederate Arms.—With the Army of the Potomac meantime all had gone ill. The affair at Bull Run in July, 1861, had been followed by the transfer of the army to McClellan. But McClellan wasted time, wore out the patience of the North, and forced Lincoln to issue General Order Number One for the forward movement of all armies on February 22, 1862. Obedient to this McClellan began his Peninsular Campaign against Richmond, was out-generaled by Lee, and in the second battle of Bull Run suffered so crushing a defeat that Lee ventured to cross the Potomac and enter Maryland, and encountered McClellan, on the field of Antietam. In that battle Lee was beaten and fled across the Potomac. But McClellan failed to follow up the victory and was removed, the command of the Army of the Potomac passing to Burnside. Burnside led it across the Potomac and the Rappahannock and on December 13, 1862, lost the battle of Fredericksburg. For this he was replaced by Hooker, who, May 1-4, 1863, fought and lost the battle of Chancellorsville.
The Turning Point of the War.—Lee now again took the offensive, crossed the Potomac, entered Pennsylvania, and at Gettysburg met the Army of the Potomac under Meade. On that field was fought the decisive battle of the war. Then (July 1-4, 1863) the backbone of the Confederacy was broken, and the two armies returned to their old positions in Virginia.
While Meade was beating Lee at Gettysburg, Grant captured Vicksburg, July 1-3, 1863. For this he was sent to command the army of Rosecrans, then besieged by Bragg at Chattanooga. Again success attended him, and in November he stormed Lookout Mountain, defeated Bragg in the famous “Battle above the Clouds,” and drove him in disorder through the mountains. For these signal victories he was raised to the rank of Lieutenant General in 1864, and placed in command of the armies of the United States.
That year is memorable for the great march [643] of Sherman to the east from Chattanooga to the sea, for the victories of Sheridan in the valley of the Shenandoah, for the Wilderness Campaign of Grant, the shutting up of Lee in Richmond, and by the re-election of Lincoln. His competitor was General McClellan, whom the northern Democrats put forward on the platform that the war was a failure, and that peace should be made with the South. In the spring of 1865 came the retreat of Lee from Richmond, and, on April 9, his surrender at Appomattox Court House.
THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865
| Causes of the War | Influencing Events | Results of the War |
|---|---|---|
| Real, but remote: | The invention of the cotton gin, 1793. | |
| (1) The doctrine of popular sovereignty. Different con- structions of the Constitution. | Fugitive slave laws, 1793 and 1850. | The Union was preserved. |
| Protective tariff laws. | ||
| Missouri compromise, 1820. | Slavery was abolished. | |
| Nullification act in South Carolina, 1832. | ||
| (2) Slavery. Different systems of labor in the North and the South. | Annexation of Texas, 1845. | Secession as a working program was shown to be impracticable. |
| Omnibus bill, 1850. | ||
| Kansas-Nebraska bill, 1854 | ||
| Dred Scott decision, 1857. | ||
| (3) Lack of intercourse between the North and the South. | Personal liberty bills, 1857. | The war cost the lives of nearly one million able- bodied men. |
| John Brown raid, 1859. | ||
| Anti-slavery papers, books, and speeches. | ||
| (4) The increase of territory. | New England Anti-Slavery Society was organized, 1832. | The national debt was in- creased to $2,750,000,000. |
| Anti-slavery parties: | ||
| Immediate: | Liberty party, 1840-1848. | An incalculable amount of property was destroyed. |
| The secession of the states. | Free-Soil party, 1848-1856. | |
| Republican party, 1854. |
CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES
Naval engagements are printed in italics; names of victorious commanders in bold-face type.
LAND AND SEA ENGAGEMENTS
| Name, Location and Date of Battle | Commanders | Casualties | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Union | Confederate | |||||
| Killed | Wounded | Killed | Wounded | |||
| 1861 | ||||||
| Bombardment of Fort Sumter (April 13-14) | Gen. Beauregard vs. Maj. Anderson. | No casualties on either side | ||||
| Bull Run, Virginia (July 21) | Gen. Beauregard and Gen. Johnston vs. Gen. McDowell. | 481 | 1,011 | 362 | 1,390 | |
| Wilson Creek, Missouri (August 10) | Gen. Price vs. Gen. Lyon. | 223 | 721 | 331 | 764 | |
| 1862 | ||||||
| Pea Ridge, Arkansas (March 6-8) | Gen. Curtis and Gen. Franz Sigel vs. Gen. Van Dorn. | 203 | 972 | 1,040 | 3,638 | |
| Monitor and Merrimac, Hampton Roads, Virginia (March 9) | Lt. J. L. Worden vs. Capt. Franklin Buchanan. | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | |
| Fort Donelson, Tennessee (February 15) | Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Floyd, Gen. Pillow and Gen. Buckner. | 560 | 746 | 466 | 1,534 | |
| Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee (April 6-7) | Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Johnston and Gen. Beauregard. | 1,735 | 7,882 | 1,128 | 8,012 | |
| Drury’s Bluff, Virginia (May 15) | Gen. Beauregard vs. Gen. Butler. | 422 | 2,380 | 514 | 1,086 | |
| Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, Virginia (May 31) | Gen. Johnston vs. Gen. McClellan. | 891 | 3,627 | 1,987 | 2,233 | |
| Gaines Mill, Virginia (June 27) | Gen. A. Elzey vs. Gen. F. J. Porter. | 3,000 | 4,500 | 2,000 | 4,000 | |
| Malvern Hill, Virginia (July 1) | Gen. McClellan vs. Gen. Lee. | 2,860 | 3,500 | 3,023 | 4,077 | |
| Cedar Mountain, Virginia (August 8-9) | Gen. Jackson vs. Gen. Banks. | 450 | 660 | 223 | 1,060 | |
| Bull Run No. 2, or Manassas, Virginia (August 29-30) | Gen. Lee and Gen. Jackson vs. Gen. Pope. | 798 | 4,023 | 1,090 | 6,154 | |
| Antietam, Maryland (September 16-17) | Gen. McClellan vs. Gen. Lee. | 2,010 | 9,416 | 1,842 | 9,399 | |
| Corinth, Mississippi (October 3-4) | Gen. Rosecrans vs. Gen. Van Dorn. | 315 | 1,812 | 1,423 | 5,692 | |
| Perrysville, Kentucky (October 8) | Gen. Buell vs. Gen. Bragg. | 916 | 2,943 | 980 | 1,520 | |
| Fredericksburg, Virginia (December 11-13) | Gen. Lee vs. Gen. A. E. Burnside. | 1,152 | 9,101 | 505 | 4,061 | |
| Murfreesboro, or Stone River, Tennessee (December 30, 1862, to January 2, 1863) | Gen. Rosecrans vs. Gen. Bragg | 1,533 | 7,245 | 1,384 | 6,892 | |
| 1863[644] | ||||||
| Chancellorsville, Virginia (April 30 to May 4) | Gen. Lee and Gen. Jackson vs. Gen. Hooker. | 1,512 | 9,518 | 1,718 | 10,563 | |
| Vicksburg, Mississippi (May 19-25) | Gen. Pemberton vs. Gen. Grant. | 1,848 | 2,378 | 1,420 | 2,151 | |
| Gettysburg, Pennsylvania (July 1-3) | Gen. George G. Meade vs. Gen. Lee. | 2,834 | 13,709 | 4,000 | 14,000 | |
| Chickamauga, Georgia (September 18-20) | Gen. Bragg vs. Gen. Rosecrans. | 1,644 | 9,262 | 6,000 | 10,000 | |
| Chattanooga, including Orchard Knob, Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, Tennessee (November 23-25) | Gen. Grant, Gen. Sherman and Gen. Hooker vs. Gen. Bragg. | 757 | 4,529 | 850 | 2,150 | |
| 1864 | ||||||
| Wilderness, Virginia (May 5-7) | Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. | 2,309 | 12,188 | 1,956 | 10,444 | |
| Spottsylvania, Virginia (May 8-11) | Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. | 3,288 | 19,278 | 3,342 | 20,187 | |
| Spottsylvania, Virginia (May 18) | Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. | 2,031 | 7,956 | 1,752 | 7,248 | |
| Bermuda Hundreds, Virginia (May 26-30) | Gen. Butler, vs. Gen. D. H. Hill. | 201 | 998 | 864 | 2,136 | |
| Cold Harbor, Virginia (June 2-3) | Gen. Lee vs. Gen. Grant. | 1,905 | 10,570 | 364 | 1,336 | |
| Petersburg, Virginia (June 15-19) | Gen. Lee vs. Gen. Smith, Gen. Hancock and Gen. Burnside. | 1,298 | 7,474 | 984 | 6,721 | |
| Petersburg, Virginia (June 20-30) | Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. | 112 | 506 | 801 | 1,417 | |
| Peach Tree Creek, Georgia (July 20) | Gen. Thomas vs. Gen. Hood. | 301 | 1,411 | 880 | 3,916 | |
| Atlanta, Georgia, Hood’s First Sortie (July 22) | Gen. Logan vs. Gen. Hood. | 499 | 2,142 | 1,162 | 7,337 | |
| Petersburg, Virginia (from July 1, exclusive of losses at the Crater and Deep Bottom) (July 31) | Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. | 419 | 2,076 | 799 | 4,023 | |
| Petersburg, Virginia (August 1-31) | Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. | 87 | 484 | 101 | 605 | |
| Opequan, Virginia (September 19) | Gen. Sheridan vs. Gen. Early. | 653 | 3,719 | 1,632 | 3,868 | |
| Cedar Creek, Virginia (October 19) | Gen. Sheridan vs. Gen. Early. | 588 | 3,516 | 961 | 3,239 | |
| Fair Oaks, Virginia (October 27-28) | Gen. McClellan vs. Gen. Johnston. | 120 | 783 | 150 | 301 | |
| Petersburg, Virginia (Sept. 1 to Oct. 30) | Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. | 170 | 822 | 240 | 761 | |
| Franklin, Tennessee (November 30) | Gen. Hood vs. Gen. Schofield. | 189 | 1,033 | 1,141 | 5,113 | |
| Nashville, Tennessee (December 15-16) | Gen. Thomas vs. Gen. Hood. | 399 | 1,741 | 584 | 3,021 | |
| 1865 | ||||||
| Petersburg, Virginia (April 2) | Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. | 298 | 2,565 | 341 | 3,092 | |
| Appomattox, Virginia (April 9) | Gen. Grant vs. Gen. Lee. | 203 | 297 | 189 | 386 | |
Lincoln Assassinated, and Beginning of Reconstruction.—On April 14, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated and Andrew Johnson became president. With the succession of Johnson the era of reconstruction, political and social, begins. The outcome of political reconstruction was the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments to the Constitution of the United States, the impeachment of Andrew Johnson, and a long list of acts to protect and assist the freedmen of the South. The outcome of social reconstruction was the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, the passage and use of the Force Act, and the dreadful condition of affairs which ruined the South for a decade.
In the North the effect of such measures was to split the Republican party and put seven presidential candidates in the field in 1872. One represented the Temperance party; another the Labor party, denouncing Chinese labor and the non-taxation of Government land; a third was the Liberal Republican, demanding union, amnesty, and civil rights, accusing Grant of packing the Supreme Court in the interests of corporations, and calling for a repeal of the Ku Klux laws. The Liberal [645] Republicans having chosen Horace Greeley as their candidate, the Democrats accepted and indorsed him. But he pleased neither party, and the discontented Liberals and the discontented Democrats each chose a candidate of their own. The Republicans nominated Grant and elected him.
Election of Hayes Decided by an Electoral Commission.—His second term (1873-1877) was the nadir of our politics, both state and national, and ended with the disputed election and the rise of the Independent or “Greenback party,” demanding the repeal of the act for the resumption of specie payments and the issue of the United States “greenback” notes, convertible into bonds, as the currency of the country. Double returns and doubtful returns from the Southern states put the votes of thirteen electors in dispute. As the House was Democratic and the Senate Republican, the joint rule under which the electoral votes had been counted since 1865 could not be adopted. A compromise was necessary, and on January 29, 1877, the Electoral Commission of five Senators, five Representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court was created to decide on the doubtful returns. Of the fifteen, eight were Republicans and seven Democrats, and by a strict party vote the thirteen electoral votes were given to the Republicans and Rutherford B. Hayes declared elected.
Resumption of Specie Payments by the Government.—The memorable events of his term (1877-1881) were the resumption of specie payments on January 1, 1879; the passage of the Bland Silver Bill, restoring the silver dollar to the list of coins, making it legal tender, and providing for the coinage of not less than two million nor more than four million each month; and the rapid growth of the National or Greenback Labor party. Hayes was followed in 1881 by James A. Garfield, whose contest with the Senators from New York over the distribution of patronage led to his assassination by the hand of a crazy applicant for office. Chester A. Arthur then became President, was followed in 1885 by Grover Cleveland, who was succeeded in 1889 by Benjamin Harrison, who was in turn succeeded in 1893 by Grover Cleveland.
The presidential campaign of 1896 was one of the most exciting and important that has ever taken place. It was a contest respecting principles, and party platforms never received more attention. The amount of financial and political literature distributed and read was enormous, and political speeches, almost without number, were delivered. The cooperation of very many gold standard Democrats greatly increased the Republican strength and McKinley and Hobart were elected by a large majority of the electoral votes and by a plurality of over six hundred thousand of the popular vote.
McKinley and the Spanish-American War.—The administration of President McKinley was notable in many respects, and marked a new era in the foreign policy of the United States. Chief of the events was the Spanish-American war, which was precipitated in 1898, largely through the cruel treatment of the Cuban people by the mother country, Spain. Public opinion in the United States had been much divided in regard to the Cuban difficulties, but the division was in no sense sectional and a majority believed that war was not only justifiable but inevitable.
On February 15, 1898, the United States battleship Maine was destroyed in Havana harbor, and many believed this to have been the work of the Spaniards. Thereupon a congress was held, and a resolution passed demanding the withdrawal of Spain from Cuba. But before the message could be delivered, the American minister in Madrid received his passports and the Spanish government declared war. On April 22, Rear-Admiral Sampson began the blockade of Havana and the northern coast of Cuba with his North Atlantic squadron.
Meanwhile Dewey, who had been stationed at Hong-Kong with the American squadron, was ordered to begin operations, and sailed to Manila Bay in the Philippines. He entered Manila Bay early Sunday morning, May 1, 1898. The Spanish fleet lying in the harbor was protected by the guns of the batteries at Cavité, a few miles from Manila.
The Spaniards knew that he had left Hong-Kong, but he came sooner than he was expected and caught them unawares. He had planned to do this so that he might choose his own time for attack. As soon as he reached Manila Bay he opened upon the Spanish fleet a terrible fire of shot and shell. His fire was answered vigorously from the war vessels and the shore batteries, but the guns of the enemy were not well aimed and their shot did little damage. After a sharp fight of about two hours Dewey withdrew his fleet, in order, it is said, to give his men time for breakfast, but more likely to see how his ammunition was holding out.
After three hours he returned to the attack. By this time most of the Spanish vessels were in flames. An hour later the Spanish batteries “were silenced and the ships sunk or burned and deserted.” In the conflict the Spaniards lost every vessel and hundreds of men were killed, wounded, and missing. No American was killed and but seven wounded; while no American vessel was seriously damaged.
The battle of Manila is one of the great naval actions of history; never before had so much been won with so little loss of life and ships. Congress made Dewey a Rear Admiral, gave him a vote of thanks, and voted him a sword. Soon after the war he was made Admiral, the highest rank in the navy.
About the same time the Spanish Admiral, Cervera, had left the Cape Verde Islands en route for Santiago, where he arrived on May 19. Strict watch was kept by Sampson to prevent the escape of the enemy, and the Merrimac was sunk at night to block the Spanish squadron in the harbor, but the ship drifted too far to prevent Cervera’s exit. This difficult feat was intrusted to Ensign Richmond P. Hobson and six men. They performed their dangerous task, notwithstanding a severe fire from the Spanish land batteries. They were captured, but Admiral Cervera was so moved by their bravery that he sent word to the Americans that they were safe and would be well treated.
SUMMARY OF SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898
Causes
Underlying:
Sympathy for the oppressed Cubans. The “reconcentrados,” people driven into the towns by Weyler, died by thousands, and Americans who aided them are arrested and their property destroyed.
The proximity of Cuba and its geographical position make its situation of great importance to the United States.
Destruction of American property.
Publication of a letter of the Spanish Minister, in which he speaks slightingly of President McKinley.
Immediate:
The blowing up of the battleship Maine.
Treaty and Results
The Treaty of Paris, December 10, 1898, stipulated as follows:
Spain gives up title to Cuba.
Spain cedes Porto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the United States.
The United States gives Spain $20,000,000.
The direct cost of the war to the United States is about $130,000,000.
Soldiers killed, 430. A large number die of disease.
The United States becomes the guardian of Cuba.
An increase in our navy and standing army.
The war in the Philippines.
The question of territorial expansion in our politics.
LAND AND SEA ENGAGEMENTS
| Name, Location and Date of Battle | Commanders | Casualties | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| United States | Spanish | |||||
| Killed | Wounded | Killed | Wounded | |||
| THE ARMY | ||||||
| Guantanamo (June 11-20, 1898) | ... | 6 | 16 | ... | ... | |
| Bombardment of Santiago (June 22, 1898) | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |
| Las Guasimas, Cuba (June 24, 1898) | Gen. Wheeler vs. Gen. Linares. | 16 | 50 | 28 | 124 | |
| El Caney, Cuba (July 1, 1898) | Gen. Lawton and Gen. Chaffee vs. Gen. Vara de Rey. | 88 | 356 | 120 | 400 | |
| San Juan, Cuba (July 1-3, 1898) | ... | 151 | 1,007 | 204 | 1,340 | |
| Santiago, Cuba (July 10-12, 1898) | Gen. Shafter. | 2 | 13 | ... | ... | |
| Santiago Campaign (June 21 to July 17, 1898) | Gen. Shafter vs. Gen. Toral. | 260 | 1,341 | ... | ... | |
| Porto Rico Campaign (July 25-28, 1898) | Gen. Miles. | 3 | 40 | ... | ... | |
| The Reduction of Manila (August 13, 1898) | Gen. Merritt. | 17 | 106 | ... | ... | |
| THE NAVY | ||||||
| Manila Bay, Philippine Islands (May 1, 1898). | American Commander: Geo. Dewey. Spanish Commander: Admiral Montijo. | American Casualties: Seven men slightly injured. No damage to ships. Spanish Casualties: All ships destroyed. 450 men killed and wounded. | ||||
| American Vessels: | ||||||
| Olympia, Baltimore, Raleigh, Boston, Concord, Petrel. | ||||||
| Spanish Vessels: | ||||||
| Reina Cristina, Castella, Don Antonio de Ulloa, Isla de Luzon, Isla de Cuba, General Lezo, Marquis de Duero, Cano Velasco, Isla de Mindanao, Sandoval, José Garcia, Leyte and torpedo boat Barcelona. | ||||||
| Bombardment of Cienfuegos, Cuba (May 11, 1898). | By torpedo boat Winslow. | 1 | 11 | ... | ... | |
| Bombardment of San Juan (May 12, 1898) | Admiral Sampson. | 1 | 7 | ... | ... | |
| Before Santiago (July 3, 1898) | American Commander: Winfield Schley. Spanish Commander: Admiral Cervera. | American Casualties: One man killed. Brooklyn struck thirteen times, Texas once, but neither badly damaged. Spanish: All ships destroyed, more than 600 men killed and wounded, and rest surrendered. | ||||
| American Vessels: | ||||||
| Brooklyn, Texas, Oregon, Iowa, Gloucester. | ||||||
| Spanish Vessels: | ||||||
| Almirante, Oquendo, Christobal Colon, Vizcaya, Infanta Maria Teresa, and torpedo boats Pluton and Furor. | ||||||
| The total number of vessels captured from Spain during the war of 1898 was 58. | ||||||
On June 21, Major-General Shafter arrived off Santiago and successfully landed his troops at Baiquiri, and three days later the Spaniards were driven back from Sevilla. General Shafter then began his attack on Santiago, whither the Spaniards had retreated. Operations began on July 1. The severest fighting took place at San Juan Hill and El Caney, a garrisoned post, where a body of five hundred Spaniards offered a desperate resistance for some hours. By sundown the hills on which the enemy were posted, including San Juan, were occupied by the Americans. The attacking force consisted of regular infantry and dismounted cavalry, with an irregular corps of mounted men known as the Rough Riders. The latter, under the command of Colonels Leonard Wood and Roosevelt, took a prominent part in the fight. On July 4 the city was summoned to surrender, but without success. In the meanwhile Admiral Cervera’s squadron had been ordered to sea by the Madrid government. He accordingly left Santiago harbor the same day at nine a. m. with the object of [647] effecting its escape by keeping close to the western shore. The American fleet, temporarily under Schley’s command, at once engaged the Spaniards, and by two o’clock succeeded in burning, beaching, or capturing all the enemy’s vessels. After this Santiago surrendered, July 17, and Spain sued for peace. It was arranged that Spain should evacuate Cuba, should cede Porto Rico to the United States, as well as her islands in the Antilles, and one of the Ladrones, and should leave the United States in the possession of Manila. In 1899 a treaty was signed, and Spain evacuated Cuba, the Philippines, and other islands for an indemnity of twenty million dollars.
Insurrection in the Philippine Islands.—A day or two after the final vote on the treaty a body of Philippines under Amilio Aguinaldo, a native of great ability, attacked the American defenses at Manila. The next day the Americans returned the attack, and for nearly a year there was a resistance to the American rule on the part of the tribes which Aguinaldo represented. These tribes belonged to the Tagals, a Malay race. They are in a minority as regards the whole population, but are among the most intelligent. By the close of the year 1899 the organized resistance on the part of the Tagals appeared to be nearly ended, and the army of Aguinaldo reduced to marauders and bandits, and the insurrection against the authority and sovereignty of the United States was ended in July, 1902, after the capture and surrender of the insurgent leader.
Assassination of McKinley and Succession of Roosevelt.—Shortly after his re-election to a second term, on September 6, 1901, the country was shocked by the assassination of President McKinley by an anarchist named Czolgosz. This was the third time in the history of the country that the chief executive was stricken down by the hand of an assassin. The Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt, then succeeded to the presidency and continued, in all essential details, the policy of his lamented predecessor.
Under President Roosevelt, a champion of administrative reform and the regulation of commercial trusts, the status of Cuba was settled; progress was made in the Philippines; the navy was very greatly strengthened; the Isthmian Canal question was solved in favor of the Panama route, and the Republic of Panama recognized; and the President reasserted with emphasis the Monroe Doctrine as the key to foreign policy. The Alaska boundary was fixed by a mixed commission. The United States took part with the European powers in armed intervention at Peking in 1899; and an arbitration treaty with Great Britain and other countries was arranged for.
In a second term (1905-1909) President Roosevelt maintained his popularity by the same policy. In 1906 an insurrection broke out in Cuba, and in October American troops again took possession of the island. When confidence had been restored the United States authorities withdrew.
President Taft and the Rise of the Progressives.—In 1908 the Republican, Taft, defeated Bryan, the Democratic candidate. Mr. Roosevelt had refused to be a candidate again and was instrumental in securing Mr. Taft’s nomination. President Taft was elected on a Rooseveltian programme of anti-trust legislation and promises of a reduced tariff. In 1910-1911 attempts were made at a Reciprocity of Duties Treaty with Canada, so as to establish freer trade between the two countries. The Canadian general election of 1911 gave an emphatic negative to the proposal.
During the latter part of 1912 a renewed insurrection in Mexico brought about strained diplomatic relations with that country.
In Ohio, Minnesota, and Indiana, however, Democratic governors were elected, and these results pointed to a political reaction in the West, largely owing to supposed inequities in the tariff and to the dominance of trusts.
In 1910 an “insurgent” or progressive section, to which Mr. Roosevelt adhered, formed itself within the Republican party; and the state elections in November resulted in a Democratic triumph without a parallel since that of the year 1890.
Democrats Restored to Power under Leadership of Woodrow Wilson.—In 1913 Woodrow Wilson swept the country on a Democratic programme, having a clear majority over the two Republican ex-presidents (Roosevelt and Taft) opposed to him. His election was fought chiefly on the tariff question, his main argument being that some industries were receiving unfair protection at the expense of others.
Shortly after the inauguration of President Wilson (May 31, 1913), the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, providing for the direct election of Senators by the people of the states, instead of by their respective legislatures, became effective. On October 3, of the same year, the Underwood Tariff Act became a law. Following this, on December 23, the Currency and Banking Bill, providing regional reserve banks throughout the country, was signed.
In 1914 the continued insurrectionary conditions in Mexico led to the seizure of the custom house at Vera Cruz by a United States fleet, resulting in an American loss of eighteen marines killed and seventy wounded. Subsequently diplomatic representatives of the republics of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (popularly known as the “A B C powers”) offered their services as mediators, were accepted by the United States and the troops withdrawn. The temporary lull, however, thus brought about was soon succeeded by a series of struggles between the provisional Mexican government and the insurrectionists, led by Francisco Villa, which have ever since continued with little abatement. In 1916 the border raids of the Mexican bandits resulted in so many outrages upon American lives and property that the President was compelled to order United States troops to the Rio Grande for the protection of our citizens, and finally a detachment under General Pershing was sent into Mexican territory.
The important La Follette Seaman’s bill, to promote the welfare of American seamen and provide for their safety at sea, was approved [648] March 4, 1915; and, in the same year (February 20), the Panama-Pacific Exposition was opened at San Francisco. On November 12, the United States assumed a protectorate of the Republic of Hayti.
PRESIDENT WILSON LEAVING THE EXECUTIVE OFFICES
During 1916 the Republic of Santo Domingo likewise passed under an American protectorate and the Rural Credits Bill became a law, whereby a system of Farm Loan Banks was created.
From the very beginning of the European war the administration of President Wilson was brought face to face with numerous intricate and several critical diplomatic situations growing out of that titanic conflict. The relationship of the United States, as a neutral nation, to the belligerent countries engaged in this war gave rise to more difficult and significant issues than any other president was compelled to meet since the time of Lincoln, if indeed, it has not been unprecedented in our entire history.
President Wilson Re-elected and His Policies Approved.—At the national election, in November, 1916, President Wilson was re-elected over his opponent, Charles E. Hughes. Following his re-election (December, 1916) the President proffered the services of this government to the belligerent powers of Europe in an effort to re-establish peace between these great contending coalitions. In spite of foreign complications, the year 1916 closed a period of unparalleled industrial and commercial prosperity for the United States, and more than ever confirmed its position as a great world power, with an immense field of new possibilities and corresponding duties.
On January 2, 1917, Congress re-assembled and began the consideration of important questions of national defense, railroads, and foreign policy growing out of the European war. In February, diplomatic relations were severed by the United States with Germany, and was succeeded in March by a declaration of armed neutrality on the part of our government.
Meanwhile great activity characterized all departments of the national government along lines of military preparedness, supported by unprecedented appropriations by Congress.
The supreme national industrial event of the Wilson administration, however, was the opening of the Panama Canal for navigation on August 14, 1914, and its use since that time as an instrumentality of world traffic.
Panama Canal.—This gigantic engineering project was designated by Count de Lesseps, of France, in 1879, and actual work began by the French Panama Canal Company, in 1881. Negotiations extending from 1901 to 1904 resulted in the taking over of the holdings of the French company by the United States, and work was started by United States government engineers in May of the latter year. Since that time the project has been steadily carried forward to completion.
The Canal is about fifty miles in length from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to deep water in the Pacific Ocean. The channel ranges in width from three hundred to one thousand feet. The average bottom width of the channel in this project is six hundred and forty-nine feet, and the minimum width is three hundred feet. The Canal has a minimum depth of forty-one feet. The time required for the passage of a ship of medium size through the entire length of the Canal is estimated at from nine and one-half to ten hours, and for larger vessels from ten and one-half to eleven hours.
The actual construction cost at present estimated for completing the Canal is $325,201,000, which includes $20,053,000 for sanitation and $7,382,000 for civil administration. These figures do not include the $50,000,000 paid to the New French Canal Company and to the Republic of Panama for property and franchises. Hence it is estimated that the total construction cost of the Canal to the United States will approximate $375,000,000.
CONTOUR MAP OF THE PANAMA CANAL AND CONNECTIONS
This map shows the general direction of the canal to be north and south; how it is brought into direct communication with the ports of the United States; and how it facilitates shipping to all parts of the world.
Large map (535 kB)
TABLE OF STATE AND TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT
In all the States except Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming and the Territory of Alaska, the right to vote at general elections is restricted to males of twenty-one years of age and upward. Women in Illinois, Iowa and Michigan have a restricted vote and in several States may vote at school elections.
| States and Popular Name | Requirements as to Citizenship Persons Excluded from Suffrage (in italic) | Previous Residence Required | Governors | Legislatures | Members’ Terms | Elec- toral Vote, 1916 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In State | In Co. | In Town | In Pre- cinct | Salaries | Length Term Years | Ann. or Bien. | Limit of Session | Salaries of Members | Sena- tors | Repre- senta- tives | |||
| Alabama “Lizard” | Citizen of United States or alien who has declared intention. Convicted of treason or other felonies, idiots, vagrants, insane. | 2 years | 1 year | 3 mos. | 3 mos. | $ 7,500 | 4 | Quad. | 50 days | $4.00 per diem | 4 | 4 | 12 |
| Alaska | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Aliens and Indians. | 1 year | ... | 30 days | 30 days | 7,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $15.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 0 |
| Arizona | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiot, insane, felon* (b). | 1 year | 30 days | 30 days | 30 days | 4,000 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $7.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 3 |
| Arkansas “Bear” | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention. Idiots, insane, convicted of felony, failure to pay poll tax. | 1 year | 6 mos. | 30 days | 30 days | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 9 |
| California “Golden” | Citizen, male or female, by nativity, naturalization 90 days prior to election (d). Idiots, insane, embezzlers of public moneys, convicted of infamous crime.* | 1 year | 90 days | ... | 30 days | 10,000 | 4 | Bien. | None | $1,000 term | 4 | 2 | 13 |
| Colorado “Centennial” | Citizen, native or naturalized, male or female. Felons, insane. | 1 year | 90 days | 30 days | 10 days | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | 90 days | $1,000 term | 4 | 2 | 6 |
| Connecticut “Nutmeg” | Citizen of the United States. Convicted of heinous crime. | 1 year | ... | 6 mos. | ... | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $300 term | 2 | 2 | 7 |
| Delaware “Diamond” | Citizen of the United States. Insane, paupers, felons.* | 1 year | 3 mos. | ... | 30 days | 4,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 3 |
| Dist. of Col. | See foot note on following page. | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0 |
| Florida “Flower” | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, duelists, felons. | 1 year | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 6,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 6 |
| Georgia “Cracker” | Citizen of the United States. Felons, idiots and insane. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | ... | ... | 5,000 | 2 | Ann. | 50 days | $4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 14 |
| Hawaii | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, insane, felons (j). | 1 year | ... | ... | 3 mos. | 7,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $600 session | 4 | 2 | 0 |
| Idaho | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiots, insane, felons, bigamists. | 6 mos. | 30 days | ... | ... | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 4 |
| Illinois “Prairie” | Citizen of the United States (e). Convicted of crime. | 1 year | 90 days | 30 days | 30 days | 12,000 | 4 | Bien. | None | $3,500 annum | 4 | 2 | 29 |
| Indiana “Hoosier” | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (g). Convicted of infamous crime. (b) | 6 mos. | ... | 60 days | 30 days | 8,000 | 4 | Bien. | 61 days | $6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 15 |
| Iowa “Hawkeye” | Citizen of the United States (k). Idiots, insane, felons. | 6 mos. | 60 days | 10 days | 10 days | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $1,000 session | 4 | 2 | 13 |
| Kansas “Sunflower” | Citizen of the United States, male or female, or alien who has declared intention. Convicted of treason or felony, insane. | 6 mos. | 30 days | 30 days | 10 days | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | 50 days | $3.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 10 |
| Kentucky “Blue Grass” | Citizen of United States (a). Felons, idiots and insane. | 1 year | 6 mos. | ... | 60 days | 6,500 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $10.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 13 |
| Louisiana “Creole” | Citizen of United States (c). Idiots, insane, felons.* | 2 years | 1 year | ... | 6 mos. | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 4 | 10 |
| Maine “Pine Tree” | Citizen of the United States. Paupers, insane, Indians.*‡ | 3 mos. | 3 mos. | 3 mos. | 3 mos. | 3,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $300 annum | 2 | 2 | 6 |
| Maryland “Old Line” | Citizen of the United States. Felons, lunatics, bribers. | 1 year | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 1 day | 4,500 | 4 | Bien. | 90 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 8 |
| Massachusetts “Bay” | Citizen (a). Paupers.* | 1 year | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 10,000 | 1 | Ann. | None | $1,000 annum | 1 | 1 | 18 |
| Michigan “Wolverine” | Citizen of the United States or alien who declared intention two years and six months prior to November 8, 1894 (c). Indians with tribal relations. | 6 mos. | 20 days | 20 days | 20 days | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $800 annum | 2 | 2 | 15 |
| Minnesota “North Star” | Citizen of United States (a). Felons, insane, Indians.‡ | 6 mos. | 30 days | 30 days | 30 days | 7,000 | 2 | Bien. | 90 days | $1,000 session | 4 | 2 | 12 |
| Mississippi “Bayou” | Citizen of the United States. Insane, idiots, Indians not taxed, felons, bigamists.* | 2 years | 1 year | 1 year | 1 year | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | None | $500 session | 4 | 4 | 10 |
| Missouri | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention. Felons(b). | 1 year | 60 days | 60 days | ... | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 70 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 18 |
| Montana “Mountain” | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Felons, idiots, insane‡ (b). | 1 year | 30 days | ... | ... | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $10.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 4 |
| Nebraska | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (a). Felons, insane. | 6 mos. | 40 days | 10 days | 10 days | 2,500 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $10.00 session | 2 | 2 | 8 |
| Nevada “Silver” | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiots, insane, felons. | 6 mos. | 30 days | 30 days | 30 days | 7,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $600 term | 2-4 | 2 | 3 |
| New Hampshire “Granite” | Citizen of United States (a). Paupers, insane, idiots, felons. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 3,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $200 term | 2 | 2 | 4 |
| New Jersey “Jersey Blue” | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, paupers, insane, felons (b). | 1 year | 5 mos. | ... | ... | 10,000 | 3 | Ann. | None | $500 annum | 3 | 1 | 14 |
| New Mexico | Citizen of United States (a). Idiots, insane, felons.† | 1 year | 90 days | ... | 30 days | 5,000 | 5 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 3 |
| New York “Empire” | Citizen who shall have been a citizen for ninety days prior to election. | 1 year | 4 mos. | 30 days | 30 days | 10,000 | 2 | Ann. | None | $1,500 annum | 2 | 1 | 45 |
| North Carolina “Old North” | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, lunatics, felons. | 2 years | 6 mos. | 4 mos. | 4 mos. | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 12 |
| North Dakota “Sioux” | Citizen of United States (a). Felons, insane, tribal Indians. | 1 year | 6 mos. | 90 days | 90 days | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 5 |
| Ohio “Buckeye” | Citizen of United States (a). Idiots, insane, and felons (b). | 1 year | 30 days | 20 days | 20 days | 10,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $1,000 annum | 2 | 2 | 24 |
| Oklahoma | Citizen of United States (a). Felons, idiots, insane*‡ | 1 year | 6 mos. | ... | 30 days | 4,500 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 10 |
| Oregon “Sunset” | Citizen of the United States, male or female, or alien who declared intention more than one year prior to election. Idiots, insane, convicted of felony, U. S. soldiers and sailors. | 6 mos. | 30 days | ... | 30 days | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 40 days | $3.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 5 |
| Pennsylvania “Keystone” | Citizen of the United States at least one month. Felons, non-taxpayers. | 1 year | ... | ... | 2 mos. | 10,000 | 4 | Bien. | None | $1,500 session | 2 | 2 | 38 |
| Porto Rico | Citizen of United States (f). Felons, insane (b). | 1 year | ... | 1 year | ... | 8,000 | 4 | Ann. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 0 |
| Rhode Island “Little Rhody” | Citizen of the United States. Paupers, lunatics, felons. | 2 years | ... | 6 mos. | ... | 3,000 | 2 | Ann. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 5 |
| South Carolina “Palmetto” | Citizen of United States (h). Felons, insane, paupers. | 2 years | 1 year | 4 mos. | 4 mos. | 3,000 | 2 | Ann. | 40 days | $200 term | 4 | 2 | 9 |
| South Dakota “Coyote” | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention. Insane, felons, U. S. soldiers, seamen and marines. | 6 mos. | 30 days | 10 days | 10 days | 3,000 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 5 |
| Tennessee “Volunteer” | Citizen of the United States. Felons, failure to pay poll tax. | 1 year | 6 mos. | ... | ... | 4,000 | 2 | Bien. | 75 days | $4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 12 |
| Texas “Lone Star” | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention. Idiots, lunatics, felons, U. S. soldiers, marines and seamen. | 1 year | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | ... | 4,000 | 2 | Bien. | 90 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 20 |
| Utah | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiots, insane, felons (b). | 1 year | 4 mos. | ... | 60 days | 6,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $4.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 4 |
| Vermont “Green Mountain” | Citizen of the United States. Those lacking approbation of local board of civil authority. | 1 year | 3 mos. | 3 mos. | 3 mos. | 2,500 | 2 | Bien. | None | $4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 4 |
| Virginia “Old Dominion” | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, lunatics, paupers (b) (i). | 2 years | 1 year | 1 year | 30 days | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $500 session | 4 | 2 | 12 |
| Washington “Evergreen” | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiots, lunatics, felons.‡ | 1 year | 90 days | 30 days | 30 days | 6,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 7 |
| West Virginia “Panhandle” | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, lunatics, felons. | 1 year | 60 days | 60 days | ... | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 45 days | $4.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 8 |
| Wisconsin “Badger” | Citizen of United States (a). Insane, felons, tribal Indians. | 1 year | ... | 10 days | 10 days | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $500 annum | 4 | 2 | 13 |
| Wyoming | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiots, insane, felons, unable to read State Constitution. | 1 year | 60 days | 10 days | 10 days | 4,000 | 4 | Bien. | 40 days | $8.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 3 |
| States and Popular Name | Requirements as to Citizenship Persons Excluded from Suffrage (in italic) | Previous Residence Required | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In State | In Co. | In Town | In Precinct | ||
| Alabama “Lizard” | Citizen of United States or alien who has declared intention. Convicted of treason or other felonies, idiots, vagrants, insane. | 2 years | 1 year | 3 mos. | 3 mos. |
| Alaska | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Aliens and Indians. | 1 year | ... | 30 days | 30 days |
| Arizona | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiot, insane, felon* (b). | 1 year | 30 days | 30 days | 30 days |
| Arkansas “Bear” | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention. Idiots, insane, convicted of felony, failure to pay poll tax. | 1 year | 6 mos. | 30 days | 30 days |
| California “Golden” | Citizen, male or female, by nativity, naturalization 90 days prior to election (d). Idiots, insane, embezzlers of public moneys, convicted of infamous crime.* | 1 year | 90 days | ... | 30 days |
| Colorado “Centennial” | Citizen, native or naturalized, male or female. Felons, insane. | 1 year | 90 days | 30 days | 10 days |
| Connecticut “Nutmeg” | Citizen of the United States. Convicted of heinous crime. | 1 year | ... | 6 mos. | ... |
| Delaware “Diamond” | Citizen of the United States. Insane, paupers, felons.* | 1 year | 3 mos. | ... | 30 days |
| Dist. of Col. | See foot note on following page. | ... | ... | ... | ... |
| Florida “Flower” | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, duelists, felons. | 1 year | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. |
| Georgia “Cracker” | Citizen of the United States. Felons, idiots and insane. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | ... | ... |
| Hawaii | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, insane, felons (j). | 1 year | ... | ... | 3 mos. |
| Idaho | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiots, insane, felons, bigamists. | 6 mos. | 30 days | ... | ... |
| Illinois “Prairie” | Citizen of the United States (e). Convicted of crime. | 1 year | 90 days | 30 days | 30 days |
| Indiana “Hoosier” | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (g). Convicted of infamous crime. (b) | 6 mos. | ... | 60 days | 30 days |
| Iowa “Hawkeye” | Citizen of the United States (k). Idiots, insane, felons. | 6 mos. | 60 days | 10 days | 10 days |
| Kansas “Sunflower” | Citizen of the United States, male or female, or alien who has declared intention. Convicted of treason or felony, insane. | 6 mos. | 30 days | 30 days | 10 days |
| Kentucky “Blue Grass” | Citizen of United States (a). Felons, idiots and insane. | 1 year | 6 mos. | ... | 60 days |
| Louisiana “Creole” | Citizen of United States (c). Idiots, insane, felons.* | 2 years | 1 year | ... | 6 mos. |
| Maine “Pine Tree” | Citizen of the United States. Paupers, insane, Indians.*‡ | 3 mos. | 3 mos. | 3 mos. | 3 mos. |
| Maryland “Old Line” | Citizen of the United States. Felons, lunatics, bribers. | 1 year | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 1 day |
| Massachusetts “Bay” | Citizen (a). Paupers.* | 1 year | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. |
| Michigan “Wolverine” | Citizen of the United States or alien who declared intention two years and six months prior to November 8, 1894 (c). Indians with tribal relations. | 6 mos. | 20 days | 20 days | 20 days |
| Minnesota “North Star” | Citizen of United States (a). Felons, insane, Indians.‡ | 6 mos. | 30 days | 30 days | 30 days |
| Mississippi “Bayou” | Citizen of the United States. Insane, idiots, Indians not taxed, felons, bigamists.* | 2 years | 1 year | 1 year | 1 year |
| Missouri | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention. Felons(b). | 1 year | 60 days | 60 days | ... |
| Montana “Mountain” | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Felons, idiots, insane.‡ (b). | 1 year | 30 days | ... | ... |
| Nebraska | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention (a). Felons, insane. | 6 mos. | 40 days | 10 days | 10 days |
| Nevada “Silver” | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiots, insane, felons. | 6 mos. | 30 days | 30 days | 30 days |
| New Hampshire “Granite” | Citizen of United States (a). Paupers, insane, idiots, felons. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | 6 mos. |
| New Jersey “Jersey Blue” | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, paupers, insane, felons (b). | 1 year | 5 mos. | ... | ... |
| New Mexico | Citizen of United States (a). Idiots, insane, felons.† | 1 year | 90 days | ... | 30 days |
| New York “Empire” | Citizen who shall have been a citizen for ninety days prior to election. | 1 year | 4 mos. | 30 days | 30 days |
| North Carolina “Old North” | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, lunatics, felons. | 2 years | 6 mos. | 4 mos. | 4 mos. |
| North Dakota “Sioux” | Citizen of United States (a). Felons, insane, tribal Indians. | 1 year | 6 mos. | 90 days | 90 days |
| Ohio “Buckeye” | Citizen of United States (a). Idiots, insane, and felons (b). | 1 year | 30 days | 20 days | 20 days |
| Oklahoma | Citizen of United States (a). Felons, idiots, insane*‡ | 1 year | 6 mos. | ... | 30 days |
| Oregon “Sunset” | Citizen of the United States, male or female, or alien who declared intention more than one year prior to election. Idiots, insane, convicted of felony, U. S. soldiers and sailors. | 6 mos. | 30 days | ... | 30 days |
| Pennsylvania “Keystone” | Citizen of the United States at least one month. Felons, non-taxpayers. | 1 year | ... | ... | 2 mos. |
| Porto Rico | Citizen of United States (f). Felons, insane (b). | 1 year | ... | 1 year | ... |
| Rhode Island “Little Rhody” | Citizen of the United States. Paupers, lunatics, felons. | 2 years | ... | 6 mos. | ... |
| South Carolina “Palmetto” | Citizen of United States (h). Felons, insane, paupers. | 2 years | 1 year | 4 mos. | 4 mos. |
| South Dakota “Coyote” | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention. Insane, felons, U. S. soldiers, seamen and marines. | 6 mos. | 30 days | 10 days | 10 days |
| Tennessee “Volunteer” | Citizen of the United States. Felons, failure to pay poll tax. | 1 year | 6 mos. | ... | ... |
| Texas “Lone Star” | Citizen of the United States or alien who has declared intention. Idiots, lunatics, felons, U. S. soldiers, marines and seamen. | 1 year | 6 mos. | 6 mos. | ... |
| Utah | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiots, insane, felons (b). | 1 year | 4 mos. | ... | 60 days |
| Vermont “Green Mountain” | Citizen of the United States. Those lacking approbation of local board of civil authority. | 1 year | 3 mos. | 3 mos. | 3 mos. |
| Virginia “Old Dominion” | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, lunatics, paupers (b) (i). | 2 years | 1 year | 1 year | 30 days |
| Washington “Evergreen” | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiots, lunatics, felons.‡ | 1 year | 90 days | 30 days | 30 days |
| West Virginia “Panhandle” | Citizen of the United States. Idiots, lunatics, felons. | 1 year | 60 days | 60 days | ... |
| Wisconsin “Badger” | Citizen of United States (a). Insane, felons, tribal Indians. | 1 year | ... | 10 days | 10 days |
| Wyoming | Citizen of the United States, male or female. Idiots, insane, felons, unable to read State Constitution. | 1 year | 60 days | 10 days | 10 days |
| States and Popular Name | Governors | Legislatures | Members’ Terms | Elec- toral Vote, 1916 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Salaries | Length Term Years | Ann. or Bien. | Limit of Session | Salaries of Members | Senators | Repre- sentatives | ||
| Alabama “Lizard” | $ 7,500 | 4 | Quad. | 50 days | $4.00 per diem | 4 | 4 | 12 |
| Alaska | 7,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $15.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 0 |
| Arizona | 4,000 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $7.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 3 |
| Arkansas “Bear” | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 9 |
| California “Golden” | 10,000 | 4 | Bien. | None | $1,000 term | 4 | 2 | 13 |
| Colorado “Centennial” | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | 90 days | $1,000 term | 4 | 2 | 6 |
| Connecticut “Nutmeg” | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $300 term | 2 | 2 | 7 |
| Delaware “Diamond” | 4,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 3 |
| Dist. of Col. | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0 |
| Florida “Flower” | 6,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 6 |
| Georgia “Cracker” | 5,000 | 2 | Ann. | 50 days | $4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 14 |
| Hawaii | 7,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $600 session | 4 | 2 | 0 |
| Idaho | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 4 |
| Illinois “Prairie” | 12,000 | 4 | Bien. | None | $3,500 annum | 4 | 2 | 29 |
| Indiana “Hoosier” | 8,000 | 4 | Bien. | 61 days | $6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 15 |
| Iowa “Hawkeye” | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $1,000 session | 4 | 2 | 13 |
| Kansas “Sunflower” | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | 50 days | $3.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 10 |
| Kentucky “Blue Grass” | 6,500 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $10.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 13 |
| Louisiana “Creole” | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 4 | 10 |
| Maine “Pine Tree” | 3,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $300 annum | 2 | 2 | 6 |
| Maryland “Old Line” | 4,500 | 4 | Bien. | 90 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 8 |
| Massachusetts “Bay” | 10,000 | 1 | Ann. | None | $1,000 annum | 1 | 1 | 18 |
| Michigan “Wolverine” | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $800 annum | 2 | 2 | 15 |
| Minnesota “North Star” | 7,000 | 2 | Bien. | 90 days | $1,000 session | 4 | 2 | 12 |
| Mississippi “Bayou” | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | None | $500 session | 4 | 4 | 10 |
| Missouri | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 70 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 18 |
| Montana “Mountain” | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $10.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 4 |
| Nebraska | 2,500 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $10.00 session | 2 | 2 | 8 |
| Nevada “Silver” | 7,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $600 term | 2-4 | 2 | 3 |
| New Hampshire “Granite” | 3,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $200 term | 2 | 2 | 4 |
| New Jersey “Jersey Blue” | 10,000 | 3 | Ann. | None | $500 annum | 3 | 1 | 14 |
| New Mexico | 5,000 | 5 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 3 |
| New York “Empire” | 10,000 | 2 | Ann. | None | $1,500 annum | 2 | 1 | 45 |
| North Carolina “Old North” | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 12 |
| North Dakota “Sioux” | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 5 |
| Ohio “Buckeye” | 10,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $1,000 annum | 2 | 2 | 24 |
| Oklahoma | 4,500 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 10 |
| Oregon “Sunset” | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 40 days | $3.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 5 |
| Pennsylvania “Keystone” | 10,000 | 4 | Bien. | None | $1,500 session | 2 | 2 | 38 |
| Porto Rico | 8,000 | 4 | Ann. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 0 |
| Rhode Island “Little Rhody” | 3,000 | 2 | Ann. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 5 |
| South Carolina “Palmetto” | 3,000 | 2 | Ann. | 40 days | $200 term | 4 | 2 | 9 |
| South Dakota “Coyote” | 3,000 | 2 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 5 |
| Tennessee “Volunteer” | 4,000 | 2 | Bien. | 75 days | $4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 12 |
| Texas “Lone Star” | 4,000 | 2 | Bien. | 90 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 20 |
| Utah | 6,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $4.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 4 |
| Vermont “Green Mountain” | 2,500 | 2 | Bien. | None | $4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 4 |
| Virginia “Old Dominion” | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $500 session | 4 | 2 | 12 |
| Washington “Evergreen” | 6,000 | 4 | Bien. | 60 days | $5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 7 |
| West Virginia “Panhandle” | 5,000 | 4 | Bien. | 45 days | $4.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 8 |
| Wisconsin “Badger” | 5,000 | 2 | Bien. | None | $500 annum | 4 | 2 | 13 |
| Wyoming | 4,000 | 4 | Bien. | 40 days | $8.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 3 |
Note.—Residents of the District of Columbia never had the right to vote therein for national officers, or on other matters of national concern after the territory embraced in it was ceded to the United States and became the seat of the general Government.
* Or persons unable to read and write in English. † Or citizens of Mexico who desire to become citizens of Arizona under treaties of 1848 and 1854. ‡ Indians who have not severed tribal relations. (a): Women can vote in school elections. (b): Also soldiers, sailors and marines in United States service. (c): Women taxpayers can vote on tax propositions. (d): Or by Queretaro treaty. (e): Women can vote in all elections except those pertaining to Constitutional officers or Constitutional propositions. (f): Males born in Porto Rico who formally renounced allegiance to a foreign power. (g): One year’s residence in the United States prior to election is required. (h): Who has paid six months before election all taxes then due, and can read and write any section of the State Constitution, or can show that he owns and has paid all taxes due the previous year on property in the State assessed at $300 or more. (i): Failure to pay poll tax. (j): Or those unable to speak, read and write the English or Hawaiian language. (k): Women can vote in school and city elections. (l): Offenders against elective franchise rights, guilty of bribery, betting on elections, and persons convicted of a felony and not restored to citizenship by the Executive. Convicts in House of Refuge or Reformatory not disqualified. (m): All of the States and Territories pay mileage also, except New Jersey, but free transportation is accorded in New Jersey by all railroads to members by law.
GOVERNMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES, BRITISH EMPIRE, GERMANY, AND FRANCE ARRANGED IN PARALLEL COLUMNS
UNITED STATES
BRITISH EMPIRE
GERMANY
FRANCE
Form of Government: Republic. The general plan of the government of the United States is determined by the Constitution. The central government is limited to the exercise of the powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution, or implied therein, while the remaining governmental powers, not denied to the states by the Constitution, are reserved to the states. The general government is in three fairly well defined parts, the legislative, executive, and judicial.
Form of Government.—Monarchy in form, but republic in practice. The monarchy is constitutional and limited.
The British Empire consists of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Empire of India, and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, including the self-governing Dominions, and the Crown Colonies, Protectorates, and other Dependencies, the whole forming one Empire.
Form of Government.—The Empire, according to the Constitution of April 16, 1871, is a Confederate League, bearing the name German Empire, under the hereditary presidentship of the King of Prussia, who holds the title of German Emperor, and whose eldest son is styled His Imperial and Royal Highness.
Form of Government.—France, since the overthrow of Napoleon III., in 1870, has been a republic governed by a President and two Chambers under the Constitution.
I. Constitution.—The present Constitution was adopted September 17, 1787.
Ratification of the Constitution.—The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original States in the following order:
Delaware, Dec. 7, 1787, unanimously.
Pennsylvania, Dec. 12, 1787, vote 46 to 23.
New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787, unanimously.
Georgia, Jan 2, 1788, unanimously.
Connecticut, Jan 9, 1788, vote 128 to 40.
Massachusetts, Feb. 6, 1788, vote 187 to 168.
Maryland, April 28, 1788, vote 63 to 12.
South Carolina, May 23, 1788, vote 149 to 73.
New Hampshire, June 21, 1788, vote 57 to 46.
Virginia, June 25, 1788, vote 89 to 79.
New York, July 26, 1788, vote 30 to 28.
North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789, vote 193 to 75.
Rhode Island, May 29, 1790, vote 34 to 32.
I. Constitution.—The British Constitution is mainly unwritten and customary, but its development is marked by certain outstanding and fundamental laws, of which the principal are: Magna Charta, 1215; the Habeas Corpus Act, 1679; the Act of Settlement, 1701; the Act of Union with Scotland, 1707; the Act of Union with Ireland, 1800; and the Parliament Act, 1911. The first secured annual parliaments and the equal administration of justice; the second established the liberty of the person; the third provided for the Protestant succession to the throne; the fourth and fifth created the United Kingdom; and the last enabled the Commons to pass certain Acts without the adherence of the other Chamber.
I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted April 16, 1871. The Constitution of the German Empire is substantially that of the North German Confederation, which came into force in 1867, and which was adopted by the Empire in 1871, after the southern states of Germany had combined with the northern.
I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted February 25, 1875. It has undergone but slight modifications. The present French Constitution remains a mixture of monarchical and republican institutions, and it has fully maintained its strong and old-established centralization. The Constitution of 1875 is based on universal suffrage. It was revised in 1875, 1884, 1885 and 1889.
Amendments.—Congress may, by two-thirds vote of both Houses, propose amendments to the Constitution, or upon application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, must be ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof.
Amendments.—Amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by either of the legislative bodies, are passed by ordinary legislative process, requiring for their passage a majority simply of the votes of the Reichstag, but they fail if fourteen votes are cast against them in the Bundesrath.
Amendments.—Whenever the two Houses agree that revision is necessary, and also agree upon particular points that should be revised, the National Assembly, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, sitting as one body, convenes at Versailles, and acts upon the amendments proposed, the vote of an absolute majority being decisive. The National Assembly also elects the President of the republic.
II. The President.
How Elected.—The several steps in the election of the President are:
State Electors are chosen at a General Election held on the Tuesday following the first Monday of November of every fourth year; the number of Electors of each State being equal to the number of Senators and Representatives to which the State is entitled in Congress.
The Electors meet in their respective States on the second Monday in January following their election, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President; and at the same time make certificates of their vote and transmit the same to the President of the Senate.
The Senate and House of Representatives meet together on the second Wednesday of February next ensuing, and count the votes of the State Electors, when, if there is an election, the President of the Senate declares who is elected President and Vice-President.
In case there is no choice by the State Electors, the President is elected by the House of Representatives from the three candidates who received the most electoral votes for President; in which election the vote is taken by States, each State having but one vote, and a majority of all the States being necessary to a choice.
Term of Office.—Four years.
Eligibility.—A natural born citizen; resident of the United States fourteen years; minimum age thirty-five years.
II. The Sovereign.
How Designated.—The King’s legal title rests upon the Act of Settlement, in 1701, under William III., by which the succession to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland was settled on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and the “heirs of her body, being Protestants.” The throne is hereditary in the English house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha with mixed succession, the sons of the Sovereign and their descendants having precedence of daughters, but daughters and their descendants preference over lateral lines. The Sovereign is designated King (or Queen) of Great Britain and Ireland, and Emperor (or Empress) of India.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life, by hereditary title, and cannot be removed.
II. Chief magistrate, styled the Deutscher Kaiser.
How Designated.—The election of Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as German Emperor (1871) was by vote of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, on the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany. The Imperial dignity is hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern, and follows the law of primogeniture in the male line. He must be occupant of the throne of Prussia under the provisions of Prussian law.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life,and cannot be removed.
II. Chief Magistrate, or President of the Republic.
Term of Office.—Elected for seven years by the National Assembly, and is re-eligible.
The National Assembly meets for the purposes of this election, as for the revision of the Constitution, at Versailles. The revision of the Constitution and the election of President are its only functions.
Qualifications.—Must be a citizen, not a member of any family which has occupied the throne of France.
Salary.—Fixed by law at $75,000 per year.
Salary or Civil List.—The Civil List Act, 1910, gave the King $2,350,000. Provision for other members of the Royal Family, $730,000. The Prince of Wales, as the income of the Duchy of Cornwall, $435,000. The King in addition to his Civil List receives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster amounting to $320,000.
Salary or Income.—Royal Civil List of Emperor, $3,700,000.
Salary.—$140,000.
Responsibilities.—May be impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, and tried by the Senate, in case of high treason.
Powers and Duties of the President.—Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. Communicates with Congress by message. Approves or disapproves Acts of Congress. Makes treaties with advice and consent of the Senate. Appoints Public Officers with the advice and consent of the Senate. Commissions Public Officers of the United States. Grants reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States.
The Vice-President.—Elected by State Electors the same as the President; or by the Senate, in case there is no choice by the State Electors. Term of office same as for the President. Eligibility same as required of the President. Salary fixed by law at twelve thousand dollars per year.
The Presidential Succession.—In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of the President, the Vice-President takes the President’s place.
In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of both President and Vice-President the heads of the Executive Departments succeed to the Presidency in the order in which the Executive Departments are named below; but such officer must be constitutionally eligible to the Presidency, must have been appointed to the cabinet by the advice and with the consent of the Senate, and be not under impeachment. The Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor are ineligible to the presidency by reason of the fact that these two cabinet offices were created subsequent to the passage of the act of the forty-ninth Congress in which provision was made for the presidential succession.
Powers and Duties.—Has command of army and navy.
Parliament cannot be assembled, prorogued, or dissolved except by the express command of the Sovereign.
At the commencement of a new Parliament must deliver, either in person or by a commission authorized for that purpose, a speech declaring the cause of the summons.
Bills passed by Parliament must receive the assent of the Sovereign in order to become law.
Has legally a veto power; but, because the influence of the Executive over legislation has passed into the hands of the Ministers, the veto of the Crown has been disused since 1707.
Has power to appoint all officers in the army and navy, judges, ambassadors, colonial governors, bishops and archbishops of the Established Church, and grants all degrees of nobility.
May make treaties of any kind.
May grant pardon to any particular offender.
The Privy Council.—The King in Council is the supreme executive authority in the realm. The Privy Council meets as a whole at the beginning of a new reign and on other occasions of state and ceremony, possesses certain administrative powers, and is the Supreme Court of the Empire. Its personnel includes the royal princes and the archbishops, Members of the Cabinet and of the royal household, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the ambassadors, the principal colonial governors, colonial statesmen, certain judges, and members of both political parties who have never been in office.
The important functions of the Council are the bringing into operation by means of orders in council of the provisions of many statutes which Parliament leaves to the executive to enforce, temporarily or permanently, at such time or times as it may deem necessary and desirable. These orders have all the force and validity of law.
Powers and Duties.—Commander-in-Chief of the imperial army.
Summons, opens, adjourns, and closes the two Houses. He may dissolve the Reichstag upon advice of the Bundesrath.
All measures passed by the Bundesrath are presented to the Reichstag in the name of the Emperor.
Bills passed by the two Houses must be promulgated by the Emperor.
In cases where he regards them as involving a change in the Constitution, he need not promulgate them if fourteen votes have been cast against them in the Bundesrath.
All official acts of the Emperor require the counter-signature of the Chancellor.
Appoints and may, at his pleasure, remove the Imperial Chancellor. Appoints and may, with the counter-signature of the Chancellor, remove all minor officers in the imperial service.
May declare war if defensive, and make treaties and peace; but for declaring offensive war the consent of the Bundesrath must be obtained.
Has power to grant pardons.
Powers and Duties.—Has command of the army and navy.
May convene the Chambers on extraordinary occasions.
May adjourn the Chambers at any time for a period not exceeding one month. Can close a regular session of the Chambers at his discretion after it has continued five months; an extra session when he pleases. Can with the consent of the Senate dissolve the Chamber of Deputies even before the expiration of five months. This puts an end to the session of the Senate also, but not to its life. The President must order a new election in case of dissolution.
At the commencement of a new session of the Chambers the President of the republic sends a message, which is read by one of the Ministers.
Bills passed by the Chambers must be signed by the President, and countersigned by one of his Ministers.
Has no veto power, but is authorized to demand a reconsideration of any measure by the Chambers.
Has power to appoint and remove all officers of the public service, subject to the counter-signature of the Minister whose department is affected in each case.
May make treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, but cannot declare war without the advice of the Chambers.
Has power to grant pardons.
Succession.—In case of his death, resignation, or removal, the Council of Ministers act until the National Assembly can meet and elect a new President.
The Executive Departments
The Executive Departments
The Executive Departments
The Executive Departments
Acts of Congress become laws:— When signed (approved) by the President; or, by his failure to make objection in writing (veto) within ten days after any act is submitted to him, unless Congress by adjournment within that time prevents its return; but Congress has power to pass a law over the President’s veto by a vote of two-thirds of each House.
The Cabinet
The Ministry
Imperial Chancellor.—He has no counterpart in any other constitutional government. He is the Emperor’s responsible proxy, controlling the politics of the Empire.
Appointment and Tenure of Office.—Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one of Prussia’s seventeen representatives in the Bundesrath. His term is dependent upon the pleasure of the Emperor.
Responsibility.—Does not consist in a liability to be forced to resign, but consists simply in amenability to the laws.
Powers and Duties.—Must give an account of the administration to the Reichstag, and submits the annual budget. He is the center and source of all the administrative departments, dominating the entire imperial service. He superintends the administration of the laws of the Empire by the States. As chairman of the Bundesrath he is simply a Prussian representing the King of Prussia, as the Emperor has no place in the Bundesrath.
The army and navy, however, are not directly controlled by him, but by the General Field-Marshal.
The following are the imperial authorities or Secretaries of State; they do not form a Ministry or Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under the general supervision of the Chancellor:
Chancellor of the Empire.
Secretary for Foreign Affairs.
Imperial Home Office and Representative of the Chancellor.
Imperial Admiralty.
Imperial Secretary of Justice.
Imperial Treasury.
Imperial Post-Office.
Secretary for the Colonies.
And, in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus:
Railways.
Imperial Exchequer.
Imperial Bank.
Imperial Debt Commission.
Administration of Imperial Railways.
Imperial Court Martial.
Acting under the direction of the Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundesrath represents also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and as such has twelve standing committees—namely, for army and fortifications; for naval matters; tariff, excise and taxes; trade and commerce; railways, posts and telegraphs; civil and criminal law; financial accounts; foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine; for the Constitution; for the standing orders; and for railway tariffs.
Powers and Duties.—As a Cabinet, the Ministers represent the administration in the Chambers; as a Council, they exercise a general oversight of the administration of the laws, with a view of giving unity of direction to the affairs of the State. The President may be present at all Council meetings.
Cabinet and Council of Ministers.—Both the Cabinet and the Council consist of the same persons. The Cabinet is a political body; the Council, an administrative body.
Appointment.—Chosen by the President, generally from among the members of the Chambers.
Members of the Cabinet.—Membership may vary somewhat:
Premier and Foreign Minister.
Ministers of State.
Minister of Justice and Vice-President of the Council.
Minister of War.
Minister of Marine.
Minister of the Interior.
Minister of Finance.
Minister of Agriculture.
Minister of Public Works.
Minister of Commerce.
Minister of Colonies.
Minister of Instruction and Minister of Inventions affecting National Defense.
Council of State.—Gives advice on all projects of law which the Chambers or the Government wish to submit to it, and on administrative regulations and by-laws. Its decision is final in all disputes arising in matters of administration.
Is presided over by the Minister of Justice, and is composed of Councillors, Masters of Requests, and Auditors, all appointed by the President of the republic.
Relations to the Chambers.—Are the leaders of the Chambers.
Whether members of the Chambers or not, they have as Ministers the right to attend all sessions of the Chambers and take a specially privileged part in the debate.
Composed of the heads of the executive departments.
Appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Salary.—Secretary of State, $12,000; all other cabinet members, twelve thousand dollars annually.
The Cabinet, or Inner Council, under the presidency of the Prime Minister, consists of Ministers, drawn from the ranks of the party in power and appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Heads of Departments
Members (As reconstituted in June, 1915) and their salaries.
Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury $25,000
Lord High Chancellor (and $20,000 as speaker of the House of Lords) 50,000
Minister without Portfolio unpaid
Lord President of the Council 10,000
Lord Privy Seal unpaid
First Lord of the Admiralty 22,500
Secretaries of State:
Home Affairs 25,000
Foreign Affairs 25,000
Colonies 25,000
War 25,000
India 25,000
Chancellor of the Exchequer 25,000
Minister of Munitions 25,000
Secretary for Scotland 10,000
Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland 21,125
Presidents of Committees of the Council:
Board of Trade 25,000
Local Government Board 25,000
Board of Education 10,000
First Commissioner of Works 10,000
Attorney-General 35,000
Board of Agriculture 10,000
Department of State.—Has charge of foreign affairs.
Treasury Department.—Has charge of fiscal affairs.
Department of War.—Has charge of the Army and military affairs.
Department of Justice.—Has charge of the legal affairs of the Government.
Post-office Department.—Has charge of postal affairs.
Navy Department.—Has charge of the Navy and naval affairs.
Department of the Interior.—Has charge of domestic affairs, including public lands, pensions, patents, Bureau of Education, etc.
Department of Agriculture.—Has charge of agricultural affairs, including Weather Bureau, etc.
Department of Commerce and Labor.—Has charge of domestic and foreign affairs, relating to commerce, transportation, Department of Labor, etc.
Relations to Parliament.—The Chief of the Cabinet and of the Ministry is called the Prime Minister or Premier. He is the leader of the House of Parliament of which he is a member. He dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown. Other members of the Cabinet are the leaders of Parliament, shaping and directing the business of the Houses.
Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the will or favor of the President.
Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the House of Commons; for if not sustained, they must all resign. When a Ministry resigns it is the function of the sovereign to call upon some statesman to form another administration. There is no restriction upon the Royal choice, but the statesman usually selected is the leader of the opposing party in one of the two Houses.
Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the Chambers; for, if not sustained, they must all resign.
Powers and Duties.—As stated above, but under the direction of the President.
Powers and Duties.—All real authority is with the Cabinet. The executive government is nominally in the Crown, but practically in the Cabinet. The Ministers are at the heads of the administrative departments. The Sovereign does not sit with the Cabinet.
Other Ministers.—The Ministry includes a number of minor posts whose occupants have no seat in the Cabinet.
III. Congress.—Consisting of both the Senate and the House of Representatives as co-ordinate bodies.
Duration.—The term of each Congress is for two years, commencing March 4th of the odd years.
Regular Sessions.—Annual, beginning the first Monday in December.
Special Sessions.—At the call of the President.
Membership.—Each House is the judge of the elections and qualifications of its own members.
Congress has General Powers of Legislation.—To provide for the raising and disbursement of revenue. To borrow money; to coin money and to regulate its value; and to fix the standard of weights and measures. To regulate foreign and interstate commerce. To declare war, and to maintain an army and navy. To establish post-offices and post roads. To enact patent and copyright laws. To enact uniform naturalization and bankruptcy laws. To provide for the punishment of crimes against the United States. To establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court. To provide for organizing and calling out the militia. To admit new States into the Union. To provide for the governments of the Territories. To exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the District of Columbia, public lands, public buildings, forts, and navy yards. To enact all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution all the powers vested by the Constitution in the government of the United States.
III. Parliament.—Parliament consists of two Houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Sovereign alone has the power of summoning or proroguing or dissolving Parliament, and gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed both Houses. Unless it be dissolved by the Crown, Parliament exists five years from the date on which it was first to meet. The demise of the Crown does not dissolve Parliament, but, on the contrary, renders an immediate assembling of the two Houses necessary; and if there be no Parliament in existence, the old Parliament must reassemble, and may sit again for six months, if it be not within that time dissolved by the new Sovereign.
All British dominions are subject (except as regards taxation) to the legislation of the British Parliament; but no Act of Parliament affects a colony unless that colony is specially mentioned. If the legislature of a colony enacts a law which is repugnant to an imperial law affecting the colony, it is to the extent to which it is repugnant absolutely void.
III. The Government.
The legislative functions of the Empire are vested jointly in the Bundesrath or Federal Council which represents the several states, and by the Reichstag or Diet of the Realm, which represents the German nation. The Emperor has no veto on laws passed by these bodies. All laws for the Empire must receive the votes of an absolute majority.
The consent of the Federal Council and Reichstag is necessary in regard to certain specified treaties. The Emperor has the right to summon, open, adjourn, and close the Reichstag. The Federal Council and Reichstag must be summoned to meet every year; the Reichstag cannot be summoned without the adherence of the Federal Council.
III. The Chambers.—Consist of the Senate and House of Deputies.
THE SENATE.—Composed of two Senators from each State (ninety-six in 1917), chosen by popular vote for six years, one-third retiring every two years.
THE HOUSE OF LORDS.—The House at present consists of three Princes of the Blood, two Archbishops, twenty-one Dukes, twenty-six Marquesses, one hundred and twenty-one Earls, forty-six Viscounts, twenty-four Bishops, three hundred and fifty-six Barons, sixteen Scottish Representative Peers elected for each Parliament, and twenty-seven Irish Representative Peers elected for life. The members hold their seats by virtue of hereditary title; by creation of the Sovereign; by virtue of office (English bishops); by election for life (Irish peers); by election for duration of Parliament (Scottish peers).
BUNDESRATH, or Federal Council, is composed of sixty-one votes representing the individual states. They are appointed by the governments (i. e. the Executives) of the States for each session.
The apportionments of representation in the Bundesrath among the States of the Empire is as follows: Prussia seventeen votes, Bavaria six, Saxony and Würtemberg four each, Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Brunswick each two, the other States (seventeen) one apiece.
THE SENATE is composed of three hundred members chosen by the Departments and Colonies for nine years, one-third of the members retiring every three years.
Until 1884 the Senate contained seventy-five life members, the life list having been originally made up by election by the National Assembly of 1875, and vacancies being filled by the Senate itself. In 1884 this arrangement was abolished, and since that year vacancies in the life roll have been filled by ordinary nine-year Senators.
Qualifications.—Must be at least thirty years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for nine years, and must be an inhabitant of the State which he represents.
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age.
Qualifications.—Must be a Frenchman, and at least forty years of age.
Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars, with mileage.
Remuneration.—Receive no pay.
Remuneration.—Receive no pay.
Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).
Organization.—The Vice-President of the United States is the President of the Senate. Is elected by the Electoral College. Votes only in case of a tie.
Quorum.—A majority of members.
Organization—Quorum.—Three, including the Lord Chancellor; thirty for final vote on a bill. The Lord Chancellor, who is a member of the Cabinet, presides. He is appointed by mere delivery of the Great Seal to him by the Sovereign and is principal legal adviser of the Crown. His patronage is very extensive. He nominates the puisne judges and county court judges; the holder of the office may not be a Roman Catholic.
Organization—Quorum.—The Imperial Chancellor or his substitute (at regular meeting). The Imperial Chancellor presides. Votes with the other Prussian representatives, whose votes must be undivided; and, in case of a tie, Prussia’s vote decides.
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own President and Vice-Presidents.
Committees.—Members are divided into standing committees, chosen by the Senate itself, which act in the preliminary examination, and shaping of measures to be voted on.
Committees.—Special committees are appointed to make investigations, and report on matters which could not be undertaken by the whole House.
Committees.—There are three standing committees and eight commissions, two of which are appointed by the Emperor, five wholly by the Bundesrath, and one in part by the Bundesrath, being made up principally of members ex-officio.
Each commission consists of representatives of at least five States of the Empire.
Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lots into “Bureaux.” These select all the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the House chooses itself to elect a committee.
Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Representatives, it makes the laws. It also has power to confirm or reject all appointments to office by the President of the United States, and all treaties. The members constitute a high court for the trial of impeachments. Elects Vice-President of the United States if regular election fails.
Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Commons, makes the laws, having a revising power over all bills proposed by the House of Commons, except those relating to public revenue and expenditure, which it must pass or reject without amendment.
It is the highest appellate court of the United Kingdom. It may in certain cases try members of its own body; it tries any person who may be impeached by the House of Commons, and it also decides claims to the peerage.
Powers and Duties.—May originate bills to be sent to the Reichstag. Its consent is indispensable to the validity of all legislation. Members may speak on the floor of the Reichstag. Acting under the direction of the Imperial Chancellor, it is the supreme administrative board. It is in some cases the highest court of the Empire. Is the court of appeal between two or more States of the Empire.
Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the Chamber of Deputies, makes the laws, and has in law-making the same prerogatives as the Chamber, except that bills relating to revenue originate with the Chamber. It is a court of justice for trying the President of the republic and the Ministers. It may originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of the republic and the Ministers.
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.—Composed (in 1917) of four hundred and thirty-five members elected every second year for two years by the people of the States in the proportion of one Representative for every 211,877 inhabitants. Each State, however, is entitled to at least one member, whatever its population.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.—This body consists of six hundred and seventy elected members representing county, borough, and university constituencies. Roughly speaking, about one-sixth of the population are electors.
REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet, is composed (in 1917) of three hundred and ninety-seven members, and elected for five years by universal suffrage.
THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES is composed (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty-four Deputies, distributed among the Departments and certain colonies in the proportion of one Deputy to seventy thousand inhabitants. The Deputies are chosen for a term of four years by universal suffrage, the Arrondissements serving as electoral districts.
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, must have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and must be an inhabitant of the State from which he is chosen.
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age. Clergymen are disqualified from sitting as members, also English and Scottish peers, government contractors, and sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which they act.
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, and have lived at least one year in one of the German States.
Qualifications.—Must be a citizen of France, and at least twenty-five years of age.
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker, salary twelve thousand dollars per year.
Organization—Quorum.—Forty members, including the Speaker. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker, who has a residence in the Palace of Westminster, and receives a salary of $25,000 per annum.
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the President.
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Chooses its own President, Vice-President and other officers.
Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars and mileage.
Remuneration.—$2,000 per year (since 1911).
Remuneration.—3,000 marks ($750) per session, with deduction of twenty marks ($5.00) for each day’s absence; they have free passes over German railways during session.
Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).
Powers of the House of Representatives.—Elects its Speaker (presiding officer) and its other officers. Elects President of the United States if the regular election fails. Prosecutes impeachments before the Senate. Originates all bills for raising revenue.
Powers and Duties.—May originate and, in concurrence with the House of Lords, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to the imposition of taxes and the granting of supplies for the service of the State must be originated in the House of Commons.
Powers and Duties.—Has power to originate and, with the advice and consent of the Bundesrath, to enact the laws. It also exerts a controlling influence through its power to give or withhold its sanction to certain ordinances to whose validity the Constitution makes its concurrence necessary, through its right to inquire into the conduct of affairs; and in many other ways not susceptible of enumeration.
Powers and Duties.—May originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of the republic and Ministers.
Committees.—Almost all the acts of the House are under the control of Standing Committees, appointed by the Speaker.
Committees.—The business of the House is almost entirely under the direction of the Ministry; however, commissions and select committees are from time to time appointed to make investigations and report on matters which could not be undertaken by the House.
Committees.—There are no standing committees, but select committees are occasionally appointed by election from the seven “Sections” into which the members are divided by lot for committee work.
Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lot into eleven “Bureaux,” which select all the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the Chamber chooses to appoint a committee directly.
IV. The Judicial Department.
IV. Judicial Departments, or Courts of Law.
IV. Judicial Department.
IV. Judicial Department.
Judges of the United States Courts
Privy Council.—The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (which hears appeals from Colonial and Indian Courts, and also from Ecclesiastical Courts) consists of the Lord Chancellor, Lord President, ex-Lords President, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, and such other members of the Privy Council as shall from time to time hold or have held “high judicial office.” No dissenting judgments are allowed, but the Judicial Committee can grant special leave to appeal.
The English courts of law having jurisdiction in actions between parties are:
The laws of the Empire take precedence of the Federated States within the scope of the Constitution of the Empire; they are compulsory on all Governments of the Empire.
A uniform system of law courts exists throughout the Empire, though, with the exception of the Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government of the special State in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is also a State and not an Imperial function. The Empire enjoys uniform codes of commercial and criminal law.
The judicial system is under direct control of the government. All Judges are nominated by the President of the republic. They can be removed only by a decision of the Court of Cassation constituted as the Conseil Supérieur of the magistracy.
Appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Tenure of Office.—During life or good behavior; but may retire on full salary after reaching the age of seventy years, and after ten years’ service on the bench.
The Supreme Court of the United States
House of Lords
Imperial Supreme Court.
The Court of Cassation.
Members.—A Chief Justice and Eight Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, fifteen thousand dollars; Associate Justices, each fourteen thousand five hundred dollars.
Terms of Court.—One each year, beginning on the second Monday in October.
Original Jurisdiction.—In all cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers, and Consuls. In all cases in which a State is a party.
Appellate Jurisdiction.—In cases of law and equity where the Inferior Courts have original jurisdiction, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.
The Chief Justice.—Presides over the Senate when it sits as a Court of Impeachment for the trial of the President.
Lord High Chancellor and such peers of Parliament as are holding or have held high judicial office. This is the ultimate Court of Appeal from all the courts in the United Kingdom.
Reichsgericht (Imperial Supreme Court), to which there is a right of appeal from all inferior courts, sits at Leipzig, and consists of one hundred judges, appointed by the Kaiser on the recommendation of the Bundesrath.
The Court of Cassation, which sits at Paris, is the highest court for all criminal cases tried by jury, so far as regards matters of law.
Courts of Appeal.—The highest courts are the twenty-six Courts of Appeal, composed each of one president and a variable number of members, for all criminal cases which have been tried without a jury.
Inferior Courts
There are two Courts of Appeal below these divisions:
Lords of Appeal in Ordinary.— Consisting of six Justices.
Court of Appeal.—Ex-Officio Judges, the Lord High Chancellor, the Lord Chief Justice of England, the Master of the Rolls, and the President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.
The High Court comprises the King’s Bench, Chancery, and Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Divisions.
High Court of Justice, Chancery Division.—(Administration of trusts, company cases, mortgages, patents, etc.). Consists of the Lord High Chancellor and six other Justices.
High Court of Justice, King’s Bench Division.—(Contracts, torts, bankruptcy, etc.). Consists of the Lord Chief Justice of England and fifteen other Justices.
High Court of Justice, Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.—(Wills, matrimonial cases, and maritime cases). Consists of two Justices.
Court of Criminal Appeal.—All the Judges of King’s Bench Division.
Court of Arches.—An ecclesiastical court unites the powers of the jus canonicum with new powers conceded by the Church Discipline Act, 1841, and the similar statute of 1874, exercising authority in both provinces. The Judicial Committee of Privy Council is the Court of Final Appeal in ecclesiastical causes.
Bankruptcy Court.—Consisting of one Justice.
The Oberlandesgerichte (Supreme Court), which are the first courts of the second instance, have original jurisdiction in serious offenses, and are presided over by seven judges.
The Landgericht (County Courts) have a fairly extensive jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases and in divorce proceedings. There are five judges in the criminal chamber of a Landgericht, four votes being required to make a conviction valid. Three judges from such a court preside at intervals over jury courts (Schwurgerichte), and juries do not, therefore, form a permanent part of the system.
Not the least important work of the Landgerichte is to revise the decisions of the Amtsgerichte, which are the lowest courts of the first instance, being controlled by single judges, who are competent to hear only petty civil and criminal cases.
The Amtsgerichte (Police or District Courts) are the lowest courts, each with a single judge competent to try petty civil and criminal cases, divorce cases, etc.
Court of Assizes.—In all cases of a délit or a crime the preliminary inquiry is made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d’instruction), who may either dismiss the case or send it for trial before a court where a public prosecutor (procureur) endeavors to prove the charge. The Court of Assizes is assisted by twelve jurors, who decide by simple majority on the fact with respect to offenses amounting to crimes.
Justices of the Peace (juges de paix) are the courts of lowest jurisdiction in France. They try small civil cases and act also as judges of Police Courts, where all petty offenses (contraventions) are disposed of. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offenses (délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to five years. They have no jury, and consist of three judges belonging to the civil tribunals of first instance.
For commercial cases there are, in two hundred and twenty-six towns, Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns are police courts.
Jurisdiction.—In cases between citizens of different States. In cases in which the United States is a party. In cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. In trials for crimes against the United States; but the trial of crimes must be by jury, and must be held in the State where the crime was committed.
Appeals to the Supreme Court may be had in all cases of law and equity, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.
Kinds of Inferior Courts
United States Circuit Courts of Appeals.—Organized in 1891 to relieve the United States Supreme Court in Appellate Cases. Number: One in each Judicial Circuit. Members: Three judges selected from the District Courts.
Number.—One in each Judicial Circuit.
Members.—Three judges selected from the District Courts.
United States Circuit Courts.—
Number of Circuits.—Nine.
Number of Judges.—Each Circuit has two, three, or four Circuit Judges, and a Justice of the Supreme Court is assigned to each Circuit. The District Judge also may sit in a Circuit Court.
Salary of Circuit Judges.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.
United States District Courts.—
Number of Districts.—One or more in each State. At present there are seventy-three Judicial Districts.
Salary of District Judge.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.
United States Court of Claims.—
Jurisdiction.—Claims against the United States, including all claims which may be referred to it by Congress.
Members.—One Chief Justice and four Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, six thousand five hundred dollars; Associate Justices, each six thousand dollars.
In addition to the above named courts, Congress has established courts of local jurisdiction in the District of Columbia and in the Territories.
UNITED STATES
Form of Government: Republic. The general plan of the government of the United States is determined by the Constitution. The central government is limited to the exercise of the powers specifically enumerated in the Constitution, or implied therein, while the remaining governmental powers, not denied to the states by the Constitution, are reserved to the states. The general government is in three fairly well defined parts, the legislative, executive, and judicial.
I. Constitution.—The present Constitution was adopted September 17, 1787.
Ratification of the Constitution.—The Constitution was ratified by the thirteen original States in the following order:
Delaware, Dec. 7, 1787, unanimously.
Pennsylvania, Dec. 12, 1787, vote 46 to 23.
New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787, unanimously.
Georgia, Jan 2, 1788, unanimously.
Connecticut, Jan 9, 1788, vote 128 to 40.
Massachusetts, Feb. 6, 1788, vote 187 to 168.
Maryland, April 28, 1788, vote 63 to 12.
South Carolina, May 23, 1788, vote 149 to 73.
New Hampshire, June 21, 1788, vote 57 to 46.
Virginia, June 25, 1788, vote 89 to 79.
New York, July 26, 1788, vote 30 to 28.
North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789, vote 193 to 75.
Rhode Island, May 29, 1790, vote 34 to 32.
Amendments.—Congress may, by two-thirds vote of both Houses, propose amendments to the Constitution, or upon application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, must be ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof.
II. The President.
How Elected.—The several steps in the election of the President are:
State Electors are chosen at a General Election held on the Tuesday following the first Monday of November of every fourth year; the number of Electors of each State being equal to the number of Senators and Representatives to which the State is entitled in Congress.
The Electors meet in their respective States on the second Monday in January following their election, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President; and at the same time make certificates of their vote and transmit the same to the President of the Senate.
The Senate and House of Representatives meet together on the second Wednesday of February next ensuing, and count the votes of the State Electors, when, if there is an election, the President of the Senate declares who is elected President and Vice-President.
In case there is no choice by the State Electors, the President is elected by the House of Representatives from the three candidates who received the most electoral votes for President; in which election the vote is taken by States, each State having but one vote, and a majority of all the States being necessary to a choice.
Term of Office.—Four years.
Eligibility.—A natural born citizen; resident of the United States fourteen years; minimum age thirty-five years.
Salary.—Fixed by law at $75,000 per year.
Powers and Duties of the President.—Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. Communicates with Congress by message. Approves or disapproves Acts of Congress. Makes treaties with advice and consent of the Senate. Appoints Public Officers with the advice and consent of the Senate. Commissions Public Officers of the United States. Grants reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States.
The Vice-President.—Elected by State Electors the same as the President; or by the Senate, in case there is no choice by the State Electors. Term of office same as for the President. Eligibility same as required of the President. Salary fixed by law at twelve thousand dollars per year.
The Presidential Succession.—In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of the President, the Vice-President takes the President’s place.
In case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of both President and Vice-President the heads of the Executive Departments succeed to the Presidency in the order in which the Executive Departments are named below; but such officer must be constitutionally eligible to the Presidency, must have been appointed to the cabinet by the advice and with the consent of the Senate, and be not under impeachment. The Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of Commerce and Labor are ineligible to the presidency by reason of the fact that these two cabinet offices were created subsequent to the passage of the act of the forty-ninth Congress in which provision was made for the presidential succession.
The Executive Departments
Acts of Congress become laws:— When signed (approved) by the President; or, by his failure to make objection in writing (veto) within ten days after any act is submitted to him, unless Congress by adjournment within that time prevents its return; but Congress has power to pass a law over the President’s veto by a vote of two-thirds of each House.
The Cabinet
Composed of the heads of the executive departments.
Appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Salary.—Secretary of State, $12,000; all other cabinet members, twelve thousand dollars annually.
Heads of Departments
Department of State.—Has charge of foreign affairs.
Treasury Department.—Has charge of fiscal affairs.
Department of War.—Has charge of the Army and military affairs.
Department of Justice.—Has charge of the legal affairs of the Government.
Post-office Department.—Has charge of postal affairs.
Navy Department.—Has charge of the Navy and naval affairs.
Department of the Interior.—Has charge of domestic affairs, including public lands, pensions, patents, Bureau of Education, etc.
Department of Agriculture.—Has charge of agricultural affairs, including Weather Bureau, etc.
Department of Commerce and Labor.—Has charge of domestic and foreign affairs, relating to commerce, transportation, Department of Labor, etc.
Relations to Parliament.—The Chief of the Cabinet and of the Ministry is called the Prime Minister or Premier. He is the leader of the House of Parliament of which he is a member. He dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown. Other members of the Cabinet are the leaders of Parliament, shaping and directing the business of the Houses.
Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the will or favor of the President.
Powers and Duties.—As stated above, but under the direction of the President.
III. Congress.—Consisting of both the Senate and the House of Representatives as co-ordinate bodies.
Duration.—The term of each Congress is for two years, commencing March 4th of the odd years.
Regular Sessions.—Annual, beginning the first Monday in December.
Special Sessions.—At the call of the President.
Membership.—Each House is the judge of the elections and qualifications of its own members.
Congress has General Powers of Legislation.—To provide for the raising and disbursement of revenue. To borrow money; to coin money and to regulate its value; and to fix the standard of weights and measures. To regulate foreign and interstate commerce. To declare war, and to maintain an army and navy. To establish post-offices and post roads. To enact patent and copyright laws. To enact uniform naturalization and bankruptcy laws. To provide for the punishment of crimes against the United States. To establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court. To provide for organizing and calling out the militia. To admit new States into the Union. To provide for the governments of the Territories. To exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the District of Columbia, public lands, public buildings, forts, and navy yards. To enact all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution all the powers vested by the Constitution in the government of the United States.
THE SENATE.—Composed of two Senators from each State (ninety-six in 1917), chosen by popular vote for six years, one-third retiring every two years.
Qualifications.—Must be at least thirty years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for nine years, and must be an inhabitant of the State which he represents.
Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars, with mileage.
Organization.—The Vice-President of the United States is the President of the Senate. Is elected by the Electoral College. Votes only in case of a tie.
Quorum.—A majority of members.
Committees.—Members are divided into standing committees, chosen by the Senate itself, which act in the preliminary examination, and shaping of measures to be voted on.
Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Representatives, it makes the laws. It also has power to confirm or reject all appointments to office by the President of the United States, and all treaties. The members constitute a high court for the trial of impeachments. Elects Vice-President of the United States if regular election fails.
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.—Composed (in 1917) of four hundred and thirty-five members elected every second year for two years by the people of the States in the proportion of one Representative for every 211,877 inhabitants. Each State, however, is entitled to at least one member, whatever its population.
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, must have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and must be an inhabitant of the State from which he is chosen.
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker, salary twelve thousand dollars per year.
Remuneration.—Members receive seven thousand five hundred dollars and mileage.
Powers of the House of Representatives.—Elects its Speaker (presiding officer) and its other officers. Elects President of the United States if the regular election fails. Prosecutes impeachments before the Senate. Originates all bills for raising revenue.
Committees.—Almost all the acts of the House are under the control of Standing Committees, appointed by the Speaker.
IV. The Judicial Department.
Judges of the United States Courts
Appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Tenure of Office.—During life or good behavior; but may retire on full salary after reaching the age of seventy years, and after ten years’ service on the bench.
The Supreme Court of the United States
Members.—A Chief Justice and Eight Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, fifteen thousand dollars; Associate Justices, each fourteen thousand five hundred dollars.
Terms of Court.—One each year, beginning on the second Monday in October.
Original Jurisdiction.—In all cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers, and Consuls. In all cases in which a State is a party.
Appellate Jurisdiction.—In cases of law and equity where the Inferior Courts have original jurisdiction, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.
The Chief Justice.—Presides over the Senate when it sits as a Court of Impeachment for the trial of the President.
Inferior Courts
Jurisdiction.—In cases between citizens of different States. In cases in which the United States is a party. In cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. In trials for crimes against the United States; but the trial of crimes must be by jury, and must be held in the State where the crime was committed.
Appeals to the Supreme Court may be had in all cases of law and equity, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.
Kinds of Inferior Courts
United States Circuit Courts of Appeals.—Organized in 1891 to relieve the United States Supreme Court in Appellate Cases. Number: One in each Judicial Circuit. Members: Three judges selected from the District Courts.
Number.—One in each Judicial Circuit.
Members.—Three judges selected from the District Courts.
United States Circuit Courts.—
Number of Circuits.—Nine.
Number of Judges.—Each Circuit has two, three, or four Circuit Judges, and a Justice of the Supreme Court is assigned to each Circuit. The District Judge also may sit in a Circuit Court.
Salary of Circuit Judges.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.
United States District Courts.—
Number of Districts.—One or more in each State. At present there are seventy-three Judicial Districts.
Salary of District Judge.—Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.
United States Court of Claims.—
Jurisdiction.—Claims against the United States, including all claims which may be referred to it by Congress.
Members.—One Chief Justice and four Associate Justices.
Salaries.—Chief Justice, six thousand five hundred dollars; Associate Justices, each six thousand dollars.
In addition to the above named courts, Congress has established courts of local jurisdiction in the District of Columbia and in the Territories.
BRITISH EMPIRE
Form of Government.—Monarchy in form, but republic in practice. The monarchy is constitutional and limited.
The British Empire consists of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Empire of India, and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, including the self-governing Dominions, and the Crown Colonies, Protectorates, and other Dependencies, the whole forming one Empire.
I. Constitution.—The British Constitution is mainly unwritten and customary, but its development is marked by certain outstanding and fundamental laws, of which the principal are: Magna Charta, 1215; the Habeas Corpus Act, 1679; the Act of Settlement, 1701; the Act of Union with Scotland, 1707; the Act of Union with Ireland, 1800; and the Parliament Act, 1911. The first secured annual parliaments and the equal administration of justice; the second established the liberty of the person;the third provided for the Protestant succession to the throne; the fourth and fifth created the United Kingdom; and the last enabled the Commons to pass certain Acts without the adherence of the other Chamber.
Amendments.—Amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by either of the legislative bodies, are passed by ordinary legislative process, requiring for their passage a majority simply of the votes of the Reichstag, but they fail if fourteen votes are cast against them in the Bundesrath.
II. The Sovereign.
How Designated.—The King’s legal title rests upon the Act of Settlement, in 1701, under William III., by which the succession to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland was settled on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and the “heirs of her body, being Protestants.” The throne is hereditary in the English house of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha with mixed succession, the sons of the Sovereign and their descendants having precedence of daughters, but daughters and their descendants preference over lateral lines. The Sovereign is designated King (or Queen) of Great Britain and Ireland, and Emperor (or Empress) of India.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life, by hereditary title, and cannot be removed.
Salary or Civil List.—The Civil List Act, 1910, gave the King $2,350,000. Provision for other members of the Royal Family, $730,000. The Prince of Wales, as the income of the Duchy of Cornwall, $435,000. The King in addition to his Civil List receives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster amounting to $320,000.
Powers and Duties.—Has command of army and navy.
Parliament cannot be assembled, prorogued, or dissolved except by the express command of the Sovereign.
At the commencement of a new Parliament must deliver, either in person or by a commission authorized for that purpose, a speech declaring the cause of the summons.
Bills passed by Parliament must receive the assent of the Sovereign in order to become law.
Has legally a veto power; but, because the influence of the Executive over legislation has passed into the hands of the Ministers, the veto of the Crown has been disused since 1707.
Has power to appoint all officers in the army and navy, judges, ambassadors, colonial governors, bishops and archbishops of the Established Church, and grants all degrees of nobility.
May make treaties of any kind.
May grant pardon to any particular offender.
The Privy Council.—The King in Council is the supreme executive authority in the realm. The Privy Council meets as a whole at the beginning of a new reign and on other occasions of state and ceremony, possesses certain administrative powers, and is the Supreme Court of the Empire. Its personnel includes the royal princes and the archbishops, Members of the Cabinet and of the royal household, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the ambassadors, the principal colonial governors, colonial statesmen, certain judges, and members of both political parties who have never been in office.
The important functions of the Council are the bringing into operation by means of orders in council of the provisions of many statutes which Parliament leaves to the executive to enforce, temporarily or permanently, at such time or times as it may deem necessary and desirable. These orders have all the force and validity of law.
The Executive Departments
The Ministry
The Cabinet, or Inner Council, under the presidency of the Prime Minister, consists of Ministers, drawn from the ranks of the party in power and appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Members (As reconstituted in June, 1915) and their salaries.
Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury $25,000
Lord High Chancellor (and $20,000 as speaker of the House of Lords) 50,000
Minister without Portfolio unpaid
Lord President of the Council $10,000
Lord Privy Seal unpaid
First Lord of the Admiralty 22,500
Secretaries of State:
Home Affairs 25,000
Foreign Affairs 25,000
Colonies 25,000
War 25,000
India 25,000
Chancellor of the Exchequer 25,000
Minister of Munitions 25,000
Secretary for Scotland 10,000
Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland 21,125
Presidents of Committees of the Council:
Board of Trade 25,000
Local Government Board 25,000
Board of Education 10,000
First Commissioner of Works 10,000
Attorney-General 35,000
Board of Agriculture 10,000
Relations to Parliament.—The Chief of the Cabinet and of the Ministry is called the Prime Minister or Premier. He is the leader of the House of Parliament of which he is a member. He dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown. Other members of the Cabinet are the leaders of Parliament, shaping and directing the business of the Houses.
Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the House of Commons; for if not sustained, they must all resign. When a Ministry resigns it is the function of the sovereign to call upon some statesman to form another administration. There is no restriction upon the Royal choice, but the statesman usually selected is the leader of the opposing party in one of the two Houses.
Powers and Duties.—All real authority is with the Cabinet. The executive government is nominally in the Crown, but practically in the Cabinet. The Ministers are at the heads of the administrative departments. The Sovereign does not sit with the Cabinet.
Other Ministers.—The Ministry includes a number of minor posts whose occupants have no seat in the Cabinet.
III. Parliament.—Parliament consists of two Houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Sovereign alone has the power of summoning or proroguing or dissolving Parliament, and gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed both Houses. Unless it be dissolved by the Crown, Parliament exists five years from the date on which it was first to meet. The demise of the Crown does not dissolve Parliament, but, on the contrary, renders an immediate assembling of the two Houses necessary; and if there be no Parliament in existence, the old Parliament must reassemble, and may sit again for six months, if it be not within that time dissolved by the new Sovereign.
All British dominions are subject (except as regards taxation) to the legislation of the British Parliament; but no Act of Parliament affects a colony unless that colony is specially mentioned. If the legislature of a colony enacts a law which is repugnant to an imperial law affecting the colony, it is to the extent to which it is repugnant absolutely void.
THE HOUSE OF LORDS.—The House at present consists of three Princes of the Blood, two Archbishops, twenty-one Dukes, twenty-six Marquesses, one hundred and twenty-one Earls, forty-six Viscounts, twenty-four Bishops, three hundred and fifty-six Barons, sixteen Scottish Representative Peers elected for each Parliament, and twenty-seven Irish Representative Peers elected for life. The members hold their seats by virtue of hereditary title; by creation of the Sovereign; by virtue of office (English bishops); by election for life (Irish peers); by election for duration of Parliament (Scottish peers).
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age.
Remuneration.—Receive no pay.
Committees.—Special committees are appointed to make investigations, and report on matters which could not be undertaken by the whole House.
Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the House of Commons, makes the laws, having a revising power over all bills proposed by the House of Commons, except those relating to public revenue and expenditure, which it must pass or reject without amendment.
It is the highest appellate court of the United Kingdom. It may in certain cases try members of its own body; it tries any person who may be impeached by the House of Commons, and it also decides claims to the peerage.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.—This body consists of six hundred and seventy elected members representing county, borough, and university constituencies. Roughly speaking, about one-sixth of the population are electors.
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-one years of age. Clergymen are disqualified from sitting as members, also English and Scottish peers, government contractors, and sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which they act.
Organization—Quorum.—Forty members, including the Speaker. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker, who has a residence in the Palace of Westminster, and receives a salary of $25,000 per annum.
Remuneration.—$2,000 per year (since 1911).
Powers and Duties.—May originate and, in concurrence with the House of Lords, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to the imposition of taxes and the granting of supplies for the service of the State must be originated in the House of Commons.
Committees.—The business of the House is almost entirely under the direction of the Ministry; however, commissions and select committees are from time to time appointed to make investigations and report on matters which could not be undertaken by the House.
IV. Judicial Departments, or Courts of Law.
Privy Council.—The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (which hears appeals from Colonial and Indian Courts, and also from Ecclesiastical Courts) consists of the Lord Chancellor, Lord President, ex-Lords President, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, and such other members of the Privy Council as shall from time to time hold or have held “high judicial office.” No dissenting judgments are allowed, but the Judicial Committee can grant special leave to appeal.
The English courts of law having jurisdiction in actions between parties are:
House of Lords
Lord High Chancellor and such peers of Parliament as are holding or have held high judicial office. This is the ultimate Court of Appeal from all the courts in the United Kingdom.
There are two Courts of Appeal below these divisions:
Lords of Appeal in Ordinary.— Consisting of six Justices.
Court of Appeal.—Ex-Officio Judges, the Lord High Chancellor, the Lord Chief Justice of England, the Master of the Rolls, and the President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.
The High Court comprises the King’s Bench, Chancery, and Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Divisions.
High Court of Justice, Chancery Division.—(Administration of trusts, company cases, mortgages, patents, etc.). Consists of the Lord High Chancellor and six other Justices.
High Court of Justice, King’s Bench Division.—(Contracts, torts, bankruptcy, etc.). Consists of the Lord Chief Justice of England and fifteen other Justices.
High Court of Justice, Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.—(Wills, matrimonial cases, and maritime cases). Consists of two Justices.
Court of Criminal Appeal.—All the Judges of King’s Bench Division.
Court of Arches.—An ecclesiastical court unites the powers of the jus canonicum with new powers conceded by the Church Discipline Act, 1841, and the similar statute of 1874, exercising authority in both provinces. The Judicial Committee of Privy Council is the Court of Final Appeal in ecclesiastical causes.
Bankruptcy Court.—Consisting of one Justice.
GERMANY
Form of Government.—The Empire, according to the Constitution of April 16, 1871, is a Confederate League, bearing the name German Empire, under the hereditary presidentship of the King of Prussia, who holds the title of German Emperor, and whose eldest son is styled His Imperial and Royal Highness.
I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted April 16, 1871. The Constitution of the German Empire is substantially that of the North German Confederation, which came into force in 1867, and which was adopted by the Empire in 1871, after the southern states of Germany had combined with the northern.
Amendments.—Amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by either of the legislative bodies, are passed by ordinary legislative process, requiring for their passage a majority simply of the votes of the Reichstag, but they fail if fourteen votes are cast against them in the Bundesrath.
II. Chief magistrate, styled the Deutscher Kaiser.
How Designated.—The election of Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as German Emperor (1871) was by vote of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, on the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany. The Imperial dignity is hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern, and follows the law of primogeniture in the male line. He must be occupant of the throne of Prussia under the provisions of Prussian law.
Term of Office.—Holds office for life,and cannot be removed.
Salary or Income.—Royal Civil List of Emperor, $3,700,000.
Powers and Duties.—Commander-in-Chief of the imperial army.
Summons, opens, adjourns, and closes the two Houses. He may dissolve the Reichstag upon advice of the Bundesrath.
All measures passed by the Bundesrath are presented to the Reichstag in the name of the Emperor.
Bills passed by the two Houses must be promulgated by the Emperor.
In cases where he regards them as involving a change in the Constitution, he need not promulgate them if fourteen votes have been cast against them in the Bundesrath.
All official acts of the Emperor require the counter-signature of the Chancellor.
Appoints and may, at his pleasure, remove the Imperial Chancellor. Appoints and may, with the counter-signature of the Chancellor, remove all minor officers in the imperial service.
May declare war if defensive, and make treaties and peace; but for declaring offensive war the consent of the Bundesrath must be obtained.
Has power to grant pardons.
The Executive Departments
Imperial Chancellor.—He has no counterpart in any other constitutional government. He is the Emperor’s responsible proxy, controlling the politics of the Empire.
Appointment and Tenure of Office.—Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one of Prussia’s seventeen representatives in the Bundesrath. His term is dependent upon the pleasure of the Emperor.
Responsibility.—Does not consist in a liability to be forced to resign, but consists simply in amenability to the laws.
Powers and Duties.—Must give an account of the administration to the Reichstag, and submits the annual budget. He is the center and source of all the administrative departments, dominating the entire imperial service. He superintends the administration of the laws of the Empire by the States. As chairman of the Bundesrath he is simply a Prussian representing the King of Prussia, as the Emperor has no place in the Bundesrath.
The army and navy, however, are not directly controlled by him, but by the General Field-Marshal.
The following are the imperial authorities or Secretaries of State; they do not form a Ministry or Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under the general supervision of the Chancellor:
Chancellor of the Empire.
Secretary for Foreign Affairs.
Imperial Home Office and Representative of the Chancellor.
Imperial Admiralty.
Imperial Secretary of Justice.
Imperial Treasury.
Imperial Post-Office.
Secretary for the Colonies.
And, in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus:
Railways.
Imperial Exchequer.
Imperial Bank.
Imperial Debt Commission.
Administration of Imperial Railways.
Imperial Court Martial.
Acting under the direction of the Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundesrath represents also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and as such has twelve standing committees—namely, for army and fortifications; for naval matters; tariff, excise and taxes; trade and commerce; railways, posts and telegraphs; civil and criminal law; financial accounts; foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine; for the Constitution; for the standing orders; and for railway tariffs.
III. The Government.
The legislative functions of the Empire are vested jointly in the Bundesrath or Federal Council which represents the several states, and by the Reichstag or Diet of the Realm, which represents the German nation. The Emperor has no veto on laws passed by these bodies. All laws for the Empire must receive the votes of an absolute majority.
The consent of the Federal Council and Reichstag is necessary in regard to certain specified treaties. The Emperor has the right to summon, open, adjourn, and close the Reichstag. The Federal Council and Reichstag must be summoned to meet every year; the Reichstag cannot be summoned without the adherence of the Federal Council.
BUNDESRATH, or Federal Council, is composed of sixty-one votes representing the individual states. They are appointed by the governments (i. e. the Executives) of the States for each session.
The apportionments of representation in the Bundesrath among the States of the Empire is as follows: Prussia seventeen votes, Bavaria six, Saxony and Würtemberg four each, Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Brunswick each two, the other States (seventeen) one apiece.
Remuneration.—Receive no pay.
Organization—Quorum.—The Imperial Chancellor or his substitute (at regular meeting). The Imperial Chancellor presides. Votes with the other Prussian representatives, whose votes must be undivided; and, in case of a tie, Prussia’s vote decides.
Committees.—There are three standing committees and eight commissions, two of which are appointed by the Emperor, five wholly by the Bundesrath, and one in part by the Bundesrath, being made up principally of members ex-officio.
Each commission consists of representatives of at least five States of the Empire.
Powers and Duties.—May originate bills to be sent to the Reichstag. Its consent is indispensable to the validity of all legislation. Members may speak on the floor of the Reichstag. Acting under the direction of the Imperial Chancellor, it is the supreme administrative board. It is in some cases the highest court of the Empire. Is the court of appeal between two or more States of the Empire.
REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet, is composed (in 1917) of three hundred and ninety-seven members, and elected for five years by universal suffrage.
Qualifications.—Must be at least twenty-five years of age, and have lived at least one year in one of the German States.
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the President.
Remuneration.—3,000 marks ($750) per session, with deduction of twenty marks ($5.00) for each day’s absence; they have free passes over German railways during session.
Powers and Duties.—Has power to originate and, with the advice and consent of the Bundesrath, to enact the laws. It also exerts a controlling influence through its power to give or withhold its sanction to certain ordinances to whose validity the Constitution makes its concurrence necessary, through its right to inquire into the conduct of affairs; and in many other ways not susceptible of enumeration.
Committees.—There are no standing committees, but select committees are occasionally appointed by election from the seven “Sections” into which the members are divided by lot for committee work.
IV. Judicial Department.
The laws of the Empire take precedence of the Federated States within the scope of the Constitution of the Empire; they are compulsory on all Governments of the Empire.
A uniform system of law courts exists throughout the Empire, though, with the exception of the Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government of the special State in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is also a State and not an Imperial function. The Empire enjoys uniform codes of commercial and criminal law.
Imperial Supreme Court.
Reichsgericht (Imperial Supreme Court), to which there is a right of appeal from all inferior courts, sits at Leipzig, and consists of one hundred judges, appointed by the Kaiser on the recommendation of the Bundesrath.
The Oberlandesgerichte (Supreme Court), which are the first courts of the second instance, have original jurisdiction in serious offenses, and are presided over by seven judges.
The Landgerichte (County Courts) have a fairly extensive jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases and in divorce proceedings. There are five judges in the criminal chamber of a Landgericht, four votes being required to make a conviction valid. Three judges from such a court preside at intervals over jury courts (Schwurgerichte), and juries do not, therefore, form a permanent part of the system.
Not the least important work of the Landgerichte is to revise the decisions of the Amtsgerichte, which are the lowest courts of the first instance, being controlled by single judges, who are competent to hear only petty civil and criminal cases.
The Amtsgerichte (Police or District Courts) are the lowest courts, each with a single judge competent to try petty civil and criminal cases, divorce cases, etc.
FRANCE
Form of Government.—France, since the overthrow of Napoleon III., in 1870, has been a republic governed by a President and two Chambers under the Constitution.
I. Constitution.
Adoption.—Present Constitution adopted February 25, 1875. It has undergone but slight modifications. The present French Constitution remains a mixture of monarchical and republican institutions, and it has fully maintained its strong and old-established centralization. The Constitution of 1875 is based on universal suffrage. It was revised in 1875, 1884, 1885 and 1889.
Amendments.—Whenever the two Houses agree that revision is necessary, and also agree upon particular points that should be revised, the National Assembly, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, sitting as one body, convenes at Versailles, and acts upon the amendments proposed, the vote of an absolute majority being decisive. The National Assembly also elects the President of the republic.
II. Chief Magistrate, or President of the Republic.
Term of Office.—Elected for seven years by the National Assembly, and is re-eligible.
The National Assembly meets for the purposes of this election, as for the revision of the Constitution, at Versailles. The revision of the Constitution and the election of President are its only functions.
Qualifications.—Must be a citizen, not a member of any family which has occupied the throne of France.
Salary.—$140,000.
Responsibilities.—May be impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, and tried by the Senate, in case of high treason.
Powers and Duties.—Has command of the army and navy.
May convene the Chambers on extraordinary occasions.
May adjourn the Chambers at any time for a period not exceeding one month. Can close a regular session of the Chambers at his discretion after it has continued five months; an extra session when he pleases. Can with the consent of the Senate dissolve the Chamber of Deputies even before the expiration of five months. This puts an end to the session of the Senate also, but not to its life. The President must order a new election in case of dissolution.
At the commencement of a new session of the Chambers the President of the republic sends a message, which is read by one of the Ministers.
Bills passed by the Chambers must be signed by the President, and countersigned by one of his Ministers.
Has no veto power, but is authorized to demand a reconsideration of any measure by the Chambers.
Has power to appoint and remove all officers of the public service, subject to the counter-signature of the Minister whose department is affected in each case.
May make treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, but cannot declare war without the advice of the Chambers.
Has power to grant pardons.
Succession.—In case of his death, resignation, or removal, the Council of Ministers act until the National Assembly can meet and elect a new President.
The Executive Departments
Powers and Duties.—As a Cabinet, the Ministers represent the administration in the Chambers; as a Council, they exercise a general oversight of the administration of the laws, with a view of giving unity of direction to the affairs of the State. The President may be present at all Council meetings.
Cabinet and Council of Ministers.—Both the Cabinet and the Council consist of the same persons. The Cabinet is a political body; the Council, an administrative body.
Appointment.—Chosen by the President, generally from among the members of the Chambers.
Members of the Cabinet.—Membership may vary somewhat:
Premier and Foreign Minister.
Ministers of State.
Minister of Justice and Vice-President of the Council.
Minister of War.
Minister of Marine.
Minister of the Interior.
Minister of Finance.
Minister of Agriculture.
Minister of Public Works.
Minister of Commerce.
Minister of Colonies.
Minister of Instruction and Minister of Inventions affecting National Defense.
Council of State.—Gives advice on all projects of law which the Chambers or the Government wish to submit to it, and on administrative regulations and by-laws. Its decision is final in all disputes arising in matters of administration.
Is presided over by the Minister of Justice, and is composed of Councillors, Masters of Requests, and Auditors, all appointed by the President of the republic.
Relations to the Chambers.—Are the leaders of the Chambers.
Whether members of the Chambers or not, they have as Ministers the right to attend all sessions of the Chambers and take a specially privileged part in the debate.
Tenure of Office.—Dependent upon the favor of the Chambers; for, if not sustained, they must all resign.
III. The Chambers.—Consist of the Senate and House of Deputies.
THE SENATE is composed of three hundred members chosen by the Departments and Colonies for nine years, one-third of the members retiring every three years.
Until 1884 the Senate contained seventy-five life members, the life list having been originally made up by election by the National Assembly of 1875, and vacancies being filled by the Senate itself. In 1884 this arrangement was abolished, and since that year vacancies in the life roll have been filled by ordinary nine-year Senators.
Qualifications.—Must be a Frenchman, and at least forty years of age.
Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Elects its own President and Vice-Presidents.
Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lots into “Bureaux.” These select all the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the House chooses itself to elect a committee.
Powers and Duties.—In concurrence with the Chamber of Deputies, makes the laws, and has in law-making the same prerogatives as the Chamber, except that bills relating to revenue originate with the Chamber. It is a court of justice for trying the President of the republic and the Ministers. It may originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of the republic and the Ministers.
THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES is composed (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty-four Deputies, distributed among the Departments and certain colonies in the proportion of one Deputy to seventy thousand inhabitants. The Deputies are chosen for a term of four years by universal suffrage, the Arrondissements serving as electoral districts.
Qualifications.—Must be a citizen of France, and at least twenty-five years of age.
Organization—Quorum.—A majority of members. Chooses its own President, Vice-President and other officers.
Remuneration.—15,000 francs ($3,000).
Powers and Duties.—May originate, and, in concurrence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills; but bills relating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of the republic and Ministers.
Committees.—Each month the members are divided by lot into eleven “Bureaux,” which select all the special committees to which bills are referred, except when the Chamber chooses to appoint a committee directly.
IV. Judicial Department.
The judicial system is under direct control of the government. All Judges are nominated by the President of the republic. They can be removed only by a decision of the Court of Cassation constituted as the Conseil Supérieur of the magistracy.
The Court of Cassation.
The Court of Cassation, which sits at Paris, is the highest court for all criminal cases tried by jury, so far as regards matters of law.
Courts of Appeal.—The highest courts are the twenty-six Courts of Appeal, composed each of one president and a variable number of members, for all criminal cases which have been tried without a jury.
Court of Assizes.—In all cases of a délit or a crime the preliminary inquiry is made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d’instruction), who may either dismiss the case or send it for trial before a court where a public prosecutor (procureur) endeavors to prove the charge. The Court of Assizes is assisted by twelve jurors, who decide by simple majority on the fact with respect to offenses amounting to crimes.
Justices of the Peace (juges de paix) are the courts of lowest jurisdiction in France. They try small civil cases and act also as judges of Police Courts, where all petty offenses (contraventions) are disposed of. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offenses (délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to five years. They have no jury, and consist of three judges belonging to the civil tribunals of first instance.
For commercial cases there are, in two hundred and twenty-six towns, Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns are police courts.
IMPORTANT BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS RELATING TO THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES
| TABLE I. BIRTH AND PARENTAGE | TABLE II. EDUCATION, PROFESSION, RELIGION AND POLITICS | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NAMES OF PRESIDENTS | BORN | PARENTS | Paternal Ancestry | Father’s Business | Educational Advantages | Early Vocation | Profession | Religious Connection | Politics | ||||||
| Date | Birthplace | Father | Mother | ||||||||||||
| 1. | George Washington | Fri., | Feb. | 22, | 1732 | Bridges Creek, near Fredericksburg, Va. | Augustine | Mary Ball | English | Planter | Common School | Surveyor | Planter | Episcopalian | Federalist |
| 2. | John Adams | Wed., | Oct. | 30, | 1735 | Quincy, Mass. | John | Susanna Boylston | English | Farmer | Harvard College, 1755 | Teacher | Lawyer | Unitarian | Federalist |
| 3. | Thomas Jefferson | Tues., | April | 13, | 1743 | Shadwell, Va. | Peter | Jane Randolph | Welsh | Planter | College of William and Mary, 1762 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Liberal | Republican[12] |
| 4. | James Madison | Fri., | Mar. | 16, | 1751 | Port Conway, Va. | James | Nellie Conway | English | Planter | Princeton College, 1771 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Episcopalian | Republican |
| 5. | James Monroe | Fri., | April | 28, | 1758 | Westmoreland Co., Va. | Spence | Eliza Jones | Scotch | Planter | Entered College, William and Mary | Lawyer | Politician | Episcopalian | Republican |
| 6. | John Quincy Adams | Sat., | July | 11, | 1767 | Quincy, Mass. | John | Abigail Smith | English | Lawyer | Harvard College, 1787 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Unitarian | Republican |
| 7. | Andrew Jackson | Sun., | Mar. | 15, | 1767 | Union County, N. C. | Andrew | Elizabeth Hutchinson | Scotch-Irish | Farmer | Self Taught | Lawyer | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Democrat |
| 8. | Martin Van Buren | Thurs., | Dec. | 5, | 1782 | Kinderhook, N. Y. | Abraham | Maria Hoes | Dutch | Farmer | Academy | Lawyer | Lawyer | Reformed Dutch | Democrat |
| 9. | William Henry Harrison | Tues., | Feb. | 9, | 1773 | Berkeley, Va. | Benjamin | Elizabeth Bassett | English | Statesman | Entered Hampden-Sidney College | Medicine | Army | Episcopalian | Whig |
| 10. | John Tyler | Mon., | Mar. | 29, | 1790 | Charles City Co., Va. | John | Mary Armistead | English | Jurist | College, William and Mary, 1806 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Episcopalian | Democrat |
| 11. | James Knox Polk | Mon., | Nov. | 2, | 1795 | Mecklenburg Co., N. C. | Samuel | Jane Knox | ... | Farmer | University of North Carolina | Lawyer | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Democrat |
| 12. | Zachary Taylor | Tues., | Nov. | 24, | 1784 | Orange Co., Va. | Richard | Sarah Strother | Scotch-Irish | ... | Common School | Soldier | Army | Episcopalian | Whig |
| 13. | Millard Fillmore | Tues., | Jan. | 7, | 1800 | Summerhill, N. Y. | Nathaniel | Phebe Millard | English | Farmer | Public School | Tailor | Lawyer | Unitarian | Whig |
| 14. | Franklin Pierce | Fri., | Nov. | 23, | 1804 | Hillsborough, N. H. | Benjamin | Anna Kendrick | English | Farmer | Bowdoin College, 1824 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Episcopalian | Democrat |
| 15. | James Buchanan | Sat., | April | 23, | 1791 | Cove Gap, Pa. | James | Elizabeth Speer | Scotch-Irish | Merchant | Dickinson College, 1809 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Democrat |
| 16. | Abraham Lincoln | Sun., | Feb. | 12, | 1809 | Nolin Creek, Ky. | Thomas | Nancy Hanks | English | Farmer | Self Taught | Farmer | Lawyer | Liberal | Republican |
| 17. | Andrew Johnson | Thurs., | Dec. | 29, | 1808 | Raleigh, N. C. | Jacob | Mary McDonough | English | Sexton | Self Taught | Tailor | Politician | Liberal | Republican |
| 18. | Ulysses Simpson Grant | Sat., | April | 27, | 1822 | Point Pleasant, Ohio | Jesse Root | Harriet Simpson | Scotch | Farmer | West Point Military Academy, 1843 | Tanner | Army | Methodist | Republican |
| 19. | Rutherford Birchard Hayes | Fri., | Oct. | 4, | 1822 | Delaware, Ohio | Rutherford | Sophia Birchard | Scotch | Merchant | Kenyon College, Ohio, 1842 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Methodist | Republican |
| 20. | James Abram Garfield | Sat., | Nov. | 19, | 1831 | Orange Township, Ohio | Abram | Eliza Ballou | English | Farmer | Williams College, 1856 | Teacher | Lawyer | Disciples | Republican |
| 21. | Chester Alan Arthur | Tues., | Oct. | 5, | 1830 | Fairfield, Vt. | William | Malvina Stone | Scotch-Irish | Clergyman | Union College, 1848 | Teacher | Lawyer | Episcopalian | Republican |
| 22. | Grover Cleveland | Sat., | Mar. | 18, | 1837 | Caldwell, N. J. | Richard Falley | Anne Neale | English | Clergyman | Common School | Teacher | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Democrat |
| 23. | Benjamin Harrison | Tues., | Aug. | 20, | 1833 | North Bend, Ohio | John Scott | Elizabeth Findlay Irwin | English | Farmer | Miami University, Ohio, 1851 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Republican |
| 24. | Grover Cleveland | Sat., | Mar. | 18, | 1837 | Caldwell, N. J. | Richard Falley | Anne Neale | English | Clergyman | Common School | Teacher | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Democrat |
| 25. | William McKinley | Sun., | Jan. | 29, | 1843 | Niles, Ohio | William | Nancy C. Allison | Scotch-Irish | Iron Mnfr. | Entered Allegheny College | Lawyer | Lawyer | Methodist | Republican |
| 26. | Theodore Roosevelt | Wed., | Oct. | 27, | 1858 | 28 East 20th St., New York City | Theodore | Martha Bullock | Dutch | Merchant | Harvard, 1880 | Publicist | Publicist | Reformed Dutch | Republican |
| 27. | William Howard Taft | Tues., | Sept. | 15, | 1857 | Cincinnati, Ohio | Alphonso | Louise M. Torrey | English | Lawyer | Yale, 1878 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Unitarian | Republican |
| 28. | Woodrow Wilson | Sun., | Dec. | 28, | 1856 | Staunton, Va. | Jos. Ruggles | Jessie Woodrow | Scotch-Irish | Clergyman | Princeton, 1879 | Lawyer | Educator | Presbyterian | Democrat |
[12] The first Republican party, founded by Jefferson, later developed into the Democratic party of today.
| TABLE I. BIRTH AND PARENTAGE | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NAMES OF PRESIDENTS | BORN | PARENTS | Paternal Ancestry | Father’s Business | ||||||
| Date | Birthplace | Father | Mother | |||||||
| 1. | George Washington | Fri., | Feb. | 22, | 1732 | Bridges Creek, near Fredericksburg, Va. | Augustine | Mary Ball | English | Planter |
| 2. | John Adams | Wed., | Oct. | 30, | 1735 | Quincy, Mass. | John | Susanna Boylston | English | Farmer |
| 3. | Thomas Jefferson | Tues., | April | 13, | 1743 | Shadwell, Va. | Peter | Jane Randolph | Welsh | Planter |
| 4. | James Madison | Fri., | Mar. | 16, | 1751 | Port Conway, Va. | James | Nellie Conway | English | Planter |
| 5. | James Monroe | Fri., | April | 28, | 1758 | Westmoreland Co., Va. | Spence | Eliza Jones | Scotch | Planter |
| 6. | John Quincy Adams | Sat., | July | 11, | 1767 | Quincy, Mass. | John | Abigail Smith | English | Lawyer |
| 7. | Andrew Jackson | Sun., | Mar. | 15, | 1767 | Union County, N. C. | Andrew | Elizabeth Hutchinson | Scotch-Irish | Farmer |
| 8. | Martin Van Buren | Thurs., | Dec. | 5, | 1782 | Kinderhook, N. Y. | Abraham | Maria Hoes | Dutch | Farmer |
| 9. | William Henry Harrison | Tues., | Feb. | 9, | 1773 | Berkeley, Va. | Benjamin | Elizabeth Bassett | English | Statesman |
| 10. | John Tyler | Mon., | Mar. | 29, | 1790 | Charles City Co., Va. | John | Mary Armistead | English | Jurist |
| 11. | James Knox Polk | Mon., | Nov. | 2, | 1795 | Mecklenburg Co., N. C. | Samuel | Jane Knox | ... | Farmer |
| 12. | Zachary Taylor | Tues., | Nov. | 24, | 1784 | Orange Co., Va. | Richard | Sarah Strother | Scotch-Irish | ... |
| 13. | Millard Fillmore | Tues., | Jan. | 7, | 1800 | Summerhill, N. Y. | Nathaniel | Phebe Millard | English | Farmer |
| 14. | Franklin Pierce | Fri., | Nov. | 23, | 1804 | Hillsborough, N. H. | Benjamin | Anna Kendrick | English | Farmer |
| 15. | James Buchanan | Sat., | April | 23, | 1791 | Cove Gap, Pa. | James | Elizabeth Speer | Scotch-Irish | Merchant |
| 16. | Abraham Lincoln | Sun., | Feb. | 12, | 1809 | Nolin Creek, Ky. | Thomas | Nancy Hanks | English | Farmer |
| 17. | Andrew Johnson | Thurs., | Dec. | 29, | 1808 | Raleigh, N. C. | Jacob | Mary McDonough | English | Sexton |
| 18. | Ulysses Simpson Grant | Sat., | April | 27, | 1822 | Point Pleasant, Ohio | Jesse Root | Harriet Simpson | Scotch | Farmer |
| 19. | Rutherford Birchard Hayes | Fri., | Oct. | 4, | 1822 | Delaware, Ohio | Rutherford | Sophia Birchard | Scotch | Merchant |
| 20. | James Abram Garfield | Sat., | Nov. | 19, | 1831 | Orange Township, Ohio | Abram | Eliza Ballou | English | Farmer |
| 21. | Chester Alan Arthur | Tues., | Oct. | 5, | 1830 | Fairfield, Vt. | William | Malvina Stone | Scotch-Irish | Clergyman |
| 22. | Grover Cleveland | Sat., | Mar. | 18, | 1837 | Caldwell, N. J. | Richard Falley | Anne Neale | English | Clergyman |
| 23. | Benjamin Harrison | Tues., | Aug. | 20, | 1833 | North Bend, Ohio | John Scott | Elizabeth Findlay Irwin | English | Farmer |
| 24. | Grover Cleveland | Sat., | Mar. | 18, | 1837 | Caldwell, N. J. | Richard Falley | Anne Neale | English | Clergyman |
| 25. | William McKinley | Sun., | Jan. | 29, | 1843 | Niles, Ohio | William | Nancy C. Allison | Scotch-Irish | Iron Mnfr. |
| 26. | Theodore Roosevelt | Wed., | Oct. | 27, | 1858 | 28 East 20th St., New York City | Theodore | Martha Bullock | Dutch | Merchant |
| 27. | William Howard Taft | Tues., | Sept. | 15, | 1857 | Cincinnati, Ohio | Alphonso | Louise M. Torrey | English | Lawyer |
| 28. | Woodrow Wilson | Sun., | Dec. | 28, | 1856 | Staunton, Va. | Jos. Ruggles | Jessie Woodrow | Scotch-Irish | Clergyman |
| TABLE II. EDUCATION, PROFESSION, RELIGION AND POLITICS | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NAMES OF PRESIDENTS | Educational Advantages | Early Vocation | Profession | Religious Connection | Politics | |
| 1. | George Washington | Common School | Surveyor | Planter | Episcopalian | Federalist |
| 2. | John Adams | Harvard College, 1755 | Teacher | Lawyer | Unitarian | Federalist |
| 3. | Thomas Jefferson | College of William and Mary, 1762 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Liberal | Republican[12] |
| 4. | James Madison | Princeton College, 1771 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Episcopalian | Republican |
| 5. | James Monroe | Entered College, William and Mary | Lawyer | Politician | Episcopalian | Republican |
| 6. | John Quincy Adams | Harvard College, 1787 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Unitarian | Republican |
| 7. | Andrew Jackson | Self Taught | Lawyer | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Democrat |
| 8. | Martin Van Buren | Academy | Lawyer | Lawyer | Reformed Dutch | Democrat |
| 9. | William Henry Harrison | Entered Hampden-Sidney College | Medicine | Army | Episcopalian | Whig |
| 10. | John Tyler | College, William and Mary, 1806 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Episcopalian | Democrat |
| 11. | James Knox Polk | University of North Carolina | Lawyer | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Democrat |
| 12. | Zachary Taylor | Common School | Soldier | Army | Episcopalian | Whig |
| 13. | Millard Fillmore | Public School | Tailor | Lawyer | Unitarian | Whig |
| 14. | Franklin Pierce | Bowdoin College, 1824 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Episcopalian | Democrat |
| 15. | James Buchanan | Dickinson College, 1809 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Democrat |
| 16. | Abraham Lincoln | Self Taught | Farmer | Lawyer | Liberal | Republican |
| 17. | Andrew Johnson | Self Taught | Tailor | Politician | Liberal | Republican |
| 18. | Ulysses Simpson Grant | West Point Military Academy, 1843 | Tanner | Army | Methodist | Republican |
| 19. | Rutherford Birchard Hayes | Kenyon College, Ohio, 1842 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Methodist | Republican |
| 20. | James Abram Garfield | Williams College, 1856 | Teacher | Lawyer | Disciples | Republican |
| 21. | Chester Alan Arthur | Union College, 1848 | Teacher | Lawyer | Episcopalian | Republican |
| 22. | Grover Cleveland | Common School | Teacher | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Democrat |
| 23. | Benjamin Harrison | Miami University, Ohio, 1851 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Republican |
| 24. | Grover Cleveland | Common School | Teacher | Lawyer | Presbyterian | Democrat |
| 25. | William McKinley | Entered Allegheny College | Lawyer | Lawyer | Methodist | Republican |
| 26. | Theodore Roosevelt | Harvard, 1880 | Publicist | Publicist | Reformed Dutch | Republican |
| 27. | William Howard Taft | Yale, 1878 | Lawyer | Lawyer | Unitarian | Republican |
| 28. | Woodrow Wilson | Princeton, 1879 | Lawyer | Educator | Presbyterian | Democrat |
[12] The first Republican party, founded by Jefferson, later developed into the Democratic party of today.
| TABLE III. MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND ELECTION TO THE PRESIDENCY | TABLE IV. TERM OF OFFICE, DEATH AND PLACE OF BURIAL | |||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terms | Name | Married | Wife’s Name | Children | Elected Presi- dent | Residence When Elected | Age When Inaugu- rated | Term of Office | Died | Cause of Death | Age at Death | Place of Death | Place of Burial | |||||||||
| Boys | Girls | |||||||||||||||||||||
| 1-2 | Washington | 1759 | Martha (Dandridge) Custis (1732-1802), widow with two children | 0 | 0 | 1789 | Mt. Vernon, Va. | 57 | April | 30, | 1789 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1797 | 1799 | Pneumonia | 67 | Mt. Vernon, Va. | Mt. Vernon, Va. | ||
| 3 | Adams | 1764 | Abigail Smith (1744-1818) | 3 | 2 | 1796 | Quincy, Mass. | 62 | Mar. | 4, | 1797 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1801 | 1826 | Natural decline | 90 | Quincy, Mass. | Unitarian ch., Quincy, Mass. | ||
| 4-5 | Jefferson | 1772 | Martha (Wayles) Skelton (1748-1782), widow of Bathurst Skelton | 0 | 6 | 1800 | Monticello, Va. | 58 | Mar. | 4, | 1801 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1809 | 1826 | Chronic diarrhœa | 83 | Monticello, Va. | Monticello, Albemarle Co., Va. | ||
| 6-7 | Madison | 1794 | Dolly (Payne) Todd (1772-1849), widow | 0 | 0 | 1808 | Montpelier, Va. | 58 | Mar. | 4, | 1809 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1817 | 1836 | Natural decline | 85 | Montpelier, Va. | Montpelier, Hanover Co., Va. | ||
| 8-9 | Monroe | 1786 | Elisa Kortwright (1768-1830) | 0 | 2 | 1816 | Oakhill, Va. | 59 | Mar. | 4, | 1817 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1825 | 1831 | Natural decline | 73 | New York City | Hollywood, Richmond, Va. | ||
| 10 | Adams, J.Q. | 1797 | Louisa Catherine Johnson (1775-1852) | 3 | 1 | 1824 | Quincy, Mass. | 58 | Mar. | 4, | 1825 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1829 | 1848 | Paralysis | 80 | Washington, D. C. | Unitarian, Quincy, Mass. | ||
| 11-12 | Jackson | 1791 | Rachel (Donelson) Robards (1767-1828), divorced wife of Captain Robards | 3 | 0 | 1828 | Hermitage, Tenn. | 62 | Mar. | 4, | 1829 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1837 | 1845 | Consumption | 78 | Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn. | Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn. | ||
| 13 | Van Buren | 1807 | Hannah Hoes (1783-1819) | 4 | 0 | 1836 | Kinderhook, N. Y. | 55 | Mar. | 4, | 1837 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1841 | 1862 | Asthma | 79 | Kinderhook, N. Y. | Kinderhook, N. Y. | ||
| 14 | Harrison | 1795 | Anna Symmes (1775-1864) | 6 | 4 | 1840 | North Bend, Ohio | 68 | Mar. | 4, | 1841 | - | April | 4, | 1841 | 1841 | Pleurisy fever | 68 | White House, Washington, D. C. | North Bend, Ohio | ||
| 14 | Tyler | 1813 | (1) To Letitia Christian (1790-1842) | 3 | 4 | - | ... | Williamsburg, Va. | 51 | April | 6, | 1841 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1845 | 1862 | Bilious attacks with bronchitis | 71 | Ballard House, Richmond, Va. | Hollywood, Richmond, Va. | |
| 1844 | (2) To Julia Gardiner (1820-1889) | 4 | 2 | |||||||||||||||||||
| 15 | Polk | 1824 | Sarah Childress (1803-1891) | 0 | 0 | 1844 | Nashville, Tenn. | 50 | Mar. | 4, | 1845 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1849 | ... | Chronic diarrhœa | 53 | Nashville, Tenn. | Nashville, Tenn. | ||
| 16 | Taylor | 1810 | Margaret Smith (1788-1852) | 1 | 3 | 1848 | Baton Rouge, La. | 65 | Mar. | 4, | 1849 | - | July | 10, | 1850 | 1850 | Cholera morbus and typhoid fever | 65 | White House, Washington, D. C. | Springfield, Ky. | ||
| Fillmore | 1826 | (1) Abigail Powers (1798-1853) | 1 | 1 | - | ... | Buffalo, N. Y. | 50 | July | 10, | 1850 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1853 | 1874 | Paralysis | 74 | Buffalo, N. Y. | Forest Lawn, Buffalo, N. Y. | ||
| 1858 | (2) Caroline (Carmichael) McIntosh (1813-1881), a widow | 0 | 0 | |||||||||||||||||||
| 17 | Pierce | 1834 | Jane Means Appleton (1806-1863) | 3 | 0 | 1852 | Concord, N. H. | 49 | Mar. | 4, | 1853 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1857 | 1869 | Dropsy and inflammation of stomach | 64 | Concord, N. H. | Concord, N. H. | ||
| 18 | Buchanan | ... | Unmarried | ... | ... | 1856 | Wheatland, Pa. | 66 | Mar. | 4, | 1857 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1861 | 1868 | Rheumatic gout | 77 | Lancaster, Pa. | Woodward Hill, Lancaster, Pa. | ||
| 19-20 | Lincoln | 1842 | Mary Todd (1818-1882) | 4 | 0 | 1860 | Springfield, Ill. | 52 | Mar. | 4, | 1861 | - | April | 15, | 1865 | 1865 | Assassinated by Booth | 56 | Washington, D. C. | Oak Ridge, Springfield, Ill. | ||
| 20 | Johnson | 1827 | Eliza McCardle (1810-1876) | 3 | 2 | ... | Greeneville, Tenn. | 57 | April | 15, | 1865 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1869 | 1875 | Paralysis | 66 | Greeneville, Tenn. | Greeneville, Tenn. | ||
| 21-22 | Grant | 1848 | Julia Dent (1826-1902) | 3 | 1 | 1868 | Washington, D. C. | 47 | Mar. | 4, | 1869 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1877 | 1885 | Cancer of the tongue | 63 | Mt. McGregor, N. Y. | Riverside, New York City | ||
| 23 | Hayes | 1852 | Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889) | 7 | 1 | 1876 | Fremont, Ohio | 54 | Mar. | 4, | 1877 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1881 | 1893 | Neuralgia of heart | 70 | Fremont, Ohio | Fremont, Ohio | ||
| 24 | Garfield | 1858 | Lucretia Rudolph (1832- ——) | 4 | 1 | 1880 | Mentor, Ohio | 49 | Mar. | 4, | 1881 | - | Sept. | 19, | 1881 | 1881 | Assassinated by Guiteau | 49 | Elberon, Long Branch, N. J. | Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland, Ohio | ||
| 24 | Arthur | 1859 | Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837-1880) | 1 | 1 | ... | New York City | 51 | Sept. | 20, | 1881 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1885 | 1886 | Bright’s disease | 56 | New York, N. Y. | Rural Cemetery, Albany, N. Y. | ||
| 25 | Cleveland | 1886 | Frances Folsom (1864- ——) | 2 | 3 | 1884 | Buffalo, N. Y. | 48 | Mar. | 4, | 1885 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1889 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ||
| 26 | Harrison | 1853 | (1) Caroline Scott (1832-1892) | 1 | 1 | - | 1888 | Indianapolis, Ind. | 55 | Mar. | 4, | 1889 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1893 | 1901 | Pneumonia | 67 | Indianapolis, Ind. | Crown Hill Cemetery, Indianapolis, Ind. | |
| 1896 | (2) Mary Scott (Lord) Dimmick (1858- ——) | 0 | 1 | |||||||||||||||||||
| 27 | Cleveland | ... | Frances Folsom (1864- ——) | ... | ... | 1892 | Buffalo, N. Y. | 56 | Mar. | 4, | 1893 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1897 | 1908 | Heart failure | 71 | Princeton, N. J. | Princeton, N. J. | ||
| 28-29 | McKinley | 1871 | Ida Saxton (1844-1907) | 0 | 2 | 1896 | Canton, Ohio | 54 | Mar. | 4, | 1897 | - | Sept. | 14, | 1901 | 1901 | Assassinated by Czolgosz | 58 | Buffalo, N. Y. | Cemetery, Canton, Ohio | ||
| 29-30 | Roosevelt | 1883 | (1) Alice Lee (1861-1884) | 0 | 1 | - | 1904 | Oyster Bay, N. Y. | 43 | Sept. | 14, | 1901 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1909 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |
| 1886 | (2) Edith Kermit Carow (1861- ——) | 4 | 1 | |||||||||||||||||||
| 31 | Taft | 1886 | Helen Herron (1861- ——) | 2 | 1 | 1908 | Cincinnati, Ohio | 51 | Mar. | 4, | 1909 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1913 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ||
| 32 | Wilson | 1885 | (1) Helen Louise Axsen (1860-1914) | 0 | 3 | 1912 | Princeton, N. J. | 56 | Mar. | 4, | 1913 | - | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ||||
| 1915 | (2) Edith Bolling Galt (1872- ——) | ... | ... | |||||||||||||||||||
| TABLE III. MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND ELECTION TO THE PRESIDENCY | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terms | Name | Married | Wife’s Name | Children | Elected Presi- dent | Residence When Elected | Age When Inaugu- rated | |||
| Boys | Girls | |||||||||
| 1-2 | Washington | 1759 | Martha (Dandridge) Custis (1732-1802), widow with two children | 0 | 0 | 1789 | Mt. Vernon, Va. | 57 | ||
| 3 | Adams | 1764 | Abigail Smith (1744-1818) | 3 | 2 | 1796 | Quincy, Mass. | 62 | ||
| 4-5 | Jefferson | 1772 | Martha (Wayles) Skelton (1748-1782), widow of Bathurst Skelton | 0 | 6 | 1800 | Monticello, Va. | 58 | ||
| 6-7 | Madison | 1794 | Dolly (Payne) Todd (1772-1849), widow | 0 | 0 | 1808 | Montpelier, Va. | 58 | ||
| 8-9 | Monroe | 1786 | Elisa Kortwright (1768-1830) | 0 | 2 | 1816 | Oakhill, Va. | 59 | ||
| 10 | Adams, J.Q. | 1797 | Louisa Catherine Johnson (1775-1852) | 3 | 1 | 1824 | Quincy, Mass. | 58 | ||
| 11-12 | Jackson | 1791 | Rachel (Donelson) Robards (1767-1828), divorced wife of Captain Robards | 3 | 0 | 1828 | Hermitage, Tenn. | 62 | ||
| 13 | Van Buren | 1807 | Hannah Hoes (1783-1819) | 4 | 0 | 1836 | Kinderhook, N. Y. | 55 | ||
| 14 | Harrison | 1795 | Anna Symmes (1775-1864) | 6 | 4 | 1840 | North Bend, Ohio | 68 | ||
| 14 | Tyler | 1813 | (1) To Letitia Christian (1790-1842) | 3 | 4 | - | ... | Williamsburg, Va. | 51 | |
| 1844 | (2) To Julia Gardiner (1820-1889) | 4 | 2 | |||||||
| 15 | Polk | 1824 | Sarah Childress (1803-1891) | 0 | 0 | 1844 | Nashville, Tenn. | 50 | ||
| 16 | Taylor | 1810 | Margaret Smith (1788-1852) | 1 | 3 | 1848 | Baton Rouge, La. | 65 | ||
| Fillmore | 1826 | (1) Abigail Powers (1798-1853) | 1 | 1 | - | ... | Buffalo, N. Y. | 50 | ||
| 1858 | (2) Caroline (Carmichael) McIntosh (1813-1881), a widow | 0 | 0 | |||||||
| 17 | Pierce | 1834 | Jane Means Appleton (1806-1863) | 3 | 0 | 1852 | Concord, N. H. | 49 | ||
| 18 | Buchanan | ... | Unmarried | ... | ... | 1856 | Wheatland, Pa. | 66 | ||
| 19-20 | Lincoln | 1842 | Mary Todd (1818-1882) | 4 | 0 | 1860 | Springfield, Ill. | 52 | ||
| 20 | Johnson | 1827 | Eliza McCardle (1810-1876) | 3 | 2 | ... | Greeneville, Tenn. | 57 | ||
| 21-22 | Grant | 1848 | Julia Dent (1826-1902) | 3 | 1 | 1868 | Washington, D. C. | 47 | ||
| 23 | Hayes | 1852 | Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889) | 7 | 1 | 1876 | Fremont, Ohio | 54 | ||
| 24 | Garfield | 1858 | Lucretia Rudolph (1832- ——) | 4 | 1 | 1880 | Mentor, Ohio | 49 | ||
| 24 | Arthur | 1859 | Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837-1880) | 1 | 1 | ... | New York City | 51 | ||
| 25 | Cleveland | 1886 | Frances Folsom (1864- ——) | 2 | 3 | 1884 | Buffalo, N. Y. | 48 | ||
| 26 | Harrison | 1853 | (1) Caroline Scott (1832-1892) | 1 | 1 | - | 1888 | Indianapolis, Ind. | 55 | |
| 1896 | (2) Mary Scott (Lord) Dimmick (1858- ——) | 0 | 1 | |||||||
| 27 | Cleveland | ... | Frances Folsom (1864- ——) | ... | ... | 1892 | Buffalo, N. Y. | 56 | ||
| 28-29 | McKinley | 1871 | Ida Saxton (1844-1907) | 0 | 2 | 1896 | Canton, Ohio | 54 | ||
| 29-30 | Roosevelt | 1883 | (1) Alice Lee (1861-1884) | 0 | 1 | - | 1904 | Oyster Bay, N. Y. | 43 | |
| 1886 | (2) Edith Kermit Carow (1861- ——) | 4 | 1 | |||||||
| 31 | Taft | 1886 | Helen Herron (1861- ——) | 2 | 1 | 1908 | Cincinnati, Ohio | 51 | ||
| 32 | Wilson | 1885 | (1) Helen Louise Axsen (1860-1914) | 0 | 3 | 1912 | Princeton, N. J. | 56 | ||
| 1915 | (2) Edith Bolling Galt (1872- ——) | ... | ... | |||||||
| TABLE IV. TERM OF OFFICE, DEATH AND PLACE OF BURIAL | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terms | Name | Term of Office | Died | Cause of Death | Age at Death | Place of Death | Place of Burial | ||||||
| 1-2 | Washington | April | 30, | 1789 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1797 | 1799 | Pneumonia | 67 | Mt. Vernon, Va. | Mt. Vernon, Va. |
| 3 | Adams | Mar. | 4, | 1797 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1801 | 1826 | Natural decline | 90 | Quincy, Mass. | Unitarian ch., Quincy, Mass. |
| 4-5 | Jefferson | Mar. | 4, | 1801 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1809 | 1826 | Chronic diarrhœa | 83 | Monticello, Va. | Monticello, Albemarle Co., Va. |
| 6-7 | Madison | Mar. | 4, | 1809 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1817 | 1836 | Natural decline | 85 | Montpelier, Va. | Montpelier, Hanover Co., Va. |
| 8-9 | Monroe | Mar. | 4, | 1817 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1825 | 1831 | Natural decline | 73 | New York City | Hollywood, Richmond, Va. |
| 10 | Adams, J.Q. | Mar. | 4, | 1825 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1829 | 1848 | Paralysis | 80 | Washington, D. C. | Unitarian, Quincy, Mass. |
| 11-12 | Jackson | Mar. | 4, | 1829 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1837 | 1845 | Consumption | 78 | Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn. | Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn. |
| 13 | Van Buren | Mar. | 4, | 1837 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1841 | 1862 | Asthma | 79 | Kinderhook, N. Y. | Kinderhook, N. Y. |
| 14 | Harrison | Mar. | 4, | 1841 | - | April | 4, | 1841 | 1841 | Pleurisy fever | 68 | White House, Washington, D. C. | North Bend, Ohio |
| 14 | Tyler | April | 6, | 1841 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1845 | 1862 | Bilious attacks with bronchitis | 71 | Ballard House, Richmond, Va. | Hollywood, Richmond, Va. |
| 15 | Polk | Mar. | 4, | 1845 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1849 | ... | Chronic diarrhœa | 53 | Nashville, Tenn. | Nashville, Tenn. |
| 16 | Taylor | Mar. | 4, | 1849 | - | July | 10, | 1850 | 1850 | Cholera morbus and typhoid fever | 65 | White House, Washington, D. C. | Springfield, Ky. |
| Fillmore | July | 10, | 1850 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1853 | 1874 | Paralysis | 74 | Buffalo, N. Y. | Forest Lawn, Buffalo, N. Y. | |
| 17 | Pierce | Mar. | 4, | 1853 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1857 | 1869 | Dropsy and inflammation of stomach | 64 | Concord, N. H. | Concord, N. H. |
| 18 | Buchanan | Mar. | 4, | 1857 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1861 | 1868 | Rheumatic gout | 77 | Lancaster, Pa. | Woodward Hill, Lancaster, Pa. |
| 19-20 | Lincoln | Mar. | 4, | 1861 | - | April | 15, | 1865 | 1865 | Assassinated by Booth | 56 | Washington, D. C. | Oak Ridge, Springfield, Ill. |
| 20 | Johnson | April | 15, | 1865 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1869 | 1875 | Paralysis | 66 | Greeneville, Tenn. | Greeneville, Tenn. |
| 21-22 | Grant | Mar. | 4, | 1869 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1877 | 1885 | Cancer of the tongue | 63 | Mt. McGregor, N. Y. | Riverside, New York City |
| 23 | Hayes | Mar. | 4, | 1877 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1881 | 1893 | Neuralgia of heart | 70 | Fremont, Ohio | Fremont, Ohio |
| 24 | Garfield | Mar. | 4, | 1881 | - | Sept. | 19, | 1881 | 1881 | Assassinated by Guiteau | 49 | Elberon, Long Branch, N. J. | Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland, Ohio |
| 24 | Arthur | Sept. | 20, | 1881 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1885 | 1886 | Bright’s disease | 56 | New York, N. Y. | Rural Cemetery, Albany, N. Y. |
| 25 | Cleveland | Mar. | 4, | 1885 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1889 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |
| 26 | Harrison | Mar. | 4, | 1889 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1893 | 1901 | Pneumonia | 67 | Indianapolis, Ind. | Crown Hill Cemetery, Indianapolis, Ind. |
| 27 | Cleveland | Mar. | 4, | 1893 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1897 | 1908 | Heart failure | 71 | Princeton, N. J. | Princeton, N. J. |
| 28-29 | McKinley | Mar. | 4, | 1897 | - | Sept. | 14, | 1901 | 1901 | Assassinated by Czolgosz | 58 | Buffalo, N. Y. | Cemetery, Canton, Ohio |
| 29-30 | Roosevelt | Sept. | 14, | 1901 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1909 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |
| 31 | Taft | Mar. | 4, | 1909 | - | Mar. | 4, | 1913 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |
| 32 | Wilson | Mar. | 4, | 1913 | - | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ||
| TABLE V. LATER CAREER, WRITINGS AND SOBRIQUETS | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Name | Career After Leaving the Presidency | Writings of the Presidents | Presidential Sobriquets |
| Washington | Agricultural pursuits; appointed commander-in-chief (1798) because of threatened war with France. | Maxims; Transcripts of Revolutionary Correspondence. | “Father of his Country;” “American Fabius.” |
| Adams | Member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1820. | Essay on Canon and Feudal Laws; Defense of the American Constitution. | “Colossus of Independence;” “Son of Liberty.” |
| Jefferson | Retired to his plantation at Monticello, Va.; devoted much time to the University of Virginia. | A Summary View of the Rights of America; The Declaration of Independence; Act for Freedom of Religion. | “Sage of Monticello,” “Long Tom.” |
| Madison | Retired to Montpelier, Va.; contributed large service to University of Virginia; served in the Virginia Constitutional Convention, 1829. | Reports of Debates During the Congress, of the Confederation and Federal Congress; Essays. | “Father of the Constitution.” |
| Monroe | Retired to private life in Virginia; served as a member of the Virginia Constitutional Convention in 1830. | A View of the Conduct of the Executive; The People; The Sovereign. | “Last Cocked Hat.” |
| Adams, J.Q. | Was returned to Washington as a member of the House of Representatives; served from 1830 to his death. | Poems of Religion and Society; Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory; Criticisms of Paine’s “Rights of Man;” Defense of Washington’s Policy of Neutrality | “Old Man Eloquent.” |
| Jackson | Retired to the “Hermitage,” near Nashville, Tenn.; always took a deep interest in public affairs. | ... | “Old Hickory;” “Cæsar of the White House.” |
| Van Buren | Was renominated in 1840, 1844, and 1848 for the presidency. | Inquiry Into the Origin and Causes of Political Parties in the United States. | “Little Magician;” “Wizard of Kinderhook.” |
| Harrison | Died in office. | A Discourse on the Aborigines of the Valley of the Ohio. | “Tippecanoe.” |
| Tyler | Retired to his estate in Virginia; presided at the peace convention held in Washington in 1861. | ... | “Young Hickory.” |
| Polk | Died in office. | ... | Also “Young Hickory.” |
| Taylor | ... | ... | “Rough and Ready;” “Old Buena Vista.” |
| Fillmore | Was candidate for president in 1852 and in 1856; spent his remaining years at Buffalo, N. Y. | ... | “The American Louis Philippe.” |
| Pierce | Traveled in Europe; retired to Concord, N. H. | ... | “Purse.” |
| Buchanan | Retired to Lancaster, Pa.; devoted himself to writing defense of his administration. | Résumé of My Administration. | “Old Public Functionary;” “Bachelor President.” |
| Lincoln | Died in office. | Orations. | “Honest Old Abe;” “Rail-splitter;” “Great Emancipator.” |
| Johnson | Retired to home in Greeneville, Tenn.; chosen United States Senator in 1875. | Speeches. | “Sir Veto.” |
| Grant | Made tour of the world and retired to private life in New York. | Shiloh; Vicksburg; Chattanooga; The Wilderness; The Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. | “Unconditional Surrender;” “Old Three Stars.” |
| Hayes | Was president of the Board of Freedmen, and president of the National Prison association. | ... | “President de Facto.” |
| Garfield | Died in office. | Discovery and Ownership of the Northwestern Territory; Garfield’s Words. | “The Martyr President;” “The Dark Horse.” |
| Arthur | Died the year following his retirement. | ... | “Our Chet;” “America’s First Gentleman.” |
| Cleveland | Retired to New York to practice law; at the end of second term retired to Princeton, N. J. | Writings and Speeches. | “Man of Destiny;” “The Claimant.” |
| Harrison | Professor of International law at Leland Stanford University, California; afterward practiced law. | Speeches; This Country of Ours; Views of an Ex-President. | “Son of His Grandfather;” “Hoosier President.” |
| McKinley | Died in office. | Speeches. | “Prosperity’s Advance Agent;” “Bonaparte of Politics.” |
| Roosevelt | In March, 1909, headed a scientific expedition to Africa, organized in the interest of the Smithsonian Institution; resumed literary work and politics. | The Naval War of 1812; Essays on Practical Politics; The Winning of the West; Hero Tales From American History; American Ideals; Life of Oliver Cromwell; African Game Trails. | “Teddy;” “The Rough Rider;” “T. R.;” “Our Strenuous President.” |
| Taft | Kent Professor of Law at Yale University. | ... | “The Globe Trotter;” “The Judicial President.” |
| Wilson | ... | Congressional Government; The State; An Old Master, and Other Political Essays; Mere Literature and Other Essays; George Washington; A History of the American People. | “The Scholar in Politics.” |
Canada
CANADA.—What is known as the Dominion of Canada is a confederation of the colonies of British North America, constituted in 1867 by the British North America Act of that year. Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were the first to unite under the provisions of that statute, and the Dominion of Canada now includes the whole of the British North American possessions excepting Newfoundland.
Canada is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and about 750,000 square miles larger than the United States without Alaska. The census figures for 1911 were:
| Area sq. mi. | Popu- lation | |
|---|---|---|
| Prince Edward Island | 2,184 | 93,728 |
| Nova Scotia | 21,428 | 492,338 |
| New Brunswick | 27,985 | 351,889 |
| Quebec | 351,873 | 2,002,712 |
| Ontario | 260,862 | 2,523,274 |
| Manitoba | 73,732 | 455,614 |
| British Columbia | 355,855 | 392,480 |
| Alberta | 255,285 | 374,663 |
| Saskatchewan | 251,700 | 492,432 |
| Yukon (Territory) | 207,076 | 8,512 |
| Northwest Territories | 1,921,685 | 17,196 |
| Total | 3,729,665 | 7,204,838 |
In 1912 parts of the Northwest Territories were transferred to Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec.
Newfoundland.—The island of Newfoundland, on the northeast side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, has a total area of 42,750 square miles, with a population (1911) of 238,670. Attached to the government of the island is a coastal strip of the Labrador peninsula 120,000 square miles (population 3,949).
Physical Features.—Both the Atlantic and Pacific shores abound in deep indentations forming magnificent harbors and sheltered bays. On the Atlantic the principal bay is the Bay of Fundy, remarkable for its high and rushing tide, the water rising from twelve to seventy feet. There is also the Hudson Bay, connected with the Atlantic by Hudson Straits, really an inland sea with an area of three hundred and fifty thousand square miles, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, eighty thousand square miles in extent.
The most striking physical features of Canada are the Rocky Mountains, the Laurentian Range, and the chain of immense fresh water lakes forming part of the boundary with the United States.
The Laurentian Range extends along the north side of the St. Lawrence, the Ottawa River, and then stretches away to Lake Superior and the north, the length of the range being about three thousand five hundred miles. It forms the watershed between Hudson Bay and the St. Lawrence, and varies in height from one to three thousand feet.
The eastern portions of Canada are generally well timbered, and the same is true of British Columbia, and the region north of the Saskatchewan. Westward of the Red River, between the forty-ninth and fifty-fifth parallels, there is an immense fertile plain, suitable for general agriculture and grazing, extending nearly to the Rocky Mountains.
This range consists of triple chains with valleys between; the most easterly has the greatest elevation near the fifty-second parallel, the highest peaks being Mounts Brown, Murchison, Hooker, Columbia, Forbes, Bryce, Alberta, and Freshfield. The average height of the chain is from seven thousand to eight thousand feet. In the north, adjoining Alaska, is Mt. Logan, and, on the dividing line, St. Elias. (See Mountains of the World for elevations.)
Lakes and Rivers.—Canada is well watered, the country presenting a network of lakes and rivers. The system of the St. Lawrence alone, with the great lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario (between the last are the celebrated falls of Niagara), drains an area in Canada of three hundred and thirty thousand square miles. (See North America and United States.)
Other important lakes are Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, Manitoba, Lake of the Woods, Great Slave, Great Bear, and Athabasca.
Next to the St. Lawrence the chief rivers are the Saskatchewan and the Winnipeg, flowing into Lake Winnipeg, and the Nelson, flowing from it into Hudson Bay; the Assiniboine and the Red River, which join their waters to flow into Lake Winnipeg; the Albany and the Churchill, emptying into Hudson Bay; the Athabasca and the Peace Rivers, flowing into Lake Athabasca, and the Slave River, from it into Great Slave Lake; the Mackenzie, fed from both the Great Slave and the Great Bear lakes, and emptying into the Arctic Ocean; the Fraser and Thompson, in British Columbia, emptying into the Pacific; and in the eastern provinces, the Ottawa, chief tributary of the St. Lawrence, itself fed by the Gatineau and Matawan; the Saguenay, emptying Lake St. John into the St. Lawrence; and the St. John, which flows into the Bay of Fundy, in New Brunswick, which it partly separates from the State of Maine.
The principal islands of the Dominion are: on the east, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Magdalen Islands, and Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and on the west coast, Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Island. Lying along the north in the great Arctic Archipelago are immense islands, all of which, excepting Greenland, belong to Canada.
Climate.—The cold winter and the heat in summer are frequently extreme, but the climate is a healthy one. The winter may be said to continue from the middle of November to the end of March, or about four and a half months. British Columbia probably possesses the finest climate in North America.
In some inland parts of Canada the maximum temperature may be from ninety to ninety-six degrees, and the minimum from twenty to twenty-six degrees below zero. But although there are these extremes, the air is always dry, bracing, and exhilarating.
Products and Industries.—The chief industries of Canada are those of agriculture, stock-raising, dairy-farming, “lumbering” or timber trade and forestry, shipbuilding, fisheries, and mining. An extensive trade is maintained with the United States and England, the exports being timber, fish, and furs, with [667] dairy produce and live stock; wheat and wheat flour, barley, and other agricultural products, cod and other fish, coal, and minerals.
The minerals are chiefly coal, silver, nickel, gold, copper, iron, asbestos, lead, salt, mineral oils and gypsum. Gold is or has been worked in Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario, and largely in Yukon (Klondike) and British Columbia, where there are yet immense fields to open up. Silver mines are worked in Ontario; those at Cobalt (producing also cobalt, nickel and arsenic) have been the richest yet discovered in Canada. Iron ore is found all over the Dominion. Copper has been mined to a considerable extent both in Quebec and Ontario, and the deposits of the ore are of great extent. There are very large coal deposits in Nova Scotia. The coast of British Columbia is rich in coal of a good quality. Coal is known to exist over a vast region, stretching from one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles east of the Rocky Mountains, and north from the frontier for about one thousand miles.
The forest products of Canada constitute one of her most important sources of wealth. They find their way to all parts of the world—to the United States, to the United Kingdom, and to the Australian commonwealth.
Great progress has recently been made in the development of manufactures. The “national policy” comprises a high protective system, but since 1901 gives a preference to Britain.
Quebec has tanning industries and manufactures boot and shoes, the manufactures of woolen and cotton goods are increasing, and there are sugar refineries in Halifax and Montreal. Such wooden articles as doors, window sashes, etc., are manufactured in large numbers.
People.—The province of Ontario is thickly settled on the south, along the river and the lake shores, by a population which is mainly of British descent, with a considerable infusion of Germans. The province of Quebec is peopled in great part by descendants of the original French settlers; they are called habitans; many of them speak an archaic French dialect and keep up peculiar manners and customs, and they are Roman Catholic in religion.
The principal nationalities represented are English, Irish, Scotch, French, German and Indian, though there are also some few Dutch, Russian, Chinese, Welsh, Italians, Jews, half-breeds, etc.
Though English is the general language of Canada, the French language is by statute an official language in the Dominion parliament and in Quebec, but not now in any other province. Members of the Quebec and Manitoba parliaments may also address the House in either English or French.
Religion and Education.—There is no state religion in Canada, and absolute toleration is there an accomplished fact. Roman Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, the Church of England, Baptists, Lutherans, and Congregationalists are all represented.
Canada has long been in the enjoyment of free education, and the control of the system is in the hands of the provinces, except where the Act of Confederation secures the permanence of the denominational schools which existed at the time of confederation. Teachers are trained at provincial normal schools.
In Ontario and Quebec there are separate schools for Protestants and Roman Catholics.
The principal universities of Canada with the dates of their foundation are as follows:
PRINCIPAL UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF CANADA
| Organized | Colleges | Location | Control | President or Chairman of Faculty | In- struc- tors | Stu- dents | Volumes in Library |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1881 | Alma College | St. Thomas, Ont. | Methodist | Robt. I. Warner, D.D. | 21 | 200 | 2,500 |
| 1838 | Arcadia University | Wolfville, N.S. | Baptist | Geo. Barton Cutten, D.D. | 24 | 250 | 2,500 |
| 1818 | Dalhousie | Halifax, N.S. | Non-Sect. | A. Stanley MacKenzie, B.A. | 86 | 417 | 28,000 |
| 1894 | Havergal Ladies’ College | Toronto, Ont. | ... | N. W. Hoyles, Kc. | 65 | 350 | 1,000 |
| 1789 | Kings University | Windsor, Ont. | Prot.Epis. | Rev. T.W. Powell. D.D. | 13 | 91 | ... |
| 1844 | Knox Theo. College | Toronto, Ont. | Presbyt’n. | Rev. Alfred Gandier, D.D. | 9 | 140 | 22,000 |
| 1907 | Macdonald College | A. de Bellevue, Q. | Non-Sect. | F.C. Harrison, D.Sc. | 50 | 407 | 9,000 |
| 1906 | McGill Univ. Col. | Vancouver, B.C. | Non-Sect. | Geo. E. Robinson (Act.) | 24 | 340 | 1,600 |
| 1821 | McGill University | Montreal, Can. | Indepen. | Wm. Peterson, M.A. | 280 | 2,104 | 140,000 |
| 1887 | McMaster University | Toronto, Ont. | Baptist | A.L. McCrimman, M.A. | 30 | 300 | 20,000 |
| 1873 | Montreal Diocesan Theo. | Montreal, Can. | Prot.Epis. | E.I. Rexford, M.A. | 5 | 30 | 7,000 |
| 1863 | Mt. Allison University | Sackville, N.B. | Methodist | Byron C. Borden, D.D. | 21 | 250 | 12,000 |
| 1874 | Ontario Ladies’ College | Whitby, Ont. | Methodist | Rev. J.J. Hare, M.A. | 22 | 185 | 7,000 |
| 1867 | Presbyterian College | Montreal, Can. | Presbyt’n. | John Scringer, D.D. | 21 | 80 | 20,000 |
| 1855 | Provincial Nor. College | Truro, N.S. | State | David Soloam, LL.D. | 20 | 425 | 4,000 |
| 1847 | Queen’s University | Kingston, Ont. | Non-Sect. | Very Rev. D.M. Gordon | 125 | 1,610 | 67,000 |
| 1888 | Ridley College | St. Cath’n’s. Ont. | Anglican | Rev. J.O. Miller, M.A. | 15 | 160 | 2,500 |
| 1899 | St. Andrew’s College | Toronto, Ont. | ... | Rev. D.B. Macdonald, M.A. | 18 | 250 | ... |
| 1851 | Trinity College | Toronto, Ont. | Prot.Epis. | Rev. T.C.S. Macklem | 24 | 180 | 15,000 |
| 1845 | Univ. of Bishop’s Col. | Lennoxville, Que. | Prot.Epis. | Rev. R.A. Parrock | 9 | 60 | 11,500 |
| 1912 | Univ. of Calgary | Calgary, Alb. | Non-Sect. | F.H. Dougall (Act.) | 11 | 268 | ... |
| 1852 | Universite Laval U. | Quebec | Non-Sect. | Mgr. Amedee Gosselin, M.A. | 70 | 474 | 100,000 |
| 1877 | Univ. of Manitoba | Winnipeg, Man. | State | James A. MacLean, Ph.D. | 43 | 881 | 12,790 |
| 1800 | Univ. of New Brunswick | Fredericton, N.B. | State | Cecil C. Jones (Chan.) | 18 | 165 | 10,000 |
| 1907 | Univ. of Saskatchewan | Saskatoon, Sask. | State | Walter C. Murray, M.A. | 41 | 381 | ... |
| 1855 | U. of St. Fran. Xav. Col. | Antigonish, N.S. | Catholic | H.P. MacPherson, D.D. | 19 | 225 | 22,000 |
| 1841 | Victoria Col. and Univ. | Toronto, Ont. | Methodist | Rev. R.P. Bowles, M.A. | 28 | 610 | 25,080 |
| 1873 | Wesleyan Theo. Col. | Montreal, Can. | Methodist | Rev. J. Smyth, B.A. | 4 | 100 | 5,000 |
| 1877 | Wycliffe College | Toronto, Ont. | Prot.Epis. | Thos. R. O’Meara, LL.D. | 8 | 118 | ... |
Government.—Canada is a self-governing dominion created by an Act of the British Parliament in March, 1867, known as the British North America Act. The Act provides that the Constitution of the Dominion shall be similar in principal to that of the United Kingdom; that the executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, and carried on in his name by a Governor-General and Privy Council; and that the legislative power shall be exercised by a Parliament of two Houses, called the “Senate” and the “House of Commons.”
Therefore, the executive government of Canada is vested in the king, who is represented by a Governor-General appointed by him for a term of five years. The emoluments of the Governor-General are, however, paid out of Canadian revenues.
The Governor-General has a right, which is, of course, very seldom exercised, to disallow or reserve bills for imperial consent. The Constitution of Canada cannot be altered save by the Imperial Parliament, but to all intents and purposes Canada has complete autonomy.
The Legislature.—The legislative power is a Parliament, consisting of an Upper House, styled the Senate, and a House of Commons.
The Senate consists at present of eighty-seven members, distributed between the various provinces thus: twenty-four for Ontario, twenty-four for Quebec, ten for Nova Scotia, ten for New Brunswick, four for Prince Edward Island, three for British Columbia, four for Manitoba, four for Alberta, and four for Saskatchewan. The members of the Senate are appointed for life by the Crown on the nomination of the Ministry for the time being; each nominee must be thirty years old, a resident in the province for which he is appointed, a natural born or naturalized subject of the king, and the owner of property amounting to four thousand dollars.
The House of Commons is chosen every five years at longest, and consists of two hundred and thirty-one members, elected as follows: eighty-two being elected for Ontario, sixty-five for Quebec, sixteen for Nova Scotia, eleven for New Brunswick, fifteen for Manitoba, eleven for British Columbia, three for Prince Edward Island, twelve for Alberta, fifteen for Saskatchewan, and one for Yukon. The House of Commons is also composed of natural born or naturalized subjects of the king; no property qualification is necessary, and its members are elected upon a very wide suffrage. The members of the House themselves elect their Speaker, and twenty, including the Speaker, form a quorum.
Each province has also a separate Legislature and administration, with a Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Governor-General, at the head of the Executive.
The Judicature.—Justice is administered, as in England, by judges, police magistrates, and justices of the peace, of whom the first named are appointed by the Governor-General, for life, from among the foremost men at the Bar in the several provinces. The highest court is the Supreme Court of Canada, composed of a Chief Justice and five associate judges, and holding three sessions in the year at Ottawa. The only other Dominion Court, viz., the Exchequer Court of Canada, is presided over by a separate judge, and its sittings may be held anywhere in Canada. The Provincial Courts include the Court of Chancery, Court of King’s Bench, Court of Error and Appeal, Superior Courts, County Courts, General Sessions, and Division Courts. The duties of coroners are generally analogous to those in force in England, as are also methods of civil and criminal procedure, while trial by jury prevails.
Cities.—The capital and seat of government of the Canadian Dominion is at Ottawa, population, 1911, 87,062.
Montreal, however, is the largest city of Canada, 470,480. It has extensive trade and manufactures, and from it the magnificent Victoria tubular bridge carries the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada across the St. Lawrence, which is here two miles wide.
Quebec, 79,910, the capital of the lower province, is the great shipping place for the Lower St. Lawrence, and is a picturesque old town, with walls and fortifications. Near it are the memorable Plains of Abraham.
Toronto, 376,538, on the northwest shore of Lake Ontario, is the local capital of the western provinces and the educational center of the Dominion, possessing a university and numerous schools.
Other cities include: Winnipeg, Man., 136,035; Vancouver, B. C, 100,401; Hamilton, Ont., 81,969; Quebec, Que., 78,910; Halifax, N. S., 46,619; London, Ont., 46,300.
Ottawa is situated upon the south bank of the Ottawa River, one hundred and twenty miles from its junction with the St. Lawrence at Montreal. The river here forms the splendid Chaudière Falls (two hundred yards wide and forty feet high), above which a suspension bridge spans the river, and which supply the motive-power for the numerous lumber mills, flour mills and factories.
East of the city the River Rideau forms a second fall. The Rideau Canal passes through the center of the city, and connects with the Rideau Lakes, and so with the great lakes beyond. Opposite the city, to the northeast, the Gatineau River joins the Ottawa.
It is a city of stately public buildings, of turfed drives and wooded pleasure grounds, and there is a constant round of social and official events connected with the meetings of Parliament and other public functions. The Grand Trunk system has added to the attractions of the city by building the Chateau Laurier, which enjoys a continent-wide reputation as being in the first rank of famous hotels.
The parliamentary buildings, constructed in the Italian Gothic style after 1860, are on a bluff on the river bank. They include the handsome library building and the Victoria Tower (one hundred and eighty feet). Adjoining buildings on Parliament Hill are devoted to departments of the Dominion government. The residence of the Governor-General—an old fashioned building, called Rideau Hall—is about a mile from the city. The post-office, city hall, banks and telegraph offices are handsomely built of stone.
Ottawa is the place of residence of the bishop of Ontario (Church of England), and of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ottawa, who has a cathedral here. There are a normal school and a collegiate institute, a very large college conducted by the Oblate Fathers, a ladies’ college, a musical academy, an art school, a well-equipped geological museum, and the parliamentary library, with three hundred thousand volumes.
The industries of Ottawa are mostly connected with lumber. In the winter thousands of men are engaged in cutting timber and drawing it to the streams, and in the spring the freshets carry the rafts down to the mills. Flour, iron wares, bricks, leather, and matches are also manufactured.
The city was begun in the last years of the eighteenth century by a settler named Wright, of Boston, Massachusetts, who built a residence near the Chaudière, and called the village which he founded Hull. The construction of the Rideau Canal stimulated the settlement, which was called Bytown. In 1854 its name was changed to Ottawa, and the town was created a city. In 1858 Ottawa was chosen as the administrative capital of Canada. The first parliament met here in 1865.
History.—In 1534 Jacques Cartier landed on the Gaspé coast of Quebec, of which he took possession in the name of Francis I., king of France. Little was done by way of settlement till 1608, when Champlain founded Quebec. From this time till 1763 Canada, from Acadia (Nova Scotia) to Lake Superior and down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, was held to be French territory.
The struggle between Great Britain and France for supremacy was long and bitter, but ended in 1763 with the treaty of Paris, by which all the French dominions in Canada were ceded to Britain, save the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, retained by France as fishing stations. Hudson Bay territory, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland had passed to England by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
Through the American War of Independence, what is now Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois was lost in 1783 to the United States, no longer British colonies. Quebec was in 1791 divided into Lower and Upper Canada. A rebellion took place in 1837-1838, and the provinces were reunited in 1840. Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick were separated from Nova Scotia in 1770 and 1784. British Columbia was made a crown colony in 1858, and Vancouver Island joined to it in 1866. The confederation of all the British North American provinces—except Newfoundland—took place in 1867-1871, and the prosperity of the Dominion was only temporarily disturbed by the Red River rebellion of 1869.
The fishery rights have repeatedly been a source of controversy between Canada and Great Britain on the one hand and the United States on the other, and the dispute about sealing in Behring Sea and off the Alaskan coasts was only settled by arbitration in 1893. The Alaska boundary dispute was settled in 1903.
A proposed reciprocity agreement with the United States in the year 1911 saw the decisive defeat at the polls of the Laurier policy and the Liberal party. In October Robert L. Borden took over the reins of government, as Premier, and Earl Grey was succeeded as Governor-General by the Duke of Connaught. In 1916 the Duke of Devonshire succeeded as Governor-General.
The great European war of 1914 and following brought Canada to the vigorous support of Great Britain and the Entente Allies, and has done much toward the political, military and economic solidarity of the Dominion.
Mexico
MEXICO (or Méjico; Span. pron. Meh´hē-co, from a native word), a federal republic of North America, embraces twenty-seven states, a federal district, and four territories. It extends between the United States and Guatemala, with an extreme length of nearly two thousand miles; its breadth varies between one thousand and (in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec) one hundred and thirty miles. It has a coast-line of almost six thousand miles, but with scarcely a safe harbor beyond the noble haven of Acapulco. On the Atlantic side, with its sand banks and lagoons, there are only open roadsteads, or river-mouths generally closed to ocean vessels by bars and shallows; harbor works, however, have been constructed at Vera Cruz and Tampico.
From the southeast and northwest extremities of the republic there extend the peninsulas of Yucatan and Lower California, enclosing the Gulfs of Campeche and California, respectively. In area (751,300 square miles) Mexico almost equals Great Britain and Ireland, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary together.
Surface.—For the most part Mexico consists of an immense tableland, which commences in the United States, and rises to over eight thousand one hundred feet at Marquez, seventy-six miles north by west of Mexico City; at El Paso, on the northern frontier, the elevation is only three thousand seven hundred and seventeen feet. The most important mountain range is the Sierra Madre (over ten thousand feet, and extending from Tehuantepec into the United States); parallel with this run the Sierras of the east coast and of Lower California.
The surface of the country is also much broken up by short cross-ridges and detached peaks. There are numerous volcanoes, but only a few of them are more or less active. The more prominent are Orizaba (Citlaltepetl, “star mountain”), Popocatepetl (“smoking mountain”); Ixtaccihuatl (“white woman”); Nevada de Toluca, and Malinche.
On the Atlantic side the plateau descends abruptly to the narrow strip (about sixty miles) of gently sloping coast land; toward the Pacific, where the coast lands vary in width from forty to seventy miles, the descent is more gradual.
Rivers and Lakes.—From their rapid fall the rivers of such a mountainous region could never be of value for transport or communication. The Rio Grande del Norte, the boundary river, is only navigable for sixty miles up from the Gulf of Mexico, and the largest interior river—the Rio Grande de Santiago, flowing west to the Pacific—is barred across by many waterfalls, though its upper course expands to form Lake Chapála, the largest sheet of water in Mexico, fully fifty miles in length.
Climate and Landscape.—Though Mexico lies just on the border of the torrid zone, the climate is governed to a far greater extent by elevation than by position in latitude, and distinct climates are recognized at different stages just as in the plateau of Abyssinia.
The low coast land and the maritime region below an elevation of two thousand feet, called the Tierra Caliente, presents all the characteristics of tropical lands.
Above an elevation of two thousand feet, and up the slopes of the mountains to a height of about five thousand feet, a climate is found in which the landscape takes the aspect of that of the temperate zone.
This stage is known as the Tierra Templada.
NATIONAL PALACE, CITY OF MEXICO
Still higher, above five thousand feet, a cool region is reached, which is known as the Tierra Fria. This includes the summit of the tableland and the pine covered slopes of the mountains up to the height at which some of the peaks are capped with perennial snows. Much of this high tableland is valuable only for pasture; towards the north and northeast, where the plateau is wider, the landscape becomes bare and dry, and salt lakes like those of the plateau region of the western United States appear. Deeply cut “cañons” or “barrancas,” gorges with steep walls furrowed out by the mountain torrents, are characteristic of the plateau.
Production and Industry.—The vegetation of Mexico has the same wide range as the climate. In the lowlands dye woods and valuable timbers abound in the virgin forests, as well as medicinal plants, india rubber, palms, etc.; and oranges and bananas, many varieties of cactus, agave, sisal, olives, sugar, coffee, cocoa, rice, indigo, cotton and tobacco, besides the omnipresent maize, all thrive. The vine flourishes in some districts, especially near El Paso, Durango, and Parras, in Coahuila, where a good wine is made; and mulberry plants have been imported from Europe to develop the silk industry. In Lower California a good deal of archil is collected, and chicle gum is extracted and prepared in the forests along the coast.
Agriculture in Mexico is steadily developing. Silver mining has been an important industry ever since the conquest. Gold is also produced. Copper is largely mined in some sections, being found in a pure state in Chiapas and Guanajuato, and elsewhere associated with gold. Other important minerals are iron, including enormous masses of meteoric iron ore, and the mountain a mile from Durango, the Cerro de Mercado, a solid mass of magnetic iron ore; lead, found associated with silver; and sulpher, zinc, quicksilver, platinum, cinnabar, asphalt and petroleum, besides salt, marble, alabaster, gypsum, and rock salt in great quantities. There are also said to be large deposits of coal, some of excellent quality.
Mexico is the original home of the “cattle range” business, and there vast herds of horses, cattle, and sheep form the principal wealth of the people.
Woolen and cotton spinning and weaving, and other branches of industry are encouraged by high protective duties.
People.—The population of Mexico consists mainly of the indigenous Indian race, and of the dominant Spaniards or their descendants. Spaniards born in Europe are now very few in number, but the government of the country is in the hands of the “Creoles,” or people of Spanish descent born in Mexico. They number about twenty per cent, mixed Hispano-Americans, or mestizos, forty-three per cent, and full blood Indians thirty-five per cent of the whole population. The mestizos are the farmers and rancheros, the muleteers and servants. Whites and mestizos speak Spanish.
The Roman Catholic is the religion of the country, but all beliefs are tolerated, and education, now free and compulsory, is making steady progress.
Government.—The Mexican constitution is closely modeled upon that of the United States. The president, who is assisted by secretaries of state, is elected for four years, and can be re-elected for a second term. The [671] legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of a Senate of fifty-six members, and a Chamber of Deputies of two hundred and thirty-three members. The judicial system occupies the same position as that of the United States; and the several states have elective governors and legislatures.
Owing to revolutionary conditions the civil government was practically suspended in September, 1914. (See under History of Mexico.)
THE CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO
Cities.—The principal cities are Mexico City, the capital, population 470,000. Puébla, east of the capital, among the mountains, is the second town and the most industrious place in Mexico. Guadalajara, northwest, is also a city of magnificent palaces and churches. Vera Cruz, founded by Cortez, is the only port on the Atlantic. On the Pacific side the chief seaports are Mazatlan and Acapulco, with a fine harbor. Other important towns are Oaxaca, Puebla, and Durango.
The railway system joins that of the United States at El Paso on the Rio Grande.
Mexico City is situated seven thousand four hundred and ten feet above the sea at the lowest level of the great basin (fourteen hundred square miles) of the Anahuac plateau.
All the main streets converge on the Plaza Mayor, where the site of the old teocalli is occupied by the no less famous Cathedral. The walls of this imposing building, forming a cross four hundred and twenty-six by two hundred and three feet, alone cost nearly two million dollars, and the interior with its twenty chapels and elaborate ornamentation, much more. Built into the foot of one of the two open towers (two hundred and eighteen feet) is the famous “Aztec” (Toltec) calendar stone.
Facing the cathedral is the Municipal Palace, and on the sides of the plaza are the National Palace (the old vice-regal residence), the national Monte de Piedad, the postoffice, and the national museum.
Other noteworthy buildings are the national picture gallery and library (two hundred and fifty thousand volumes), the national observatory, the school of mines, the mint, the Iturbide hotel, and the former palace of the Inquisition, now a medical college; and, mostly in secularized ecclesiastical edifices, there are also schools of law and engineering, a conservatory of music, and an academy of fine arts.
Among the monuments of the city are the noble Columbus monument, the statue of Cuauhtemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, and that of the engineer Martinez.
The principal streets are broad, clean, and well paved and lighted, with houses of stone gaily painted in bright colors. In addition to the alameda, with its stately beaches, Mexico is remarkable for the extent and beauty of its paseos, or raised paved roads, planted with double rows of trees, which diverge far into the country from every quarter; and there are still on Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco, where a line of steamers runs, a few of the floating gardens for which the ancient city was so celebrated.
Attempts had long been made to drain the valley of Mexico. The federal government finally undertook the work, and operations begun in 1890 were completed in 1898 at a cost of about sixteen million dollars. Extensive drainage and sanitation works have since been carried out at a cost of five million seven hundred and fourteen thousand nine hundred and eighty-two dollars.
In 1905 a sumptuous legislative palace, a national Pantheon for the ashes of the great men of Mexico, and a monument to perpetuate the heroes of the independence were under construction, at a cost of thirty million dollars.
The trade of Mexico is chiefly a transit trade, but it has now extensive cotton and linen factories, paper mills, tobacco and cigars, gold and silver work, pottery, silverware, cork, bricks, and soap—many of them due to foreign enterprise.
History of Mexico.—The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two distinct and widely differing periods—that of the Toltecs and that of the Aztecs. Both were Nahua nations, speaking a language which survives in Mexico to this day.
The eighth century is the traditional date when the Toltecs are related to have come from the north, from some undefined locality, bringing to Anahuac, or Mexico, its oldest and its highest native civilization, about 1325. A [672] hundred years later, under the reign of Montezuma II., they had attained a suzerainty over all the tribes from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
On the coming of the Spaniards under Cortez in 1519, Aztec rule was finally overthrown, chiefly by means of the assistance the Spaniards received from those peoples whom the Aztecs had held in cruel bondage.
In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories—at one time all the country from Panama to Vancouver’s Island—under the name of New Spain, and governed by viceroys (fifty-seven in all) appointed by the mother country, Spain. For nearly three centuries it may be said to have lain in sullen submission beneath its cruel conqueror’s heel, till in 1810 the discontent, which had been gaining ground against the vice-regal power during the war of Spain with Napoleon, broke into open rebellion under the leadership of a country priest named Hidalgo.
In 1822 General Iturbide had himself proclaimed emperor; but the guerilla leader Guerrero, his former ally, and General Santa Anna raised the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a pension. Returning the following year he was taken and shot, and the federal republic of Mexico was finally established.
For more than half a century after this (till 1876) the history of Mexico is a record of chronic disorder and civil war. In 1836 Texas secured its independence, for which it had struggled for several years, and which Mexico was compelled to recognize in 1845. In that year Texas was incorporated with the United States, and after the Mexican war of 1848 Mexico ceded half a million square miles to the United States.
The Emperor Napoleon III. declared war against the president, Juarez, in 1862; the Austrian Emperor of Mexico, Maximilian, imposed by the French, was executed in 1867, and the republic re-established. Diaz was re-elected president for the eighth time in 1910, but, being too autocratic, had to resign under pressure of revolution in 1911. In the ensuing welter of revolts and conspiracies President Madero was set aside and killed, and the United States applied pressure to eliminate President Huerta. From this time on the relations of the United States with Mexico became more strained. During 1915-1916, following repeated attacks made by bands of Mexican bandits upon American border towns and assaults by Mexicans upon Americans and other foreigners in Mexico, the relations between the two countries approached a crisis. Early in 1916 nineteen men, nearly all of them Americans, were taken from a train near Chihuahua and killed by a band of bandits.
Conditions became still more tense when, on March 9, several hundred bandits led by Villa raided and burned the town of Columbus, N. M., killing nine American civilians and eight United States soldiers. On March 10 President Wilson ordered five thousand United States troops into Mexico to catch Villa, and two days later the first troops crossed the border. On March 16 the first clash occurred between Villa outposts and the American expeditionary force. On June 18 the war department ordered all the state militia mobilized, and within the next two weeks fifty thousand of the state soldiers had been rushed to the border.
President Wilson later in the year named an American commission at the suggestion of General Carranza, which, jointly with a Mexican commission, began its sessions at New London, Conn. The sessions continued until November 24, when a protocol was signed providing for the withdrawal of the United States troops from Mexico in forty days, conditioned upon the Carranza Government showing within that time that it could protect the border and prevent raids by bandits upon American territory.
Two days before the signing of this protocol Villa, at the head of a strong force, attacked Chihuahua City, and after a battle lasting several days captured the city.
Carranza forces regained control of Chihuahua City December 3, and Villa’s forces fled to the mountains west of the city, where they were later reported to be gathering new recruits in preparation for more extensive operations.
The year 1917 was ushered in with the struggle between the Carranza and Villa factions still in progress.