The Circle of Knowledge

Domesticated Animals

DOMESTICATED MAMMALS: Alpaca, Ass, Camel, Cat, Cattle, Dog, Elephant, Gayal, Goat, Guinea Pig, Horse, Llama, Rabbit, Reindeer, Sheep, Swine, Yak, Zebu. DOMESTICATED FISH: Carp, Goldfish. DOMESTICATED BIRDS: Canary, Chickens or Fowls, Duck, Guinea, Goose, Ostrich, Parrot, Peacock, Pigeon, Swan, Turkey. DOMESTICATED INSECTS: Bee, Cochineal, Silkworm Moth.

Domestic animals are those kept for the use or companionship of man. When studied in their relation to the animal kingdom as a whole it is readily seen that they belong to the highest groups of animals; but the actual process of original domestication is unknown to us. It is also very evident that the origin of some of the domesticated groups themselves is very obscure. In general it may be said that only when a distinct breed has been produced by human interference may we call the result domestication.

Classes to Which the Domestic Animals Belong

Among the highest class of animals—the Mammals—familiar illustrations are dogs and cats, horses and asses, cattle, elephants, camels, and the like. Birds include the domesticated pigeons, fowls, ducks, ostrich, peacock, canary, and others. Among fishes, goldfish and carp belong to the domestic class; while the honey bee and the silkworm moth belong to the lowest domestic group—the insects.

Where Animals Were First Domesticated

The original home of fully three-fourths of our domestic animals was the continent of Asia, where, also, the first home of man himself is placed. It seems quite probable that nearly all of these animals were first held as captives by the early peoples for food supply, and that their other uses developed later. As the races spread to the continent of Europe and thence over the habitable world, their animal servants spread with them, and others were added, adapted to varying climatic and other conditions. Our own continent—North America—has added only the turkey and the cochineal insect, while South America has contributed the alpaca, llama, and guinea-pig. No new domestic animals have been developed during the last two thousand years; and the natural conclusion is that all must have come into use at various stages from the very earliest period of man down to the time of the Christian Era.

Results of Domestication on Animals

Many animals have been greatly changed in form, size and habits by domestication, especially the dog, sheep, pig, donkey, pigeon and chicken, so that a great variety of breeds and strains have been developed. Many kinds of dogs are incapable of existence apart from human care. The donkey does not run wild, and chickens are never found at a great distance from human habitations. Others, though much varied in form and size, are still capable of independent existence, such as the horse, goat, ox, cat, and goose, but a group like the cheetah, water buffalo, and swan are only partially domesticated, and little changed by association with man.

Domesticated Mammals

Alpaca (Auchenia Paco), an animal of the same genus with the llama, belongs to the Camel family, is the half-domesticated form of the wild vicuna. It is remarkable for the length and fineness of the wool, which is of a silken texture, and of an uncommonly lustrous, almost metallic appearance. The alpaca is smaller than the llama, and, in form, somewhat resembles the sheep, but has a longer neck and more elegant head. It carries its long neck erect; its motions are free and active, its ordinary pace a rapid, bounding canter. The eyes are very large and beautiful. The wool, if regularly shorn, is supposed to grow about six or eight inches in a year; but if allowed to remain upon the animal for several years, attains a much greater length, sometimes even thirty inches, and not unfrequently twenty. Its color varies; it is often yellowish brown; sometimes gray, or approaching to white; sometimes almost black.

The alpaca is a native of the Andes, from the equator to Tierra del Fuego, but is most frequent on the highest mountains of Peru and Chile, almost on the borders of perpetual snow, congregating in flocks of one or two hundred. The Peruvians keep vast flocks of them for the sake of the silky luster and fineness of their wool, which furnishes material for the best of fabrics.

The alpaca does not acclimatize in other regions of the world, and all attempts to introduce and establish it as a wool-bearing animal in Europe and the United States have failed.

Ass (Equus asinus), a species of the horse genus, supposed to have sprung from the wild variety (Asinus tæniopus) found in Abyssinia. It differs from the horse in having short hair at the root of the tail and a long tuft at the end, in the absence of warts on the hind-legs, and in the persistence of stripes, except in albinos. The upright mane, the long ears, the cross stripe on the shoulders, and the dark bands on the back are also characteristic. The domestication took place at an early date, probably before that of the horse. It was brought to Mexico and South America by the Spaniards.

In Arabia, Syria, Egypt, Spain, Kentucky, and elsewhere asses are well cared for, and the breed has been considerably varied and improved. The stupidity for which the animal has for long been proverbially reproached seems largely the result of human influence.

The Mule is a hybrid bred between mare and male ass; while the hinny is the rarer result of hybridism between horse and female ass. The mule is much nearer in temper and appearance to the ass than to the horse; the hinny in some points resembles the horse more, as it neighs, while the mule brays like the ass. The ass is admirably adapted for a beast of burden, being remarkable for endurance, hardiness, and docility under kind treatment. It varies greatly in size, from dwarf forms only twenty to thirty inches high in the West Indies to fine Spanish and American breeds sixteen hands high.

The Burro, used almost exclusively as a pack animal by miners and prospectors in the mountain regions of the western states, is a small form.

Banteng (Bos sondaicus), a species of ox, a native of Java and Borneo, which, in color, shape, horns, and absence of dewlap, bears some resemblance in appearance and ferocity to the gaur (Bos gaurus) of India. It is black, with white legs; the hair is short and sleek; the limbs slender; the muzzle sharp; the back rises into a high arch immediately behind the neck.

Camel (camelus), called by the Arabs the “ship of the desert” is a misshapen animal of the even-toed group. In this family, the upper lip is hairy and deeply cleft; the neck is very long; the feet (with two toes) are not enhoofed, but provided with callous soles; and the stomach has three compartments. The family includes the camels proper and the various forms of alpaca.

The camels are well known for their large size, for their dorsal humps, for their callosities on knees, breast, etc., for the common sole uniting the two toes. The ears are small and rounded; the short tail bears a terminal switch; the hair is tangled and felted; a single young one is born; and the diet is wholly vegetarian.

One species is usually spoken of as the Dromedary. It has a single hump and a generally reddish-gray color. There are many breeds, and the dromedary is the most agile of these. Apart from its use in transit and transport, the flesh is eaten, the milk made into butter and cheese, the hair woven into fabrics of various degrees of fineness, and the skin tanned.

The other camel is known as the Bactrian, and is distinguished by its slightly larger size, two dorsal humps, and somewhat finer brown or reddish hair. This camel is bred in central Asia, and in its adaptability to domestication, as well as in its natural adaptation to desert life, is a most useful animal. Its frugal diet, its powers of storing water and of going long without a fresh supply, and its great strength are very familiar facts. A camel will eat almost any herbage or green thing it comes across, even dried, leafless twigs. The hair of [247] the camel forms the woof and cotton the warp of the famous Persian camel’s-hair cloth. Coarser camel’s wool or hair is imported for various purposes.

The Bactrian camel can carry one thousand pounds weight or more, and the dromedary proper can cover one hundred miles in a day. The ordinary jog of a camel is about two and one-half miles an hour, but this can be kept up for many days with little food and less drink. A swift dromedary may go ten miles an hour. A thousand or more may journey in a caravan, and the amount of food carried is surprisingly small. The hump must be in good condition before starting. In the stomach-reservoirs a gallon and a half of water can be stowed away. Like some other frugal animals, the camel enjoys a long life of thirty or forty years.

In disposition the camel is peculiarly stolid, not to say stupid. Whether domestication has been too much for it, there can be no doubt that its “docility” is more the result of habitual nonchalance than any outcome of intelligent subservience. It is usually very submissive, except when habitually thwarted or ill-treated.

The camel is the most useful and important of all African domestic animals; without it commerce would be impossible across some districts which are nearly devoid of water and plants. In Australia, also, it has become valuable for interior expeditions, and camel corps have been formed by European troops in the Sudan, and are a permanent branch of the Egyptian army.

BLUE RUSSIAN

ABYSSINIAN

PERSIAN, OR ANGORA (above)
MALTESE KITTENS (below)

Cat

Cat (Felis domestica) is known to everybody. Its nearest relation is the Wild Cat (Felis catus), but it is not a tamed descendant of this wild cat but seems, like other domestic animals, to have come from the East. It is usually, though not with absolute certainty, regarded as the descendant of the Egyptian cat which was domesticated in Egypt thirteen centuries B. C. From Egypt the domestic cat spread through Europe, and was confined to those who could afford a high price for the pet.

THE VARIETIES OF CATS ARE
DUE TO COLOR AND FUR

The varieties of domestic cat concern color and quality of fur, not differences of form, as in the case of dogs. Thus we have (1) black cats with clear yellow eyes, usually with a few white hairs, and with hints of markings in the kittens; (2) white cats, sometimes with blue eyes, and then generally deaf; (3) tabby cats, like the wild species, and perhaps the result of crossing with the same; (4) gray cats, which are rare, and differ from the tabby forms in having no black stripes, except the common ones over the forelegs; (5) tortoise-shell, fawn-colored, and mottled with black, usually females; and (6) sandy-colored, usually males. The royal Siamese cat is fawn-colored, with blue eyes and small head; the Carthusian or blue cat has long, dark, grayish-blue fur, with black [248] lips and soles; the Angora, or Persian cat is large, fine furred, generally white, tending to yellow or gray, and possibly derived from an Asiatic species. The Malay cat, in Pegu, Siam, and Burma, has a tail only half the normal length; the Manx cat of the Isle of Man is tailless and has longer hind-legs. A fine all-blue cat comes from Russia and Iceland, and there are characteristic breeds from India, Abyssinia, and other parts of the world.

CHARACTERISTICS AND HABITS
OF CATS

The domestic cat is too well known to require description. It has been known to attain a weight of twenty-three pounds and an age of eighteen years. Though thoroughly domesticated, it retains many characteristics of wildness, especially in its private hunting expeditions, nocturnal wanderings, unsocial habits, and generally self-centered, not entirely confident disposition. When turned out in the woods it usually adapts itself readily. Domestication has had a different influence on cat and on dog, and the former may be fairly said to have surrendered itself less. Its sense of smell has probably degenerated, but is still very sensitive to certain favorite odors. The great dilatability of the pupil enables it to make the most of feeble light. The dry fur, freed from any oily matter and readily injured by water, becomes highly electric by friction, especially in dry or frosty weather.

CATS POSSESS UNUSUAL
INTELLIGENCE

In cats the senses of sight, hearing, and touch are very highly developed, and the intelligence is proportionately great. That they exhibit great adroitness in catching their prey is well known, but the climax is reached in certain recorded cases where a young bird was used as a decoy for its parents, and where crumbs were scattered or scraped from beneath the snow to attract sparrows. A remarkable case is recorded of a cat which, being accidentally ignited by paraffin, ran one hundred yards and plunged into a trough of water.

SUPERSTITIONS REGARDING
CATS

Cats have been objects of superstition from the earliest ages. In Egypt they were held in the highest reverence; temples were erected in their honor; sacrifices and devotions were offered to them; and it was customary for the family in whose house a cat died to shave their eyebrows. The favorite shape of Satan was said to be that of a black cat, and the animal was an object of dread instead of veneration. Many people still prophesy rainy weather from a cat washing over its ears or simply its face; and a cat-call on the housetop was formerly held to signify death.

Cattle, or Ox

Cattle, or Ox.—All farm animals were once called cattle, belonging to the bovine genus; nowadays this term applies only to beef and dairy animals—meat cattle. Our improved breeds are descended from the wild ox (bos) of Europe and Asia, and have attained their size and usefulness by care, food, and selection. The uses of cattle are familiar. Their flesh is part of the daily food of man—butter, cheese, and milk are on every table; their hides go to make leather; their hair forms part of plaster; their hoofs are used for glue; their bones for fertilizer, ornaments and buttons, and many other purposes. Cattle are primarily used, however, for meat and milk. This being the case, breeders have quite naturally chosen their animals with one or another of these purposes in mind. There have been developed consequently two classes of breeders, those that excel as milk producers or butter cows, and those that on being slaughtered dress out large quantities of the most marketable meat.

TWO GENERAL TYPES
OF CATTLE

The differences between these two leading classes is one of form, type and quality, as the breeders say. A good dairy cow has a very soft, mellow skin, and fine, silky hair. Her head is narrow and long, and the distance between the eyes is noticed to be great. This indicates much nerve force, an important quality of the heavy milkers. The neck of a good dairy cow is long and thin. The shoulders are thin and lithe, and narrow at the top. The back is open, angular, and tapering toward the tail. The hips are wide apart and covered with little meat. The good cow is also thin in the region of the thigh and flank, but very deep through the stomach girth, as a result of the long, open ribs. The udder is large, attached well forward on the abdomen, and high up behind. It should be full but not fleshy. The lacteal or milk veins ought also to be large, and extend considerably toward the front legs.

REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS OF
MILK PRODUCERS

The Holstein-Friesians from Holland, Jerseys, Guernseys and Alderneys from the English Channel islands, the Ayrshires from Scotland, Dutch Belted, French Canadians, and Kerry cattle, the latter from Ireland, and Brown Swiss from Switzerland, are all especially dairy cattle. The Holstein-Friesians are large and noted for their heavy production of milk and at the same time large carcasses, while, on the other hand, the Jerseys, Guernseys and Alderneys are less in size and noted for the richness of their milk rather than its great quantity. The Jersey shares popular honors in the dairy world with the Holstein-Friesian.

Ayrshire.—Medium size, standard weight for cows 1000 pounds, bulls 1500 pounds or more. A little smoother than Jersey or Holstein but from behind wedge shape is evident. Tips of ears notched, horns white with black tips and curve outward and upward. Body large and deep, ribs well sprung, hindquarters often heavy. Udder shows high development of form and setting. Color variable though red, white and brown in patches. Mild but active disposition. Dairy breed.

Brown-Swiss.—Weight for cows 1200 pounds and bulls 1800 pounds. Colors shade from light to dark chestnut brown. Light tuft of hair between horns, on inside of ears, and a narrow line along back. Nose black, mouth surrounded with meal-colored band. Horns with black tips, medium size. Face dishing, large, full eye; ribs well sprung. Hoofs and tongue black, udder large, extending well up in front and rear. Teats large, well placed. Short legs. Dairy breed.

Guernsey.—Clean-cut, lean face, long, thin neck, backbone rising well between shoulder blades, pelvis arching and wide, rump long, abdomen large and deep, udder full in front, of large size and capacity. Teats well apart, and of good even size. Hair a shade of fawn with white markings, cream colored nose, horns amber, small, curved and not coarse. Mature cows about 1050 pounds. Bulls 1200 to 1500 pounds. Dairy breed.

SPLENDID HERDS AND FLOCKS ON AMERICAN FARMS

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS ON A MODERN DAIRY FARM IN IOWA

This fine breed of dairy cattle probably excels all others for the general purposes of the dairy-farm. As milk producers they outrank all other breeds as they do also in size.

A FINE FLOCK RESTING BENEATH THE TREES OF MONTANA

Holstein-Friesian.—Color black and white piebald. Head broad between eyes, eyes large and bright, horns small, tapering toward tips, neck long, chest moderately deep and low, barrel long and wedge shaped, large abdomen, legs rather short and nearly straight and wide apart. Hair fine, soft and furry. Udder very capacious, extending well forward in front; teats well formed and wide apart. Dairy breed.

Jersey.—Small head, muzzle black or dark in color surrounded by light or mealy strip of light skin and hair. Eyes prominent, bright and wide apart. Horns crumpled, small, often black tipped. Neck fine, clean and small. Legs short, fine boned and small. Body well rounded, large and deep. Skin mellow, loose, yellow, with short fine silky hair. Udder large, not pendulous. Teats medium size, placed far apart. Back straight from shoulder to tail. Movement light and graceful. Cows 800 to 1000 pounds, bulls 1200 to 1500 pounds. Dairy breeds.

REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS OF
MEAT CATTLE

The beef cow presents a totally different appearance. She is square in shape, full and broad over the back and loins, possessing depth and quality particularly in these regions. The hips are evenly fleshed, the legs full and thick, the under line parallel with the straight back. The neck is full and short. The eye should be bright, the face short, the bones of fine texture the skin soft and pliable, and the flesh mellow, elastic to the touch, and rich in quality.

For meat the Short-horns (formerly called Durhams) and Herefords and their grades predominate. They are both English breeds with horns. In color the Short-horns are red and white or a mixture of these, while the Herefords are red with white faces, briskets, bellies and feet. The Aberdeen-Angus and Galloways are famous for their high qualities as beef makers, and are both of Scotch origin, black and hornless.

Aberdeen-Angus.—Black color, polled heads, rotund compact type, smoothness of conformation, short legs, evenness of flesh when fat, deep, full hindquarters. Beef breed.

Galloway.—Low, blocky animal, with long, soft, shaggy coat of black hair, hornless, well sprung in the ribs, resembling barrel in shape, which is evenly covered with juicy, lean flesh. Head short and wide, forehead broad, face clean, nostrils large. Eye large and prominent. Neck short, clean. Shoulders broad, joining body smoothly. Hindquarters long, wide, well filled. Rump straight, wide, carrying width of body out uniformly, well filled with flesh. Thighs broad and thick. Legs short and clean. Beef breed.

Hereford.—Color red and white. Head, including jaws and throat, white, white under neck, down the breast, under belly, and on legs. Bush of tail white, white strip on top of neck to top of shoulders, remainder of body red. Head short, forehead broad, eyes full, horns rather strong and of whitish yellow color, free from black tips, more or less drooping, neck short and thick. Hide heavy and loose and covered with dense soft coat of hair. Breast broad and full, free from loose dewlap. Shoulders broad on top. Ribs well sprung and extending well backward. Rump bones wide apart. Legs short, straight and set well apart. Line of back straight and level. Quarters full and well rounded. Beef breed.

Shorthorn.—Head wide between eyes, short from eyes to nostril. Horns short, curved forward waxy white with dark tips. Neck short and fine. Back straight, level and broad and deeply covered with flesh. Thighs wide, deep and long, well filled down in the twist. Body deep, squarely built. Flanks well let down, underline nearly straight. Legs medium length. Colors pure red, pure white, a mixture of these colors, or roan. Beef breed.

The breeds considered as chiefly serving the dual-purposes of milk and beef-making are Red Polls and Devons, both English breeds, and some of the Short-horn families having the milking characteristic best developed.

Red Polled.—Weight for bulls 1800 to 2000 pounds, cows 1300 to 1500 pounds. Color red. Nose flesh color. Switch of tail and udder white. Head medium length, wide between eyes. Poll well defined and prominent, neck of medium length, clean cut, straight from head to top of shoulder. Chest broad and deep, back long, straight and level, hips wide and well covered, legs short and straight. Udder full and flexible. Teats well placed and wide apart. Hide loose, mellow, with full coat of soft hair. Dual purpose breed.

CATTLE AS A FORM
OF INDUSTRY

Cattle are the chief source of wealth in many regions. Just as the horse is pre-eminent as a labor animal, the ox stands first as the food producing animal in modern civilization. The aggregate value of cattle products,—beef, milk, butter, cheese, hides, etc., far exceeds that of any other animal.

The relative economy of milk and beef production is now more and more commanding attention. The experiment stations have demonstrated that good dairy cows produce human food in the form of milk much more economically than food products can be obtained in the form of beef, pork or mutton.

A REMARKABLE EXPERIMENT
IN CATTLE VALUES

At one of the Stations, for example, the entire carcass of a steer and the milk of an Holstein cow were analyzed.

The steer when killed weighed twelve hundred and fifty pounds. The cow during the year gave eighteen thousand four hundred and five pounds of milk. From the milk of the cow, and from the carcass of the steer, the following number of pounds of human food substances were obtained. Of protein five hundred and fifty-two pounds from the milk, and one hundred and seventy-two pounds from the steer; of fat six hundred and eighteen pounds from the milk and three hundred and thirty-three pounds from the steer; of sugar nine hundred and twenty pounds from the milk and none from the steer; of mineral matter one hundred and twenty-eight pounds from the milk and forty-three pounds from the steer.

The steer’s body contained about fifty-six per cent of water, leaving five hundred and forty-eight pounds of dry matter, which included not only the edible, dry, lean meat and fat, but also every part of the body—horns, hide, bones, internal organs, etc. In one year the cow produced two thousand two hundred and eighteen pounds of dry matter, every part of which was wholly digestible and suitable for human food. In that time she produced enough protein to build the bodies of three steers, fat [251] enough for nearly two steers, and mineral matter enough for the skeletons of three, besides nine hundred and twenty pounds of milk sugar, as nutritious and useful for humans as the same weight of cane-sugar like that bought at the store.

ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE
DAIRY COW

These figures explain why dairy cows and not steers are kept on the valuable lands. When the cheap lands disappear, and rough food commands higher values, the beef cow will be raised as a luxury, and cattle will make their contribution to the human race largely in the form of milk, butter, and cheese. In the future more and more will the farmers of all countries turn to the dairy cows.

CHINESE POUCHONG

ARABIAN GAZELLE HOUND

SCOTCH COLLIE (above)
BIRD DOG OR POINTER (middle)
ENGLISH SETTER (lower)

Dog

Dog (Canis familiaris) is the most intelligent, affectionate, and devoted of domestic animals; in use by all peoples, and accompanying man throughout a wider range than any other animal, greatly exceeding the cat, donkey, or horse in this respect. It is very docile; its memory and its sense of localities and time are admirable. It is the constant companion of man, the protector of his house and of his herds, his helpmate in battle, a useful companion of the hunter, a draft animal, a guide, a buffoon, a postman, a comedian, and a brother of charity at St. Bernard. What creature can do more? Among its characteristic qualities, its faithfulness and gratitude are most prominent. No animal is attached to man in the same degree.

The domestication of the dog dates to primitive man, and far precedes the dawn of history, many important varieties being portrayed in the earliest sculptures. Most varieties have become so modified by domestication that they are unable to sustain themselves apart from man.

DIFFERENT BREEDS
OF DOGS

Dogs vary widely in color, form and size; in adaptation to climate from the hairless forms of the tropics to the heavily fur-coated Eskimo breeds; and in size from tiny lapdogs no larger than kittens to great Danes standing three feet high at the shoulder. There are some two hundred varieties which have resulted from the intercrossing of about six leading types, namely: wolf-like dogs, greyhounds, spaniels, hounds, mastiffs, and terriers.

Among sporting dogs, the bloodhound stands pre-eminent for its majesty of appearance and beauty of color, and is distinguished for the keenness of its scenting powers. The head of the bloodhound is long and narrow, and “peaked” on the top of the skull. There is much loose skin about the head, and the eye is sunken, showing the red skin beneath it.

The greyhound is remarkable for its fleetness of foot. In addition to its beauty and elegance, it is of a very affectionate disposition. Pointers and setters are much used by sportsmen in the field, and are possessed of keen scent and cunning. The retriever, which is useful for domestic as well as sporting purposes, is sagacious, good-tempered, and intelligent. An English retriever, whether smooth or curly coated, should be black or black and tan, or black with tabby or brindled legs. Among the terriers, or vermin killers, the best-known varieties are the fox terrier, the Skye terrier, and the Irish and Airedale terriers.

Spaniels are the oldest and the most useful generally of all breeds of sporting dogs; earnest, untiring workmen in the fields, and faithful, loving, and gentle companions when the day’s work is done. They are also very beautiful, and universal favorites. The leading varieties are the black spaniel, the lurcher, the Clumber, the Sussex, and the Norfolk spaniels, and the Irish and English water spaniels.

Among other sporting dogs are the dachshund, which is crooked-legged, jealous, and affectionate; the basset-hound, the beagle, the otter-hound, the harrier, and the foxhound.

Among the large house dogs which are treasured as companions the most notable are the St. Bernard, the Newfoundland, and the mastiff. The St. Bernard is an extremely large and powerful fellow, a perfect giant among dogs, with a beautiful head and speaking countenance, in which sagacity is blended with nobility; and a body of great symmetry.

The Newfoundland, which is a capital swimmer, is a very large, jet-black dog, with a large and massive head, with a long, straight coat and bushy tail, and a face extremely expressive, and eyes that beam with intelligence.

The mastiff is a large dog, with a majestic-looking head, and is either fawn or brindle. The collie is a good companion, and a valuable sheep dog. The Dalmatian, which is white with black spots, is well known as a coach dog.

Among pet dogs, we have the fondled King Charles spaniel; the poodle, which is a good performer of tricks; the active little pug; and the watchful Pomeranian.

DOGS IN FOLKLORE AND
MYTHOLOGY

Dogs still play an important part in folklore everywhere, whether as revenants whose intention is merely to warn or foretell, or as hell hounds of purely malignant nature. They are represented as quick to detect the presence of invisible spirits, and, in connection with this aptitude for seeing into the spirit world, they are often the outward objects through which devils and demons make their appearance, and they have often been associated with such masters of unhallowed arts as the great Cornelius Agrippa.

The Wild Huntsman with his train of hounds is one of the most widespread superstitions in Europe, and in the dim mythological histories of the early world we find many dogs of supernatural strength and courage who give material aid to the heroes in their exploits.

The American Indian, as is well known, believed in the immortality of the dog, and always looked forward to being reunited with this faithful companion in the Happy Hunting-ground beyond the grave.

Elephant

Elephant.—Though the Indian Elephant has been, and still is, used as a beast of burden, it has never reached a completely domesticated state. See further under Pachiderms.

Gayal

Gayal.—Frequently domesticated, though more often found wild.

Goat

Goat (Capra hircus), “the peasant’s cow,” is found in all parts of the globe as a domestic animal. It has a beard on its chin, and carries sharp-edged horns, which incline towards its back. The common domestic goat is a variety of the wild goat (C. hircus) which inhabits the Taurus and other mountains of southwestern Asia. Compared with its ancestor, the domesticated form is somewhat reduced both in general size and as regards its horns. The domestication must have taken place at a very remote period, and spread from the East, probably through Egypt, westwards.

A great number of breeds now exist. A most important variety, formed into a breed by artificial selection, is the Angora goat, where almost the whole body is enveloped in that long, silky, white hair which is so valuable. The Angora goat has been introduced into the United States, Cape Colony, and Australia. The Cashmere goat, from Tibet and Bokhara, is almost equally valuable, furnishing the white to brown hair used in making Cashmere textiles, especially the famous Cashmere shawls. It has been successfully acclimatized in France. The Rocky mountain goat is about the size of an ordinary sheep, and its general appearance is not unlike that of a sheep of the merino breed, its long, straight hair hanging down in an abundant white fleece.

Frequently goats are found wild in mountainous countries, scrambling among rocks and bushes; are extremely sure-footed, and display great strength and agility in leaping. These include the Markhor, the Alpine ibex, or Steinbock, and the Izard.

Goats are very valuable for flesh, milk, wool, and skins, particularly in warm, dry regions. The greater part of the world’s goats are grown in southern Europe, northern Africa, and Syria. Goat’s leather is employed for innumerable uses, some of the chief of which are glove making, shoemaking, and bookbinding. In the United States goats have never attained much importance as farm animals. They have been established in the Pacific States, however, notably in Oregon, and in Iowa and Missouri.

Guinea-pig

Guinea-pig.—Frequently domesticated as pets, but more often a game animal in the forest regions of South America.

Horse

Horse (Equus) is one of the noblest and most useful of animals. The horse proper is characterized by the tail with long hairs from its base; the long and flowing mane; a bare callosity on the inner surface of the hind as well as of the fore legs; and by the head and ears being smaller and the limbs longer than in the ass and other related species.

ORIGINAL HOME AND ANCESTORS
OF THE HORSE

The native country of the horse seems to have been central Asia. It became early [253] domesticated in Egypt, and is mentioned throughout the Bible. The Greeks and Romans had some covering to secure their horses’ hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were only shod in time of frost. Shoeing was introduced into England by William I., 1066. It is believed that the original breed of horses is extinct, and that the half-wild herds existing in many places have descended from animals once in captivity. Thus, when the horse was first introduced by the Spaniards in 1537, at Buenos Ayres, there were no wild horses in America. But individuals escaping ran wild, and, by 1580, their descendants had spread over the continent as far as the Straits of Magellan. More fossil horses have been found in the new than in the old world. The horse may have descended from a striped ancestor, stripes still sometimes remaining, especially in duns and mouse-duns.

THE VARIOUS BREEDS
OF HORSES

Like other domestic animals the horse has run into various breeds. The most celebrated is the Arab horse. Great attention is given in America to the breeding of horses, and American horses have won races both in England and on the Continent.

While the increasing use of automobiles by farmers and others may have a more or less depressing effect upon the demand for some classes of horses, no machine can successfully supersede the horse in more than a part of his many uses in business, sport and pleasure. There is a prevailing tendency toward heavier horses for farm work, and draft work in cities as well.

Of the draft breeds the Percherons, of French origin, are regarded with high favor, while the Clydesdales, from Scotland, have a well merited if not equal popularity. The English Shire and Belgian horses are also excellent types of the drafters. Cleveland Bays, one of the oldest and most popular of the English Coach breeds, are quite appropriately termed “the general utility horse,” while the admirers of the German and French Coachers, as yet comparatively few in numbers in the United States, regard them as unexcelled for similar purposes. Hackneys are pre-eminently adapted to drawing any sort of vehicle at a rapid pace on the road, and French Coachers are in demand for large, stylish, high-stepping carriage teams and single drivers.

Thoroughbreds are probably the oldest and best established of all the breeds of Europe and America. They are distinctly of British production, and especially noted for endurance and speed on the race course. The term Thoroughbred, when applied to horses, is used to designate one particular breed, the running or race horse. Standard bred classes include the trotter and his immediate fellow, the pacer. They are American productions of modern times, the outgrowth of the commercial tendencies of Americans, coupled with their ardent love for tests of speed, and fast, level-headed roadsters for light business and pleasure driving, used single or in pairs. The chief families of trotters are Hambletonians, the Mambrinos, the Clays, the Morgans, the Bashaws and the Pilots, all, except the Morgans, more or less related, and tracing their ancestry, directly or indirectly, to an imported English Thoroughbred sire, foaled in 1780, and known as Messenger.

Other breeds of horses, but of extremely small numbers, in America are the Suffolk Punch, for draft; Orloff trotters, and Shetland, Welsh and Exmoor ponies.

Of the smaller breeds of horses, the Shetland Pony is best known. Only seven or eight hands high (a hand equals four inches), they are as docile as they are hardy. Their coats are shaggy, and in winter become so matted as to protect the animals from the severe weather experienced in their northern home. Notwithstanding their small size, they are wonderfully strong, and are capable of exertion without fatigue.

THE NOBLE CHARACTER
OF THE HORSE

The horse is not only a fiery racer, but displays all the noble characteristics of fidelity, gratitude, attachment, and compassion. It also exhibits a talent for understanding, has an almost unfailing memory, and a very rare docility. With patience and kind treatment the horse can be trained to go through quite complicated feats of memory and perception. That it possesses also an accurate sense of time is clear from the facility with which it can be taught to walk, trot, and dance to music, or take part in concerted evolutions. It is very timid and cautious and suspicious of every new sight or sound; while in respect of moral qualities it is scarcely too much to say that horses are as diverse as men.

CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADING
DRAFT HORSES

Belgian Draft.—Short body set on short legs. Tendons of legs large. Head good size. Eyes small, neck short, thick and well crested. Shoulders heavily muscled. Chest deep and wide, good barrel. Back short, broad and inclined to sag. Loins wide, short and very thick. Flank low and full. Hindquarters short, very wide, muscular. Lower thighs very wide, well muscled. Hocks round and meaty. Colors, chestnut, roan, brown and bay.

Clydesdale.—Weight 1700 to 2000 pounds for stallions, 1500 to 1800 pounds for mares. Height sixteen to sixteen and one-half hands. Colors, bay, brown, black or chestnut, with white markings on face and legs. Head intelligent. Shoulders good, which gives a free, easy, long stride. High withers. Arm well muscled. Feathering on leg is fine, silky and long. Quarters and croup muscular. Springy, strong pastern. Front action free and snappy.

Hackney.—Considerable substance, very smooth, gracefully curved outlines, rather short legs, head well proportioned, full, bright eyes, well developed neck, shoulders long and sloping, well muscled. Body deep and round-ribbed. Muscular loins and quarters, strong hocks, excellent action. Colors brown, bay or chestnut, with white markings. Height fifteen and two-tenths to sixteen hands.

Percheron.—Height fifteen and one-quarter to sixteen and one-half hands. Weight 1500 to 2000 pounds. Colors, gray and black. Active temperament, intelligent head, deep body, wide, muscular croup, clean-cut legs, joints clean and hard; legs show abundance of quality. Good action.

Shire.—Conformation low, broad and stout. Heavy in build, slow in movement. Large girth, deep and strongly coupled with broad back, quarters heavily muscled, legs strong, feet large. Feathering on legs below knees and hocks. Weight 2200 pounds. Height 17 hands. Colors brown, bay or black with white markings on face and legs.

Suffolk Punch.—Low-set, short legs, deep body, muscular, durable feet. Head clean cut, with full forehead and Roman nose, neck full, with strong crest, chest deep and wide. Barrel deep, round-ribbed, and well let down on hind flank. Legs and hindquarters muscular. Height sixteen and one-half hands. Weight 2000 pounds. Color chestnut.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADING SADDLE
AND DRIVING HORSES

American Saddle Horse.—Head rather small and clean cut. Eyes wide apart, full, clear and prominent. Ears pointed. Long, upright neck, sloping shoulders. Deep chest, short, strong back. Barrel ribbed well back. Strong coupling, quarters level, strongly muscled. Pasterns long and sloping. Bones of leg broad and flat, strong tendons. Height about fifteen hands, two inches. Weight about 1000 pounds.

French Coach.—Height sixteen hands. Weight 1000 to 1400 pounds. Rather upstanding. Smooth and symmetrical, fine quality, clean cut, intelligent head, long, graceful neck, closely ribbed body, muscular quarters. Legs well set and fine. High, free knee action, regular uplifting hock action. Colors bay, brown or black.

German Coach.—Colors bay, brown or black. Height sixteen to sixteen and one-half hands. Weight 1350 to 1450 pounds. Deep, round body, well proportioned, close ribs, neck long and high set on shoulders, neat head, intelligent face. Back short and strong, smooth at coupling, plump rounded quarters, strongly muscled limbs, strong hock, good feet.

Shetland Pony.—Height ten hands two inches. Weight 325 to 375 pounds. Compact build, deep body, heavy muscular quarters, short legs, short broad back, deep full chest, muscular neck, small head and ears, prominent eyes, docile disposition. Colors brown, black and bay. Long shaggy coats, heavy, long mane.

Standard-bred Trotter.—Head well proportioned, clean cut, neck long and muscular, crested in stallions. Shoulders well muscled, chest low, foreleg long from elbow to knee, short from knee to fetlock. Pasterns sloping, feet moderate in size, oily in appearance. Back and loin well muscled, hind quarters and croup well muscled and smooth. No fixed colors. Height sixteen hands. Weight for mares 900 pounds, stallions 1150 pounds.

Thoroughbred.—Very deep, narrow chest, long legs. Refinement and clear definition of feature. Large nostrils, full, clear eyes, broad forehead, neck long and straight, sloping shoulder, muscular hindquarters, sharp withers, well marked superficial blood vessels, silky skin and hair. Colors bay, brown or chestnut, more or less white in face and limbs. Height fifteen to sixteen hands. Weight 900 to 1050 pounds.

Welsh Pony.—Good shoulders, strong back, neat head, best of legs and feet. Height twelve to thirteen hands. Colors bay or brown, gray or black. Great strength and endurance.

Llama

Llama (Auchenia lama), a most useful South American domesticated variety of the guanaco whose herds roam with the rheas on the plains of Patagonia, or climb on the Cordilleras. As a beast of burden the llama was in general use at the time of the Spanish conquest, and its sure-footedness and power of foraging for itself make it most valuable for transport in the rough and steep mining regions of the Andes. In many places, however, mules have to some extent replaced the llamas. The males carry a hundredweight about twelve miles in a day. The females, which are kept for breeding, are smaller and less strong than the males. The animal is larger and stouter than the allied species, the alpaca, stands about three feet high at the shoulders, and keeps its head raised.

The reader of the story of “Robinson Crusoe” will remember that a llama, with its two young ones, were his first household companions.

Rabbit

Rabbit.—See page 198, under Hare.

Reindeer

Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) is the only representative of the genus. It is a native of the northern parts of Europe, Asia and America, and was introduced into Iceland in 1770. It is by far the most valuable of the deer, for not only are the flesh and skin of much use, but the animal has long been domesticated in Scandinavia, especially among the Laplanders.

The wild reindeer of Lapland is almost equal in size to the stag, but there are great differences of size in different districts, the largest size being generally attained in the polar regions. The reindeer is strong, somewhat heavily built, but yet very swift. The hair is longer in winter, and is gray or brownish in color. The legs are short and thick, and the broad main hoofs spread out as the animal speeds over the snow. Besides the main hoofs, there are two accessory lateral hoofs. The head is carried horizontally, not erect as in other deer. The antlers are large and are unique in being possessed by both sexes. Moreover, they begin to appear at an early stage in life, within a few weeks after birth, and at the same time in both sexes, whereas in the other deer, in which only the males have antlers, they do not appear before nine months or more after birth.

In summer the Lapland reindeer feeds chiefly on the shoots of willow and birch, while in the winter it depends mainly on lichens such as the so-called reindeer moss.

In their natural life the reindeer are gregarious. They migrate from the mountains to the lowlands in winter, and return again in spring, a change in part dependent on the food-supply. It constitutes the chief part of the Lapp’s wealth, and some possess tame herds of two thousand or more, which feed chiefly in the mountainous regions in summer and in the lower grounds in winter. The animal can maintain a speed of nine or ten miles an hour for a long time, and can easily draw a weight of two hundred pounds besides the sledge. The reindeer also yields excellent milk. In Siberia a large domestic reindeer is used for riding.

The Caribou, or American reindeer, is found in the northern parts of Canada, but is not domesticated.

Sheep

Sheep (Ovis aries).—The common sheep was probably the first animal domesticated by man in western Asia—the first home of the human race and their propagation, care and improvement have always played a large part in the best husbandry of all lands. Domestication and selective breeding have greatly modified the sheep as to bodily size, length and quality of wool, presence and character of horns, and in the case of the so-called fat-tailed sheep, the tail has become enormously developed.

Sheep were introduced into Florida by the Spanish in 1565; into Virginia in 1609; into Massachusetts in 1624; into New York in 1625; into New Jersey and Delaware by the Swedes in 1634; into Pennsylvania in 1684; and into California by the Spanish missions from Mexico in 1773.

The flesh of sheep is both a staple and a delicacy, and from their wool has been fashioned clothing to meet a wider range of requirements for bodily comfort than any other fiber, animal or vegetable, has afforded. Their skins are a large factor in manufacture, arts and commerce.

The common classification of sheep is according to the characteristics of their fleeces, as “fine wools,” “long wools” and “medium wools.” The American Merino, the Delaine Merino, and Rambouillet belong to the first named class, or fine wools; the Leicester, Lincoln and Cotswold, to the long wools; and the Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, Cheviot, Suffolk, Hampshire and Oxford, to the medium wools. The fine wool breeds are reared chiefly for wool, while the others are kept for both wool and mutton. Nearly all the breeds in the United States, except the Merino, were imported from Great Britain. Wyoming, Montana, New Mexico and Idaho are foremost in sheep and wool-growing, and theirs, with those of Utah and Oregon, make nearly half of the total production in the United States.

The good-nature, gentleness, and patience of sheep have become proverbial; it is therefore not to be wondered at that they are the pets of children, and that the playful gambols and antics of the lambs amuse young and old alike.

CHARACTERISTICS OF REPRESENTATIVE
WOOL BREEDS

Leicester.—Hornless, large size, rectangular form of body on clean legs, bare faces or carrying a very scant topknot. Head long, tapering toward muzzle, face wedge-shaped, covered with fine white hairs, eyes large and prominent, neck strong and moderately short. Breast deep, broad and full. Back broad and well fleshed. Legs of moderate length. Fleece fine, uniform, curly, with bright luster.

Lincoln.—Large size with heavy fleece of long wavy or curly wool and moderate tuft of wool on face. Color white, head large, without horns, body deep, back wide and straight. Legs broad and set well apart. Weight for rams 250 pounds, ewes 200 pounds.

Merino.—Distinguished by its very fine wool, usually delicately crimped. Wool generally short and dense. Grows to tips of ears and hoofs of feet. Form, when shorn, angular, shoulders narrow, back not usually so straight or strong as English breeds, legs less straight and neck more slender. Ram usually has horns. Very enduring and resistant. The American merino has three to five heavy folds on neck, and folds on arm and sides and across hips. Fleece covers entire sheep except tip of nose and hoofs. Eyes hidden by wool. Outside of fleece a dirty brown, but inside white. Ewes 80 to 100 pounds, rams 100 to 175 pounds. Delaine merinos have smoother bodies than the American, and fewer folds and wrinkles. Mature ewes 100 to 150 pounds, rams 140 to 200 pounds. Rambouillet merinos have large bodies, usually smooth and free from wrinkles, except perhaps on neck. Fleece fine and white. Rams usually have large spirally curved horns, ewes hornless. Legs long. Rams 175 to 185 pounds, ewes 140 to 160 pounds.

REPRESENTATIVE MUTTON
PRODUCING BREEDS

Cheviot.—Medium size, hornless, face and legs white, body closely covered with wool of soft fiber and pure white. Head bold and broad. Fleece forms almost a ruff about face. Deep and large in breast, back wide and straight. Short legs set well apart, hoofs black. Mature rams 200 pounds, ewes 150 pounds.

Cotswold.—Large, high-standing breed with heavy fleece of long white, lustrous wool. Ample topknot often covering eyes. Bold, upright carriage. Head moderately small, face white or mixed with gray, eyes prominent, neck short, thick and strong, shoulders broad and full, back broad, breast broad and well forward, quarters long and full, mutton quite down to hock. Weight of ram 250 pounds, ewe 200 pounds.

Dorset-Horn.—Face and legs pure white, flesh-colored nose. Both sexes have horns. Eyes prominent, neck short and symmetrical, shoulders broad and full. Chest full and deep, quarters wide and full with mutton extending down to hock. Fleece medium grade, of even quality, extending over belly and well down on legs. Short, stout legs. Weight for rams 200 pounds, ewes 160 pounds.

Hampshire Down.—Black face, head large, well covered with wool on forehead and cheeks, nostrils wide. Ears large and drooping, eyes prominent and lustrous, legs well under outside of body, straight, almost black. Chest deep and full with breast prominent and full, back straight, quarters long and deep in thigh. Ewes prolific and heavy milkers. Weight for rams 250 pounds, ewes 185 to 195 pounds.

Oxford Down.—Largest of down breeds. Nearly straight on underline. Long and coarse fleece. Very stately appearance. Color of face and legs brown, which is often flecked with gray. Ewes very prolific and heavy milkers. Not hardy under American climatic conditions. Rams 250 to 350 pounds, ewes 180 to 275 pounds.

Shropshire Down.—Dark brown face and legs. Broad head, short face, thick muscular neck, body somewhat barrel shaped, except that it is straight on back. Body, head and legs to knees covered with fleece of even length and quality. Weight for rams 225 pounds, ewes 175 pounds.

South Down.—Smallest of down breeds, but the model in form. Short, straight legs, wide apart; broad level back, thickly fleshed; long, broad hips; neck short, thick at shoulder; head small, forehead full, face short, eyes prominent, ears small. Face and legs uniform reddish brown. Hindquarters carry down very heavy; breast broad and prominent. Fleece compact, long and close wool, white and carrying some yolk. Best weight for rams 200 pounds, ewes 150 pounds.

Suffolk Down.—Large, rangy sheep, black-faced, hornless, with long, clean, black legs. Wool is of good quality and mutton is excellent. A good feeder and very prolific.

Swine, Pig or Hog

Swine, Pig or Hog (Sus).—There are numerous varieties of the domestic pig. Some have erect and some pendent ears, and those are most esteemed which exhibit the greatest departure from the wild type, notably in shorter and less powerful limbs, less muscular and more rounded forms, wider ribs, and greater wealth of flesh.

The domestication of the pig is remotely ancient, having been established among the Chinese for some thousands of years. It was brought to America by the early colonists. However, it is only during the last two hundred years that the pig has reached its present highly modified state of domestication, [256] and only during the last century has selective breeding been carried on to secure rapid growth and much fat.

The Chinese breed is renowned for its fertility. Its head is short and thick, ears erect, legs very short, chine high and broad, and jowl wide, belly hanging very near to the ground. As a rule it carries a small quantity of hair. The skin is usually dark, but the flesh is delicate and white. The Neapolitan breed is entirely black, with little hair, remarkably easy to fatten, but scarcely so robust in constitution or so prolific as the Chinese pig.

Swine are most profitably reared where corn and grass most abound; hence, they are found in America in largest numbers and highest development, the United States not infrequently having upwards of fifty per cent of the world’s supply. In America the industry centers in the Mississippi valley, where Indian corn is grown in greatest abundance and at least expense, particularly in the states of Iowa, Illinois, Texas, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio and Kansas. These swine are mostly of the four breeds of the large or “lard” type, viz.: Poland-Chinas, and Berkshires, Duroc-Jerseys and Chester Whites, the Poland-Chinas predominating.

DESCRIPTIONS OF REPRESENTATIVE
BREEDS

Berkshire.—Rather more than medium size. Snout of medium length, face dished. Ears nearly erect, well carried. Jowl heavy. Neck short with considerable crest. Shoulder, back and rump of good width. Body deep. Ham thickly meated, strong constitution. Color black with a white mark on face. White on each foot and on tip of tail.

Cheshire.—Medium size. Body has good length. Shoulders and hams well developed. Face slightly dished. Ear small and erect. Bone fine and of fair quality. Color white. Black spots often occur on skin.

Chester-White.—Medium size, face straight or very slightly dished. Ear droops and is somewhat loosely attached to head. Color white, hair in many specimens wavy or curly. Neck wide, deep and short. Jowl smooth, neat and firm. Shoulders broad, deep and full. Chest large, deep, full in girth. Sides full, smooth, deep; ham broad, full, long, wide and deep. Back broad on top, straight or slightly arched, legs short and straight. Coat fine. Weight of boars two years old 500 pounds, sows 450 pounds.

Duroc-Jersey.—Medium size, fine bone. Snout medium length, face slightly dished, ear drooped, jowl heavy, body wide and deep set on short legs. Ham heavily fleshed. Cherry red the popular color, but yellowish red and chestnut are often seen. Weight of boars two years old 600 pounds, sows 500 pounds.

Hampshire or Thin-rind Swine.—Medium size, face straight, ear inclined forward, but does not droop. Jowl light, as is also shoulder and ham. Back of medium width. Legs of medium length and bone of good quality. Color black extremities with a white belt four to twelve inches wide encircling body and including fore-legs, which should also be white. Weight, boars two years old 450 pounds, sows 400 pounds.

Large Yorkshire.—One of the largest breeds. Snout of medium length, with little or no dish. Moderate dish in face. Jowl of good width and muscular. Ears rather large, firmly attached, fringed with fine hair. Shoulders and back of medium width. Side long. Ham lighter than that of lard type with flesh carried well round inside of thigh. Legs medium length. Bone fairly heavy, clean and flinty. Color, white.

Poland-China.—Medium size. Face slightly dished. Jowl full and heavy. Ears fine, firmly attached; about one-third of ear droops. Neck short, thick and heavily arched on top. Shoulder heavy. Side short. Back wide. Ham very wide and deep. Legs short, bone fine. Black with six white points on face, feet and tip of tail. Weight of boars two years old 600 pounds, sows 500 pounds.

Tamworth.—Should have golden-red hair on a flesh-colored skin, free from black. Snout long and straight. Ear large. Jowl narrow and light. Neck and shoulder are light; back and loin of medium width, side of good length, moderately deep. Rather deficient in ham. Legs long and strong.

Yak

Yak (Bos grunniens), a species of ox found in Tibet, and domesticated there. The wild yak of central Asia is the largest native animal of Tibet, and is found only near the limits of perpetual snow. The domesticated yak, which forms great part of the wealth of the inhabitants of central Asia, is about the height of an American ox, which it much resembles also in body, head, and legs; but it is covered all over with a thick coat of long, silky hair, that of the lower parts of the body being very long and hanging down almost to the ground. The neck is short; the rump is low; the legs are short. Over the shoulders there is a bunch of long hair; and the tail is covered with a prodigious quantity of long, flowing hair. Its milk is very rich, and yields excellent butter and curd.

Zebu

Zebu (Bos indicus), an ox which exists only in a domesticated state in Asia. It is characterized chiefly by its large hump, or sometimes two humps, over the withers and by a greatly developed dewlap. Its color varies from ashen grey to pure white, and white bulls, known as Brahmin bulls, are held sacred by the Hindus and allowed to wander at will. They vary greatly in size, and in India are used as beasts of burden and draft.

Domesticated Fish

Carp

Carp (Cyprinus), constitutes a group of fishes without spines in the fins. The true carp originated in China and was introduced into Europe three hundred years ago, and much later into America. The back is blackish gray or brown, the sides yellowish brown, the belly yellow. The usual length is between one and two feet, but large forms five feet long or more have been caught.

The carp is mainly vegetarian, but also eats small animals, such as larvæ and worms. The general habit is sluggish, except at the spawning period in May and June. Their longevity is great; some are said to have lived one hundred and fifty to two hundred years. The carp is an important food fish, and is largely bred in the United States.

Goldfish

Goldfish, or Golden Carp (Carassius auratus), a Chinese and Japanese fresh-water fish nearly allied to the carp but lacking barbels. In its warm native waters it is brownish, like its neighbor species, the crucian carp (C. carassius) while in its more familiar domesticated state it loses the black and brown pigment, becomes golden-yellow, or passes more completely into albinism in those unpigmented forms known as silver fish. The goldfish is naturalized in some rivers, and has had a wide artificial distribution throughout the world.

BUSY BIDDY AND HER BROOD OF NEW-BORN CHICKS

Domesticated Birds

Canary

Canary.—See page 213.

Chickens

Chickens (Gallus domestica), or Fowls, are widely distributed and almost universally raised in every rural home. Immense poultry plants have been built up in America in recent years, and the business developed to proportions of a notably distinct industry. The contributions of poultry to the nation’s wealth, mostly by the hands of farmers’ wives, reaches an annual total of half a billion dollars or more—an amount equal to the average value of the nation’s wheat crop.

Apart from the intrinsic merits of the individual breeds, and the better understood methods of breeding and management, much progress has been due to artificial methods of hatching and rearing the young fowls. The incubator and the brooder make it possible to secure chicks at any season of the year, and thus permits the development of special branches of poultry raising, such as the production of broilers and soft roasters.

There are numerous standard varieties of chickens recognized in the United States, subdivided into four general classes, as follows: The general-purpose breeds—the American class—Plymouth Rock, the Wyandotte, and Dominique; the heavier, clumsier or meat breeds, such as the Brahma, Cochin, and Langshan; the egg breeds, as the Leghorn, Minorca, Andalusian, and Black Spanish; the ornamental breeds, as the various Bantams, and others. Some other breeds on American farms are the Rhode Island Red, Orpington, Houdan, Dorking and Hamburg.

LEADING BREEDS OF POULTRY
DESCRIBED

Brahma.—Meat breed. Two varieties, light and dark. Show heavy leg and toe feathering, thick, close plumage. General color of light Brahma, white, with black tail and black center stripes in both hackle and saddle feathers. In dark Brahma, wings of cock crossed by heavy black bar, and entire breast, body, leg and toes black. Back, wings, body and breast of female have a basis of gray on which are distinct dark pencilings. Weight for dark cocks eleven pounds, hens eight and one-half pounds; for light cocks twelve pounds, hens nine and one-half pounds. Brown egg.

Cochin.—Meat breed. Four varieties, buff, partridge, white, black. Peculiarity is an appearance of massiveness and fluffiness. Heavy, short feathering is piled high on back and extends wide at sides. Excessive thigh and shank feathering. Combs single, low, close on head and evenly serrated with five distinct points. Cocks weigh eleven pounds, hens eight and one-half pounds. Brown egg.

Dorking.—General purpose, meat especially. Three varieties, colored, white and silver-gray. Body long and deep. Carries abundance of flesh. Skin white. Colored largest cocks weigh nine pounds and hens seven pounds. White cocks weigh seven and one-half pounds, hens six pounds. Silver-gray variety is between these two. All have a fifth toe. Eggs of very light color.

Hamburg.—Egg and fancy breed. Six varieties, golden spangled, silver spangled, golden penciled, silver penciled, white and black. About size of the Leghorn. White egg.

Houdan.—General breeding purposes. Color black and white evenly broken in alternate splotches throughout entire plumage. Head ornaments of crest and beard. White skin. Carry fifth toe on each foot. Cocks weigh seven pounds, hens six pounds. White egg.

Indian.—Meat breed. Two varieties, Cornish and white. Beaks and shanks yellow. Bird of strong proportions. Back and wings of cock mixture of red and black, tail and breast black. Hen’s back, wings, breast and body a rich bay penciled with black. Cocks weigh nine pounds, hens six and one-half pounds. Tinted egg.

Leghorn.—Egg production. Eight varieties, single-comb and rose-comb brown, single-comb and rose-comb white, single-comb and rose-comb buff, single-comb black and single-comb silver duck-wing. Characterized by early maturity and great activity. Large combs on the top of head. White egg.

Minorca.—Egg breed. Three varieties, single-comb black, rose-comb black, single-comb white. Long body, carried rather upright, deep at breast with back tapering sharply toward tail, which is long and carried rather low. Comb large. Ear lobes large and pure white. Cocks of rose-comb weigh eight pounds, hens six and one-half pounds. Single-combs weigh one pound heavier. White egg.

Orpington.—General purpose. Three varieties, buff, black and white. Long body, abundant plumage, white skin. Short, heavy shanks. Tendency to feathering on shanks. Cock weighs ten pounds, hen eight pounds. Egg tinted.

Plymouth Rock.—General purpose, for both meat and eggs. Three varieties, the barred, white and buff. Back and body rather long, breast broad and deep. Single combs, yellow shanks. Cocks weight nine and one-half pounds and hens seven and one-half pounds. Brown egg.

Rhode Island Red.—General purpose. Two varieties, single comb and rose-comb. Tail color black. Rhode Island red has a red surface of body plumage, with a red under color, free from slate.

Buckeye breed surface color is dark, rich garnet, and under color allows a bar of slate-color next to surface. Body of both long. Rhode Island Reds level. Buckeye body shows slight elevation in front. Weight of Rhode Island red cocks eight and one-half pounds, hens six and one-half pounds. Buckeye cocks nine pounds, hens six pounds. Brown egg.

Wyandotte.—General purpose, for both meat and eggs. Eight standard varieties, white, buff, black, silver, golden, silver penciled, partridge and Columbian. A bird of curves, back short and broad, body deep and round, breast broad and deep, with a low-set keel. Shanks short, strong and carried well apart. Colors silver, white, black, buff and mixtures. Close-fitting rose combs. Abundant fluffy, close-fitting plumage. Weight eight and one-half pounds for cocks, six and one-half pounds for hens. Brown egg.

Duck

Duck (Anas domestica).—The various breeds of domestic duck are all descended from the wild species. The prominent characteristics of the family are familiar: the short webbed feet, with a small hind toe; the netted scales in front of the lower leg; the bill, about as long as the head, rounded at the tip, and bearing the nostrils towards the broad root. They are aquatic birds, swimming with much agility, diving comparatively little, preferring to grub in the shallows for water-plants, worms, and small animals.

Duck raising is extensive in Europe both for flesh and eggs, which are more generally used than in the United States. In eastern Asia, notably in China, ducks are grown in enormous numbers. Duck raising has become a profitable industry in the United States, particularly since the introduction of the Pekin duck, which was introduced into the United States from China in 1870.

THE CHIEF BREEDS RAISED IN THIS
COUNTRY ARE THE FOLLOWING:

Black Cayuga.—Largest solid black duck known. Mature pair weighs fifteen pounds. Body of good length.

Colored Muscovy.—Good size, black and white in color, black predominating. Side of head and region around eyes are without feathers and are carunculated or corrugated and scarlet. Builds her nest and never scatters her eggs. Never quacks. Active on wing.

White Muscovy.—Same as colored muscovy except that it is pure white.

Indian Runner.—Head long and flat, light fawn in color, cap and cheek markings light fawn, bill straight, green with black bean at tip, eyes hazel, neck white from head to beginning of breast markings, back, light fawn or gray, breast light fawn, body light fawn, rear half white. Shanks and feet orange-yellow. Carriage very erect. Small size.

Pekin.—Largest white duck in existence. Specimens weigh as high as ten or twelve pounds. Head and beak long and of good size, beak orange-yellow, back, breast and body long, broad and deep, with deep keel. Creamy white.

Rouen.—Largest and most popular of all colored market varieties. Weight nine pounds for drakes, eight pounds for ducks.

White Crested.—Medium-sized white duck with large white crest or topknot, about two-thirds the size of Pekin, which it resembles in color and shape of body, except crest.

Goose

Goose (Anser domesticus).—The goose has been but slightly changed from the parent wild stock by domestication. The feet are short and completely webbed; the hind-toe is present; and the legs are placed comparatively far forward, so that the movements on land are less awkward than those of most ducks. Geese swim little, and never dive.

In general, geese spend much of their time on land, feeding on grass and other herbage, berries, seeds, and other vegetable food. Although large birds, and of bulky form, they have great powers of flight. They strike with their wings in fighting, and there is a hard, callous knob or tubercle at the bend of the wing, which in some species becomes a spur.

The domestic goose is regarded as deriving its origin from the common wild goose, but all the species seem capable of domestication.

Geese are valuable for eggs, quills, feathers, and for food. In southern Europe culture was formerly much more important, but it is still a great industry in Holland and Germany. Livers from geese artificially fattened, in districts near Strassburg, are made into the celebrated delicacy known as paté-de-foie-gras. In the United States, goose raising is of minor importance. They are most extensively grown in the Southern States; Kentucky, Missouri, Texas, Tennessee, and Arkansas leading in the order named.

THE CHIEF BREEDS RAISED
ARE THE FOLLOWING:

African.—Large head with pronounced black knot and heavy gray dewlap under throat. Neck long, back broad and flat, breast full and round, body large and upright, thighs short and plump. Shanks medium length and dark orange color. [259] Wings of good size, close fitting. General color gray. Mature gander twenty pounds, goose eighteen pounds.

Embden.—Color white. Square, compact body. Neck long and massive appearing, large head. Medium-size orange colored bill. Back slightly arched, breast round, deep and full. Shanks short, stout, deep, orange color, thighs strong, wings large, tail short. Eyes bright blue. Mature gander twenty pounds, goose eighteen pounds.

Toulouse.—Blue-gray in color, marked with brown. Head large but short, bill short and stout, neck medium long, body compact, medium length, deep, belly almost touching ground, back broad, slightly arched, breast broad and deep, wings large, strong, close fitting, tail short. Adult gander twenty pounds, goose eighteen pounds.

White and Brown Chinese.—Bodies plump and round, covered with coat of soft feathers and fine down. Medium size, mature specimens weighing ten to fourteen pounds. Long arch necks, with large round knob at base of beak. Short erect body and carriage.

Guinea Fowl

Guinea Fowl (Numida) belongs to a genus of African birds in the pheasant family. The plumage is dark gray, with round spots of white, generally larger on the back and under surface. Some species are adorned on the head with a helmet or horny casque, while others have fleshy wattles on the cheeks and a tuft or top-knot on the crown.

The best known is the common guinea fowl (N. meleagris), also popularly known as “Comeback,” from its cry, with naked head, hard callous casque, and slate-colored plumage, everywhere speckled with round white spots of various sizes. The guinea fowl is now common in the poultry-yards, although it is more adapted to warm than to cold climates. The eggs are small, and have a thick, strong shell, but are particularly esteemed. The flesh is somewhat like a pheasant’s, but rather dry.

Ostrich

Ostrich (Struthio). A bird which was once included with the cassowaries, emu, rhea and apteryx in a distinct order, but which is probably better regarded as forming a separate family. Its nearest allies appear to be the rheas of South America.

An adult male may reach a height of eight feet, the neck being about three feet long. The special peculiarity is the reduction of the toes to two, these corresponding to the third and fourth of the typical foot. The foot and tarsus are both stout; the head is small, with large eyes, and short, broad, and depressed beak; the wing and tail feathers are large and soft, and have broad, equal vanes; while the long neck is practically naked. The feathers are without an aftershaft.

The true ostrich is a native of Africa. All are flightless birds, and as the wing muscles are reduced there is no keel on the breastbone. The African ostrich has but two toes, the others three. The rheas and the emus may be dismissed with mere mention, the rheas furnishing the feathers used in feather dusters. The African ostriches furnish the well-known plumes and are bred for the purpose, the export of feathers from South Africa amounting to over five million dollars a year. There are now ostrich farms in South America, California, Arizona and Florida. The eggs are laid in the sand and in nature are incubated by the heat of the sun. The plumes are cut (not pulled out) once a year.

Parrot

Parrot (Psittacus erithacus) is a type of an important group of birds, divided into numerous families including the love-birds, macaws, cockatoos and porakeets. They are preeminently tropical birds, and arboreal in habit; some species, however, range into colder countries—e. g., Patagonia and New Zealand—and some, such as the burrowing ground parrot of New Zealand, are not arboreal. They are fruit and seed eating birds, with the exception of the kea, of New Zealand, which has taken to a carnivorous diet.

As a rule, the parrots are brightly colored birds, being often, like other forest-frequenting creatures, green; there are some species, however, which are not brilliantly colored. There is occasionally a difference of color in the two sexes, which is best marked in species belonging to the genus Eclectus; in these the prevailing color of the female is red, and of the male green.

Their power of imitating human speech is very remarkable, and equalled by no other animal. The great age to which parrots will live has often been exaggerated, but it is at any rate certain that some species will survive for fifty years in confinement. They are highly regarded by natives of central America as household pets, where they are also used for food and the feathers for ornaments. The best talking birds lack the brilliancy of plumage possessed by many other parrots. Their chief use among civilized peoples is as an ornamental bird and household pet.

Peacock

Peacock (Pavo) is allied to pheasants and other game-birds, and includes at least two species—the Indian and Singhalese (P. cristatus), and the Malayan (P. muticus), inhabiting Java, Borneo, and similar regions. The birds roost in trees, and eat omnivorously—worms, insects, small snakes, seeds, etc. At the pairing season rival males display the well-known beauty of their tail-coverts before their desired mates, and strut about after the fashion of many game-birds. The usual cry is a shrill “p-a-o” and strange noises are made by rattling the quills. The females lay, according to the climatic conditions, from April to October; the eggs, of a brownish color, are numerous (eight to ten), and are laid without a nest in some concealed spot. At first both sexes are alike in plumage, but after a year or so the males gradually acquire their gorgeous feathers, which are perfected about the third year. The Javan peafowl is said to be even handsomer than the familiar species. The flesh and eggs are of good quality though inferior to the domestic fowl, though they are still extensively bred in southeastern Asia for food. The range of the peacock in domestication has been greatly extended in modern times, but its use is restricted to ornamental purposes. The splendor of its plumage is unequaled by any other large bird.

Pigeon

Pigeon (Columba livia), including some three hundred species, is distributed in nearly all parts of the world. Most of the domesticated varieties are derived from the rock dove. The mountain witch of Jamaica is one of the most beautiful of birds. The largest member of the group was the dodo, a native of the islands in the Indian ocean, which became extinct [260] before 1700, partly because it lacked the power of flight. It was somewhat larger than a turkey, with the same external appearance.

In America, as in Europe there are enormous numbers of breeders who devote themselves to what are known as “fancy pigeons,” by which term are meant those bred for their special points or characteristics. Of these there is a great and ever-increasing variety, many of which have several distinct colors.

The most important of the domestic pigeons are the common pigeon, the trumpeter, the ruff pigeon, the Jacobin, the Turkish pigeon, the carrier pigeon, which, on account of its great power of remembering localities, is used for carrying messages; the pouter, the tumbler, the turbit, the fantail, and the oriental pigeon. The young pigeons are highly esteemed for their delicate flavor.

The Turtle Dove (Turtur auritus) is frequently kept in captivity, as it is the smallest and prettiest of all the family of pigeons.

Swans

Swans (Cygnus) are swimming birds, closely related to the ducks and geese, with long and slender neck, bill about as long as the head, and with a soft cere. Nine species are known. The American swan (C. americanus) breeds in the northern parts of North America, but its winter migrations extend only to North Carolina. The trumpeter swan (C. buccinator) is another American species, breeding chiefly within the Arctic Circle, but of which large flocks may be seen in winter as far south as Texas. Australia produces a black swan (C. atratus), discovered towards the end of the eighteenth century, rather smaller than the common swan, the plumage deep black, except the primaries of the wings, which are white. The eye is red. The black-necked swan (C. nigricollis), perhaps the handsomest bird of the genus, is a South American species, ranging from Chile to the Faulkland Islands.

Turkey

Turkey (Meleagris gallipavo) or common turkey, is a native of North America, where it exists in two forms. The typical form ranges from southern Canada to Florida and eastern Texas, and westward to the edge of the great Plains; farther south, it is replaced by another form (M. mexicana), having the tail and its coverts tipped with buffy white, and inhabiting the tablelands of Mexico, and extending north to the southern border of the United States, and south to Vera Cruz. The finest tame turkeys are those of the American bronze breed, which has been created by crossing.

It is our largest domestic fowl, and much prized for food, though neither its eggs nor feathers are used to an important extent. Notwithstanding it is a stupid bird, ranking low in intelligence, the turkey is easily domesticated and the tame birds readily intermingle with the wild ones. While it needs considerable range and is inclined to wander, and therefore is not suited to small farms, it is comparatively easy to rear and stands second to the chicken in the United States, ranking above geese and ducks both in number and value. Texas reports the largest number, and is followed in order by Missouri, Illinois, Iowa and Ohio.

THE FOLLOWING ARE MUCH
PRIZED BREEDS:

Black.—Plumage pure black. Otherwise same as above.

Bourbon Red.—A kindred variety to the buff, having deep reddish-buff plumage.

Bronze.—Largest and hardiest of all varieties for the market. Adult cock thirty-six pounds, hen twenty pounds.

Buff.—Feathers a reddish buff, the wing flights being white.

Narragansett.—Plumage bronze and black with a mixture of white. Second in size to bronze. Cock thirty pounds, hen eighteen pounds. General color gray.

Slate.—Plumage of a bluish slate shade. Cock twenty-seven pounds, hen eighteen pounds.

White Holland.—Plumage pure white throughout; has pinkish white shanks. Cocks twenty-eight pounds, hens eighteen pounds.

The Swan, on account of its graceful carriage, and beauty of form, is not only a universal favorite with children and grown-ups but has been the subject of much legend and poetry. It was sacred to Apollo, and was the bird of the Muses; and was fabulously celebrated for its melodious song, especially at the time of its death. From the latter legend we derive the expression “swan-song” which means the last effort, or production, or achievement of an individual.

Domesticated Insects

Bee, Honey

Bee, Honey (Apis mellifica).—Bees form a family of insects belonging to the same order as the wasps and ants. Many kinds of bees are social, that is to say, they live in communities. As in the case of ants, various sets of members have come to discharge special functions, and the result of this division of labor has been difference of form.

Her Majesty of the Hive—The worker bees attending on the queen, all with their faces turned toward her. The queen is the large bee in the center. No “swarm” is possible without the commanding presence of an accompanying queen.

As the Honey Bee visits flower after flower she collects pollen as well as nectar. The pollen is largely picked up by the hairy coat, then brushed off by the feet and pressed into the “pollen basket” on the thigh of the hind leg.

HOW A BEE HOUSEHOLD
IS ORGANIZED

Thus the ordinary hive contains (1) a single queen-bee—the fertile female and mother of the next brood, (2) the males or drones, and (3) the vast majority of workers or imperfectly developed females, which only exceptionally become fertile. The working bees constitute essentially the bee community; they are recognized [262] by their small size, reddish-brown color, and, above all, by the palettes and brushes with which the hind legs are furnished.

The males, or drones, are larger and more hairy than the working bees; they emit a buzzing sound, have no palettes, and no sting. The female, or queen, has a longer body than the workers, and the wings shorter in proportion. The only part she has to play is that of laying eggs, and so she has no palettes or brushes. Only one queen lives in each hive, of which she is perfect sovereign, all the workers submissively obeying her. The number of males is scarcely one-tenth that of the working bees, and they live only about three months.

WHAT THE SWARMING
OF BEES MEANS

At a certain time of the year the queen leaves the hive, accompanied by the drones, and takes what is called her “nuptial flight” through the air. About forty-eight hours after her return to the hive she begins laying her eggs, at the rate of about two hundred a day. The eggs which are destined to develop into workers are first laid, then those which are to produce males, and lastly those which give birth to females. The eggs are not long in being hatched, and the larvæ, or caterpillars, which emerge from them are tended by the workers, and fed by them on a peculiar paste, which is apparently a preparation of pollen. In five or six days the larvæ pass into the condition of pupa, or chrysalis, and in about seven or eight days after this the perfect insect is hatched.

A pound weight of bees contain about five thousand individuals, and swarms are often found to weigh eight pounds, or even more. A populous hive will thus contain from forty to fifty thousand bees. In spring, however, the number is much smaller, amounting to only a few thousand.

THE STRUCTURE OF
HONEY-BEES

Many of the points in the structure of the honey-bee fit it for the performance of its complex activities. Upon the head there are two large compound eyes, used for near vision, and three small simple eyes, by which objects at a distance can be perceived. There is a well-developed sense of color, and flowers which specially lay themselves out to attract bees are mostly of blue or purple hue. Bees have also a keen sense of smell, which not only attracts them to fragrant flowers, but also helps them to detect the presence of nectar.

THE BEE’S WONDERFUL
MOUTH AND LEGS

The mouth-parts of the bee are highly specialized. The powerful first jaws are used in the construction of the comb, and for a great variety of other purposes, while the second and third jaws are drawn out into a long suctorial and licking apparatus. The basal part of this constitutes a tube through which nectar or other sweet fluids can be sucked up, while its terminal portion is a sort of tongue (ligula) that can be inserted into the recesses of flowers. This is worked up and down so as to bring nectar within the tubular part of the apparatus. The end of the tongue is expanded into a sort of lappet for licking, and the sharp blades of the second jaws can be used for piercing certain flowers, such as orchids, which contain sweet sap. When not in action, the suctorial parts of the mouth are folded up on the under side of the head, enabling the first jaws to work freely.

HOW THE COAT IS GATHERED
FOR THE HONEY-COMBS

There are marked differences between the three pairs of legs of a worker-bee. The first are provided with combs, by which the delicate antennæ are cleaned, while the third are chiefly remarkable for peculiar pollen brushes on the feet, and a depression or “pollen basket” on the outer side of the shin. The hairy feet brush pollen into the baskets, and when of a dry nature a little honey is ejected from the mouth on to the grains, so as to stick them together. Another peculiarity of the third leg is the nature of the joint between shin and foot, which constitutes a sort of pincers useful in manipulating wax.

The wax of which the cells of the honeycomb are constructed is supposed to be secreted by an organ situated in the abdomen, or belly, of the bee; but, in addition to wax, another substance much resembling it, but not identical, called propolis, is elaborated from the juices of certain plants, and employed to line the inner surface of the hive. The cells are hexagonal in shape, that is, having six equal sides—the most economical form as regards space—and are of two kinds, namely, store-cells, which are filled with honey, as a reserve store of food, and cradle-cells, in which the eggs are deposited.

WHERE THE HONEY
COMES FROM

The honey of various regions is flavored by the flowers predominant in the districts where it is gathered—heather, rosemary, lavender, orange-flowers, white clover, bass-wood, lime-tree. In Scotland it is not unusual to transport the hives in the flowering season to the neighborhood of heathery tracts. The honey most famous in the ancient world was that of Mt. Hybla in Sicily, and Mt. Hymettus in Attica. Supplies are imported into Britain from various quarters; but it is to the United States and Canada that we must turn for bee-farming on the largest scale, and California, especially southern California, is the paradise of beekeepers. Some bee-keepers have from two thousand to three thousand hives; and as much as seven hundred pounds of honey has been obtained from one hive. The most improved hives, honey-extractors, artificial combs, and comb-foundations are in general use.

Silk-worm

Silk-worm (Bombyx mori) lives on the Mulberry, and is bred for the fibers of the cocoon. It originally came from southern Asia, but is now extensively cultivated in China, Japan and southern Europe for the purpose of obtaining its silk. The cultivation of the silkworm is dependent almost entirely on the supply of these leaves.

HOW THE SILK WORM GROWS
AND FEEDS

On the low, moist, alluvial soils of the East, slips of this tree are planted in close and continuous lines, and six to eight weeks afterwards they are six feet high, and the leaf-crop allows [263] of six to ten broods being produced in the course of six months. In Europe it is not unusual for more than one brood to be produced, and the female lays her eggs towards the end of the summer; but they do not hatch until the following spring, when the leaves appear. In Asia, during the season, the eggs hatch eight to ten days after laying. The caterpillar feeds persistently, and rapidly grows; at the end of a month it moults, and this happens four times in all before it starts to make its cocoon.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SILKWORM

The female moth deposits in July three to five hundred eggs, from which the white caterpillars (a) emerge in the following spring, at the period when the white mulberry tree blooms, upon the leaves of which they feed. The caterpillars change their skins four times and are full grown in about a month. They now spin a cocoon (c), which is generally completed in three and a half days, and five days later they change into pupæ (b). The pupal stage lasts from fourteen to nineteen days. The cocoons furnish the silk, and the pupæ are generally killed on the tenth day by heat.

HOW THE DELICATE SILK FILAMENT
IS PRODUCED

The silk is produced from spinnerets, two apertures in the head, the two filaments joining as they appear to form a very strong thread from five hundred to one thousand yards long. This the caterpillar wraps round its body until it is completely covered, and then it passes into the chrysalis state. Unless the grey moth is wanted for egg-laying, the chrysalis is killed by putting the cocoon in a hot oven, for if allowed to appear it cuts through some of the more valuable parts of the silk.

WINDING THE SILK FROM
THE COCOONS

The next process is to wind as much as possible off the cocoons into hanks. In Europe and in some Oriental towns this is done with improved machinery in factories called filatures. It is usually begun when the cocoons are fresh. Each operator has before her a basin of hot water, the temperature of which is regulated by a steam-pipe or a fire, and overhead is a reel turning slowly. After removing the outside flossy covering, the operator places the cocoons in the basin, with the result that the hot water softens the natural gum that is in the silk, and allows it to be wound off. The filaments are passed through several glass eyes, and crossed, and thus become glued together into a thread which is called “singles,” and when further prepared is known as “thrown silk.” The singles are reeled into large hanks being called a “moss,” and each bundle a “book.”

In this form, Asiatic silk is imported into Europe and the United States. The quantity of such silk obtained from one cocoon is very small—seldom up to a thousand yards, generally not more than five hundred yards. The remainder of the cocoon is either too flossy or too entangled to be wound. This waste portion forms the material from which spun silk is prepared. Five to six hundred cocoons weigh two pounds, and twenty pounds of cocoons yield two pounds of spun silk. The eggs of the silkworm were first brought to Europe by two Christian monks in 555 A. D., who took them in hollow sticks to Constantinople, whence the cultivation of the silkworm rapidly spread to other parts.