Chap. IV Of Iron
Process I.
To separate Iron from its Ore.
Pound into a coarse powder the martial stones or earths out of which you design to extract the Iron: roast this powder in a test under the muffle for some minutes, and let your fire be brisk. Then let it cool, beat it very fine, and roast it a second time, keeping it under the muffle till it emit no more smell.
Then mix with this powder a flux composed of three parts of Nitre fixed with Tartar, one part of fusile glass, and half a part of Borax and charcoal-dust. The dose of this reducing flux must be thrice the weight of the ore.
Put this mixture into a good crucible; cover it with about half a finger thick of Sea-salt; over the crucible put its cover, and lute it on with Windsor-loam made into a paste with water. Having thus prepared your crucible, set it in a melting furnace, which you must fill up with charcoal. Light the fire, and let it kindle by gentle degrees, till the crucible become red-hot. When the decrepitation of the Sea-salt is over, raise your fire to the highest by the blast of a pair of perpetual bellows, or rather several. Keep up this intense degree of heat for three quarters of an hour, or an whole hour, taking care that during all this time the furnace be kept constantly filling up with fresh coals as the former consume. Then take your crucible out of the furnace; strike the pavement on which you set it several times with a hammer, and let it stand to cool: break it, and you will find therein a Regulus of Iron covered with slag.
OBSERVATIONS.
Iron ore, like all others, requires roasting, to separate from it, as much as possible, the volatile minerals, Sulphur and Arsenic, which being mixed with the Iron would render it unmalleable. Indeed it is so much the more necessary to roast these ores, as Iron is, of all metallic substances, that which has the greatest affinity with those volatile minerals; on which account no metallic substance whatever is capable of separating it from them by fusion and precipitation.
Fixed Alkalis, it is true, have a greater affinity than Iron with Sulphur; but then the composition which a Fixed Alkali forms with Sulphur is capable of dissolving all metals. Consequently, if you do not dissipate the Sulphur by roasting, but attempt to separate it from the Iron by melting the ore with a Fixed Alkali, the Liver of Sulphur formed in the operation will dissolve the martial part; so that after the fusion you will find little or no Regulus.
All Iron ores in general are refractory, and less fusible than any other; for which reason a much greater proportion of flux, and a much more violent degree of fire, is required to smelt them. One principal cause why these ores are so refractory is the property which Iron itself has of being extremely difficult to fuse, and of resisting the action of the fire so much the more as it is purer, and further removed from its mineral state. Among all the metallic substances it is the only one that is less fusible when combined with that portion of phlogiston which gives it the metalline form, than when it is deprived thereof, and in the form of a calx.
In smelting-houses Iron ore is fused amidst charcoal, the phlogiston of which combines with the martial earth, and gives it the metalline form. The Iron thus melted runs down to the bottom of the furnace, from whence it is let out into large moulds, in which it takes the shape of oblong blocks, called Pigs of Iron. This Iron is still very impure, and quite unmalleable. Its want of ductility after the first melting arises partly from hence, that, notwithstanding the previous roasting which the ore underwent, there still remains, after this first fusion, a considerable quantity of Sulphur or Arsenic combined with the metal.
A certain quantity of quick-lime, or of stones that will burn to lime, is frequently mixed with Iron ore on putting it into the smelting furnace. The lime being an absorbent earth, very apt to unite with Sulphur and Arsenic, is of use to separate those minerals from the Iron.
It is also of use to mix some such matters with the ore, when the stones or earths which naturally accompany it are very fusible; for, as the Iron is of difficult fusion, it may happen that the earthy matters mixed with the Iron shall melt as easily as the metal, or perhaps more easily. In such a case there is no separation of the earthy from the metalline part, both of which melt and precipitate together promiscuously; now quick-lime, being extremely refractory, serves on this occasion to check the melting of those matters which are too fusible.
Yet quick-lime, notwithstanding its refractory quality, may sometimes be of use as a flux for Iron. This is the case when the ore happens to be combined with substances which, being united with lime, render it fusible: such are all arsenical matters, and even some earthy matters, which being combined with quick-lime make a fusible compound.
When the ore of an Iron mine is found difficult to reduce, it is usually neglected even though it be rich: because Iron being very common, people chuse to work those mines only whose ores are smelted with the most ease, and require the least consumption of wood.
Yet refractory ores are not to be altogether rejected, when another Iron ore of a different quality is found near them. For it often happens, that two several Iron ores, which being worked separately are very difficult to manage, and yield at last but bad metal, become very tractable, and yield excellent Iron, when smelted together: and accordingly such mixtures are often made at Iron-works.
The Iron obtained from ores by the first fusion may be divided into two sorts. The one, when cold, resists the hammer, doth not easily break, and is in some measure extensible on the anvil; but, if struck with a hammer when red-hot, flies into many pieces: this sort of Iron hath always a mixture of Sulphur in it. The other sort, on the contrary, is brittle when cold, but somewhat ductile when red-hot. This Iron is not sulphurated, is naturally of a good quality, and its brittleness arises from its metalline parts not being sufficiently compacted together.
Iron abounds so much, and is so universally diffused through the earth, that it is difficult to find a body in which there is none at all: and this hath led several Chymists, even men of great fame, into the error of thinking that they had transmuted into Iron several sorts of earths in which they suspected no Iron, by combining them with an inflammable matter; whereas, in fact, all they did was to give the metalline form to a true martial earth which happened to be mixed with other earths.
Process II
To render Pig-iron and brittle Iron malleable.
Into an earthen vessel widening upwards put some charcoal-dust, and thereon lay the Pig-iron which you propose to render ductile; cover it all over with a quantity of charcoal; excite the fire violently with a pair, or more, of perpetual bellows till the Iron melt. If it do not readily flow and form a great deal of slag on its surface, add some flux, such as a very fusible sand.
When the matter is in fusion keep stirring it from time to time, that all the parts thereof may be equally acted on by the air and the fire. On the surface of the melted Iron scoriæ will be formed, which must be taken off as they appear. At the same time you will see a great many sparkles darted up from the surface of the metal, which will form a sort of fiery shower. By degrees, as the Iron grows purer, the number of these sparkles diminishes, though they never vanish entirely. When but few sparkles appear, remove the coals which cover the Iron, and let the slag run out of the vessel; whereupon the metal will grow solid in a moment. Take it out while it is still red-hot, and give it a few strokes with a hammer, to try if it be ductile. If it be not yet malleable, repeat the operation a second time, in the same manner as before. Lastly, when it is thus sufficiently purified by the fire, work it for a long time on the anvil, extending it different ways, and making it red-hot as often as there is occasion. Iron thus brought to the necessary degree of ductility, so as to yield to the hammer, and suffer itself to be extended every way, either hot or cold, without breaking to bits, or even cracking in the least, is very good and very pure. If it cannot be brought to this degree by the method here prescribed, it is a proof that the ore from which this Iron was extracted ought to be mixed with other ores; but it frequently requires a great number of trials to obtain an exact knowledge of the quality and proportion of those other ores with which it is to be mixed.
OBSERVATIONS.
The brittleness and shortness of Pig-iron arises from the heterogeneous parts which it contains, and which could not be separated from it by the first fusion. These extraneous matters are usually Sulphur, Arsenic, and unmetallic earth, and also a ferruginous earth; but such as could not be combined with the phlogiston as it ought to be, in order to have the properties of a metal, and must therefore be considered as heterogeneous, with respect to the other well-conditioned martial particles.
The Pig-iron, by undergoing repeated fusions, is freed from those heterogeneous matters; those which are volatile, such as Sulphur and Arsenic, being dissipated, and the unmetallic matters being scorified. As to the ferruginous earth, which did not at first acquire the metalline form, it becomes true Iron at last; because, among the coals with which it is encompassed, it meets with a sufficient quantity of phlogiston to reduce it to metal. Charcoal is also necessary on this occasion, that it may continually furnish phlogiston to the Iron, which would otherways be converted into a calx.
Hammering the red-hot Iron, after each fusion, serves to force out from amongst the martial parts such earthy matters as may happen to remain there, and so bring into closer contact the metalline parts which were separated before by the interposition of those heterogeneous matters.
Process III
To convert Iron into Steel.
Take small bars of the best Iron; that is, of such as is malleable both hot and cold; set them on their ends in a cylindrical earthen vessel, whose depth is equal to the length of the bars, and in such a manner that they may be an inch distant from each other, and from the sides of the crucible. Fill the vessel with a cement compounded of two parts of charcoal, one part of bones burnt in a close vessel till they become very black, and one half part of the ashes of green wood; having first pulverized and thoroughly mixed the whole together. Take care to lift up the Iron bars a little, to the end that the cement may cover the bottom of the vessel, and so that there be about the depth of half an inch thereof under every bar: cover the crucible and lute on the cover.
Set the crucible thus prepared in a furnace, so contrived that the crucible may be surrounded with coals from top to bottom: for eight or ten hours keep up such a degree of fire that the vessel may be moderately red; after this take it out of the furnace; plunge your little Iron bars into cold water, and you will find them converted into Steel.
OBSERVATIONS.
The principal difference between Iron and Steel consists in this, that the latter is combined with a greater quantity of phlogiston than the former.
It appears by this experiment, that, to make Iron unite with an inflammable matter, it is not necessary it should be in fusion; it is sufficient that it be so red-hot as to be opened and softened by the fire.
Every kind of charcoal is fit to be an ingredient in the composition of the cement employed to make Steel, provided it contain no Vitriolic Acid. However, it hath been observed, that animal coals produce a speedier effect than others: for which reason it is proper to mix something of that kind with charcoal-dust, as above directed.
The following signs shew that the operation hath succeeded, and that the Iron is changed into good Steel.
This metal being quenched in cold water, as proposed above, acquires such an extraordinary degree of hardness, that it will by no means yield to any impression of the file or hammer, and will sooner break in pieces than stretch upon the anvil. And here it is proper to observe, that the hardness of Steel varies with the manner in which it is quenched. The general rule is, that the hotter the Steel is when quenched, and the colder the water is in which you quench it, the harder it becomes. It may be deprived of the temper thus acquired, by making it red-hot, and letting it cool slowly; for it is thereby softened, rendered malleable, and the file will bite upon it. For this reason the artisans who work in Steel begin with untempering it, that they may with more ease shape it into the tool they intend to make. They afterwards new-temper the tool when finished, and by this second temper the Steel recovers the same degree of hardness it had acquired by the first temper.
The colour of Steel is not so white as that of Iron, but darker, and the grains, facets, or fibres, which appear on breaking it, are finer than those observed in Iron.
If the bars of Iron thus cemented in order to convert them into Steel be too thick, or not kept long enough in cementation, they will not be turned into Steel throughout their whole thickness: their surfaces only will be Steel to a certain depth, and the center will be mere Iron; because the phlogiston will not have thoroughly penetrated them. On breaking a bar of this sort, the difference in colour and grain between the Steel and the Iron is very visible.
It is easy to deprive Steel of the superabundant quantity of phlogiston which constitutes it Steel, and thereby reduce it to Iron. For this purpose it need only be kept red-hot some time, observing that no matter approach it all the while that is capable of refunding to it the phlogiston which the fire carries off. The same end is still sooner obtained by cementing it with meagre hungry matters, capable of absorbing the phlogiston; such as bones calcined to whiteness, and cretaceous earths.
Steel may also be made by fusion; or Pig-iron may be converted into Steel. For this purpose the same method must be employed as was above directed for reducing Pig-iron into malleable Iron; with this difference, that, as Steel requires more phlogiston than is necessary to Iron, all the means must be made use of that are capable of introducing into the Iron a great deal of phlogiston; such as melting but a small quantity of Iron at a time, and keeping it constantly encompassed with abundance of charcoal; reiterating the fusions; taking care that the blast of the bellows directed along the surface of the metal do not remove the coals that cover it, &c. And here it must be observed, that there are some sorts of Pig-iron which it is very difficult to convert into Steel by this method, and that there are others which succeed very readily, and with scarce any trouble at all. The ores which yield the last-mentioned sort of Pig-iron are called Steel Ores. Steel made by this means must be tempered in the same manner as that made by cementation8.
Process IV
The Calcination of Iron. Sundry Saffrons of Mars.
Take filings of Iron, in what quantity you please; put them into a broad unglazed earthen vessel; set it under the muffle of a cupelling furnace; make it red-hot; stir the filings frequently; and keep up the same degree of fire till the Iron be wholly turned into a red powder.
OBSERVATIONS.
Iron easily loses its phlogiston by the action of fire. The calx that remains after its calcination is exceeding red; which makes this be thought the natural colour of the earth of that metal. It hath accordingly been observed, that all the earths and stones which either are naturally red, or acquire that colour by calcination, are ferruginous.
The yellowish red colour which every calx of Iron hath, in whatever manner it be prepared, hath procured the name of Crocus or Saffron to every preparation of this kind. That made in the manner above directed is called in Medicine Crocus Martis astringens.
The rust produced on the surface of Iron is a sort of calx of Iron made by way of dissolution. The moisture of the air acts upon the metal, dissolves it, and robs it of some of its phlogiston. This rust is called in Medicine Crocus Martis Aperiens; because it is thought that the saline parts, by means whereof the humidity dissolves the Iron, remain united with the metal after its dissolution, and give it an aperitive virtue. The Apothecaries prepare this sort of Saffron of Mars by exposing Iron filings to the dew, till they be turned entirely to rust: which is then called Saffron of Mars by dew.
Another Saffron of Mars is also prepared in a much shorter manner, by mixing filings of Iron with pulverized Sulphur, and moistening the mixture, which after some time ferments and grows hot. It is then set on the fire; the Sulphur burns away, and the mass is kept stirring till it become a red matter. This Saffron is nothing but Iron dissolved by the Acid of Sulphur, which is known to be of the same nature with that of Vitriol; and consequently this Saffron of Mars is no way differing from Vitriol calcined to redness.
Process V.
Iron dissolved by the mineral Acids.
Put any mineral Acid whatever into a matrass with some water; set the matrass on a sand-bath gently heated; drop into the vessel some filings of Iron: the phenomena which usually accompany metalline dissolutions will immediately appear. Add more filings, till you observe the Acid hath lost all sensible action upon them: then remove your matrass from the sand-bath; you will find in it a solution of Iron.
OBSERVATIONS.
Iron is very easily dissolved by all the Acids. If you make use of the Vitriolic Acid, care must be taken to weaken it with water, in case it be concentrated; because the dissolution will succeed the better. The vapours that rise on this occasion are inflammable; and if a lighted paper be held to the mouth of the matrass, especially after keeping it stopt for some time and shaking the whole gently, the sulphureous vapours take fire with such rapidity as to produce a considerable explosion; which is sometimes strong enough to burst the vessel into a thousand pieces. This solution hath a green colour, and is in fact a fluid Green Vitriol, which wants nothing but rest to make it shoot into crystals.
If you make use of the Nitrous Acid, you must cease adding more filings when the liquor, after standing still some moments, becomes turbid; for, when this Acid is impregnated with Iron to a certain degree, it lets fall some of that which it had dissolved, and becomes capable of taking up fresh filings. Thus, by constantly adding new supplies of Iron, this Acid may be made to dissolve a much greater quantity thereof than is necessary to saturate it entirely. This solution is of a russet colour, and doth not crystallize.
If the weather be not extremely cold, and the Acids have a proper degree of strength, the sand-bath is unnecessary, as the dissolution will succeed very well without it.
Iron dissolved by Acids may be separated therefrom, like all other metallic substances in the same circumstances, either by the action of fire, which carries off the Acid and leaves the Martial Earth, or by the interposition of substances which have a greater affinity than metallic substances have with Acids; that is, by Absorbent Earths and Alkaline Salts. By whatever means you separate Iron from an Acid solvent, it constantly appears, after the separation, in the form of a yellowish red powder; because it is then deprived of most of the phlogiston to which it owed its metalline form; whence it is reasonable to think, that this is the proper colour of Martial earth.
All these precipitates of Iron are true Saffrons of Mars, which, as well as those prepared by calcination, are so much the further removed from the nature of a metal, the more they are deprived of their phlogiston. Thence it comes that they are more or less soluble by Acids, and more or less attracted by the magnet: as no ferruginous earth, perfectly deprived of all inflammable matter, is at all attracted by the magnet, or soluble by Acids.