Stature and Weights
There have appeared in public print, several tables, which, the compilers claim, are based upon Greek and other measurements. It is probable that few of these tables are authentic, and many of them are, undoubtedly, incorrect. The following table is compiled by Jay W. Seaver, M. D., for 20 years professor at Yale University, and is as nearly correct as possibility would admit. Dr. Seaver, however, does not claim absolute correctness. The second and third tables given are used quite generally in civil service examinations by local, state, and national governments, and apply largely to those seeking positions on the police force or the fire department
| Height | Males—Weight, | Females—Weight, | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Feet | Fat | Normal | Fat | Normal |
| 5 | 136 | 112 | 122 | 102 |
| 5.1 | 141 | 116 | 128 | 106 |
| 5.2 | 146 | 120 | 134 | 109 |
| 5.3 | 152 | 125 | 140 | 113 |
| 5.4 | 160 | 130 | 145 | 117 |
| 5.5 | 167 | 135 | 151 | 121 |
| 5.6 | 175 | 138 | 154 | 125 |
| 5.7 | 182 | 140 | 157 | 130 |
| 5.8 | 189 | 143 | 160 | 135 |
| 5.9 | 196 | 150 | 169 | 140 |
| 5.1O | 203 | 155 | 173 | 145 |
| 5.11 | 210 | 160 | 179 | 150 |
| 6 | 216 | 165 | 185 | 155 |
| 6.1 | 221 | 170 | 187 | 160 |
| 6.2 | 226 | 175 | 196 | 166 |
| 6.3 | 231 | 180 | 205 | 171 |
Minimum circumference of the Chest tolerable in applicants.
| Height | Circumference of Chest | Height | Circumference of Chest | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Feet | Inches | Inches | Feet | Inches | Inches |
| 5 | 6 | 32-1/2 | 5 | 11 | 35-1/2 |
| 5 | 7 | 33 | 6 | .. | 36 |
| 5 | 7-1/2 | 33-1/2 | 6 | 1 | 36-1/2 |
| 5 | 8 | 34 | 6 | 2 | 37 |
| 5 | 9 | 34-1/2 | 6 | 3 | 37-1/4 |
| 5 | 10 | 35 | 6 | 4 | 38 |
The stature shall not be below 5 ft. 6 in., nor the weight below that marked as its minimum accompaniment in the subjoined table.
| Height | Min. Pounds | Average Pounds | Max. Weight Pounds | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Feet | Inches | |||
| 5 | 6 | 136 | 143 | 180 |
| 7 | 138 | 146 | 187 | |
| 5 | 8 | 140 | 148 | 195 |
| 5 | 9 | 145 | 155 | 202 |
| 5 | 10 | 150 | 160 | 210 |
| 5 | 11 | 155 | 165 | 217 |
| 6 | .. | 160 | 170 | 225 |
| 6 | 1 | 165 | 175 | 233 |
| 6 | 2 | 170 | 180 | 240 |
| 6 | 3 | 175 | 185 | 248 |
Steam Engine.—The principle of the steam engine is very simple. Stripped of all technicality, it may be described as follows: Take a can with a height somewhat longer than its width, and close up both ends. Make a hole in the center of one of the ends large enough for the insertion of a rod about the diameter of a small poker. Fasten one end of this rod to the center of a disc which will fit closely into the can. Insert this disc in the can with the poker passing through the hole. The whole apparatus will be similar to that of a churn. Bore two holes in the sides of the can, at top and bottom. Allow steam to pass into the can through the first hole, which will force the disc to the other end of the can, and draw the poker with it. Then, introduce steam through the other hole. This will drive the disc to the other end of the can, and at the same time the steam entering the first hole will pass out. This gives a motion to the poker rod, which continues so long as steam is forced in and out. The rod, is, of course, connected with a crank which works on a shaft, and from this shaft power is transmitted. The steam is let into the cylinder automatically. A fly wheel is maintained where there is not more than one cylinder, and even where there is more than one, so as to create momentum, which carries the crank beyond its dead center. The modern steam engine makes from 100 to even 1,000 revolutions a minute. Its power is measured by its capacity to equal that of one or several horses, and is known as horse-power. Steam engines are made with a capacity of only a small fraction of horse-power, and up to several thousand. But usually, where great power is required, more than one cylinder is used, all of them working upon the same shaft The so-called turbine steam engine is similar to the ordinary turbine water wheel, except that steam, instead of water, is forced against it. See “Turbines.”
Strikes.—The strike is an agreement upon the part of workmen to refuse to work until their demands are accepted. The first strike in the United States took place in New York City, in 1803, and was confined to sailors. In 1888, there were 697 strikes, involving over 210,000 employees. In 1886, the number of strikes increased 52 per cent., and in 1888 the increase was 22 per cent. In the early days nearly half of the strikes were in Pennsylvania. The great coal strike of 1902 was probably the most disastrous and largest strike on record. It involved about 150,000 men, with a loss of wages of nearly $40,000,000.
Sub Rosa.—The term “under the rose” implies secrecy. It had its origin B. C. 477, when Pausanias, commander of the fleet of Spartans and Athenians, was intriguing with Xerxes for the subjugation of Greece to Persia and for the hand of the king’s daughter in marriage. The business was transacted in the “Brazen House,” the roof of which was a garden making a bower of roses. Hence the term Sub Rosa.
Sugar Industry.—The United States consumes each year nearly 3,500,000 tons of sugar, or about 80 pounds per capita.
Sunday Schools.—The Sunday Schools of the United States have a membership of about 15,500,000, including teachers. The Sunday School membership of England and Wales is over 7,000,000. Connected with the Sunday Schools of the world are about 2,650,000 teachers and 26,500,000 scholars.
Talking Machines.—The talking machine, known by several names, including the phonograph, was originally invented by Edison. Unscientifically speaking, it consists of a disc similar to that used in the telephone, with a needle or point attached to the center of the underside of it. This needle or point fits into circular or cylindrical grooves, which are covered with tin foil or other malleable substance.
The vibrations of the voice or of music, which reach the disc, cause this needle or point to rise or fall, producing impressions upon the tin foil or other substance. After the record has been made, duplicates are produced in a substance largely made of rubber, which is placed on a rotary disc or cylinder that is turned automatically, the needle or point attached to the disc working into the grooves and rising with or following the impressions, which cause the plate or disc to vibrate. The process is wholly mechanical, and electricity is not used.
Tariff.—This word, meaning a schedule of duties on merchandise, imported or exported, is said to come from Tarifa, a town in Southern Spain, on the Mediterranean Sea, where duties were once levied by the Moors on all ships passing in or out of the Straits of Gibraltar.
Telegraph.—The conception of the telegraph came to Professor Morse, in 1832, while he was making a voyage from Europe to America, and he at once began his experiments, which resulted in what may be considered one of the two greatest inventions or discoveries. After waiting about eight years, Congress reluctantly appropriated a sum sufficient to build a telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. The original conception of telegraphy belongs wholly to Professor Morse, but since its invention other scientists have invented improvements, including an apparatus which allows the sending of two messages each way, or four messages in all, over the same wire at the same time. The telegraphic code or alphabet, originally invented by Morse, remains practically intact. It consists of dots and dashes, and may be learned in a few hours, although expertness requires a year or more of practice. Unscientifically speaking, the telegraphic apparatus is extremely simple: it consists primarily of a piece of soft iron around which is wound several strands of insulated wire. During the time that electricity is passing through this wire, the soft iron becomes a magnet, but returns to its nonmagnetic character when electricity is not passing around it. A battery is used for the generating of electricity. The operator turns electricity into the wire by pressing a key. When the key is down, the electricity passes around the piece of soft iron and makes of it a magnet, which will draw iron or steel to it, the same as does any ordinary permanent magnet. Just above the end of the soft iron is placed a piece of metal, and as the key is pressed letting in the electricity, the iron (then a magnet) draws this metal to it, producing a slight sound or click. This piece of iron is held by a spring, and springs back into place when electricity is let out of the insulated wire surrounding the soft iron. If a message is to be sent a long distance, a relay is used so as to turn into the wire additional currents of electricity, because electricity loses some of its strength if carried over a very long wire, and a relay adds new or fresh currents from separate batteries. In this way, a message can be sent continuously for several thousand miles, which would be impossible without the use of relays. The process of sending several messages at the same time over the same wire is somewhat complicated. The result is obtained by using currents of electricity of different intensity, the currents not interfering with each other. The ocean cables are described under another heading.
Telephone.—The telephone is supposed to have been invented by Professor A. G. Bell, in 1875, but scientists recognize the probable invention of it, largely in theory, by the eminent scientists Dolbear, Gray, Edison, and possibly others. It is exceedingly difficult to describe, other than scientifically, the working of the telephone; and it cannot be done perfectly until electricity is fully understood. We know the result, but are not able to locate all of the causes. The original telephone consisted of a bar of magnetized steel of about the circumference of an ordinary poker, a few inches in length, around which was wound insulated wire. At one end of the magnet, and close to it, was placed a metallic disc about twice the circumference of a silver dollar and of the thickness of thin tin. Originally the same instrument was used both for sending and for receiving. Any sound, including the human voice, brought in direct contact with the disc, caused it to vibrate, and for some unknown reason these vibrations were transmitted through the magnet, and by the wires carried to another similar instrument. The sounds and voice were carried a short distance without the use of a battery, and the early telephones had ground circuits; that is, there was only one wire between the stations, the other wire being grounded by being attached to gas or other pipes, the electricity making half the circuit through the earth. Later on a battery was used, which increased the sending distances, but the ground wire remained for some time. The present telephone consists of the original telephone as a receiver, but with a transmitter into which the sender speaks his words. The mechanism of the transmitter is complicated and cannot be described except scientifically. Its use allows one to talk long distances, even to the extent of 2,000 miles. Non-technically speaking, then, the telephone consists of a magnet, insulated wire, and a disc, the vibration upon the disc being transmitted over the wire from the sending to the receiving station, electricity being used for conveying the vibrations or sound.
Eight billion, four hundred thousand and twenty-seven million conversations were held in this country last year over the wires of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., according to its annual report. The daily average was 26,310,000. The company now has telephone stations in 70,000 cities, towns, and hamlets, which is 5,000 more than the number of postoffices in the country, and 10,000 more than the number of railroad stations. Altogether there were 7,456,074 telephone stations of the company at the end of 1912.
Ten Great Religions.—James Freeman Clarke, in his book “Ten Great Religions,” gives the following as the ten most important faiths of ancient and modern times:
Confucianism.
Brahmanism.
Buddhism.
Zoroastrianism.
Religion of Egypt.
Religion of Greece and Rome.
Teutonic and Scandinavian Religion.
Judaism.
Christianity.
Islâm.
Théâtre Français.—The most famous theatre in Paris, and, perhaps, in the world. It is situated in the Place du Palais Royal, and is the home of the Comédie Française. In 1900 it was destroyed by fire, but immediately rebuilt. The original building was erected in 1782, but was later much altered.
Thunder.—The sound of thunder is produced by the sudden rush of the air into the vacuum caused by the rapid passage of lightning through the air.
Ticket-of-Leave.—The English Government in 1854 issued a permit which allowed a convict his liberty before the expiration of his term. It was necessary for him to report to the police at stated times, and, if he committed any crime, his ticket-of-leave was recalled. The ticket-of-leave is similar to probation granted in the United States.
Time Difference.—When it is 12 o’clock noon in New York City, it is 5:13 in Antwerp; about 5:49 in Berlin; about 5:13 in Brussels; about 1:02 in Buenos Ayres; about 10:49 in Calcutta; about 6:53 in Constantinople; about 4:30 in Dublin; about 4:34 in Liverpool; about 4:56 in London; about 5:05 in Paris; about 5:46 in Rome; about 6:57 in St. Petersburg. When it is 12 o’clock noon in New York City, it is 33-1/2 minutes earlier in Havana; about 11 hours and 28 minutes earlier in Hong Kong; about 9 hours and 24 minutes earlier in Melbourne; about 9 hours and 45-1/2 minutes earlier in Yokohama.
Tobacco Industry.—The United States grows about 905,000,000 pounds of tobacco a year, and over a million acres are used for growing tobacco. The value of the tobacco grown each year is about $85,000,000.
To Estimate the Weight of Hay.—Find the length, breadth, and depth of the hay, in feet, and multiply these three dimensions together; if the hay is on the wagon or newly stored, divide the product by 540; but if it is well settled in the mow or stack, divide by 512. If the hay is baled, 270 cubic feet will weigh a ton. The number of cubic feet in a circular stack is found by multiplying the average circumference in yards by itself and this product by four times the height of the stack in yards; then point off the two right-hand figures and multiply the result by 27.
To Find Length of Day or Night.—At any time of the year add 12 hours to the time of the sun’s setting, and from the sum subtract the time of rising for the length of the day. Subtract the time of setting from 12 hours, and to the remainder add the time of rising next morning for the length of the night. These rules are equally true for apparent time.
To Measure Corn in the Crib.—Find the length, breadth, and depth of the corn, in feet, and multiply these three dimensions together; this product multiplied by.63 will give the number of heaped bushels in the ear. Sometimes one and one-half bushels of ears make a bushel of shelled corn, and sometimes it requires two bushels, the amount required depending upon the size of the cob, shape of the ear, etc.
Tom Thumb.—Tom Thumb was probably the most famous dwarf in the world, not because of the absence of others of the same height, or less, but because he was exploited by the late P. T. Barnum. Tom Thumb, whose real name was Charles S. Stratton, was born in 1838, and died in 1883. In 1842 he was two feet in height and weighed sixteen pounds. In 1863 his height increased to thirty-one inches, and later to forty inches.
To Produce Different Colors.—The color printed in italics may be made by mixing the other two colors. Purple, red with light blue. Brown, red with black. Rose, lake with white. Drab, umber with white. Chestnut, white with brown. Chocolate, yellow with brown. Flesh Color, carmine with straw. Pearl, blue with lead color. Pink, carmine with white. Silver Gray, lamp black with indigo. Lead Color, lamp black with white. Bright Green, Paris green with white. Buff, yellow ochre with white. French White, white tinted with purple. Dark Green, black with chrome green. Brilliant Green, emerald green with white. Pea Green, chrome green with white. Orange, vermillion with chrome yellow. Straw Color, chrome yellow with white lead. Cream Color, white tinted with red and yellow. Ashes of Roses, white with tints of black and purple. French Gray, white tinted with black and purple. Olive, chrome yellow, blue, and black with red.
Trade Unions.—The trade union, although supposed to be of modern origin, was established as early as 1548. Mythical history which, of course, cannot be authenticated, indicates the possibility of an organization of working men at the time of the building of Solomon’s temple. During the last several years, trade unionism has grown to enormous proportions, and practically every vocation has its union or organization. The right to organize is self-evident, so long as it does not restrain trade or interfere with personal rights. The employee and employer certainly have legal and moral rights to do as they please, provided they do not interfere with legal or moral law, and do not use coercion. Moral influence, however, cannot be criticised. The maintenance of a well-organized labor union is to the advantage of both capital and labor, and should be encouraged. Naturally, the binding together of laborers or workmen, and that of capital, causes some abuses, for humanity, as it runs, is not always fair; but one should not criticise either side without criticising the other. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, both are fair and unfair. As civilization progresses, the mistakes and abuses will be corrected, and organized labor and capital will work in harmony.
Trusts.—A trust is an association of capitalists, organized for the purpose of controlling any one trade or trades. It is illegal and may be punished by imprisonment or fine. It is exceedingly difficult, however, to discover whether or not an organization is in actual restraint of trade, and to prosecute a combination. Undoubtedly trusts exist in America, and all over the world for that matter, and are illegal. Great effort is being made to disband them, but so far has very little real effect, for most of the trusts which are disorganized by law continue in some other form.
Turbines.—The turbine has largely taken the place of the water wheel, because it is more compact, produces greater energy, and is more powerful. It is, untechnically speaking, a box containing a series of fanlike blades set at an angle, so that water or steam brought against them will make them turn.
Type.—Movable metallic type was invented by Gutenberg, of Germany, about 1450. Before this time, all books and papers were either hand-written or printed from engraved wooden blocks. To-day there are over 50,000 faces and sizes of type. Type is divided into three great classes: (1) Roman or body type, which is used for the reading matter in newspapers, magazines, and books; (2) display type, which appears in headings, and is used for circulars and the like; and (3) ornamental type, which has a fancy face. The different sizes of type formerly bore arbitrary names, like Nonpareil, Pica, etc., but now all type is under the point system, Nonpareil being known as 6 Point and Pica as 12 Point. The reading matter in all large daily newspapers is set in 6 Point, but most books are printed from either 10, 11, or 12 Point. Twelve Point type has twice the depth of 6 Point type. Type to be set is placed in two cases, one known as upper case and the other as lower case, the former holding capitals and small capitals; the latter small letters and figures, both cases containing boxes for spaces and other characters. The compositor holds in his left hand what is known as a composing stick, or stick. It is made of metal, with a bottom and three sides, the left side being movable and adjustable. The compositor places one piece of type at a time in the stick, setting the type from left to right and upside down. He places metal spaces between each word. When a line is completed, he sets another, with or without a piece of thin metal between the lines, known as a lead. When the stick is full, he dumps his type into a galley, which is a receptacle made of wood or metal, from one to three feet long, framed at the bottom and at the sides, but open at the other end. The type is then locked up in a steel frame or chase, and is ready to be stereotyped, electrotyped, or to be printed from.
United States Flag.—On June 14, 1777, the United States Congress declared “that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing the new constellation.” In 1794 Congress decreed that after May 1st, 1795, “The flag of the United States be fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and that the Union be fifteen stars, white in a blue field.” At that time the stars and stripes were of equal number, and it was the intention to add both a star and stripe with the addition of each new State. Subsequently, it was found that the addition of a stripe for each new State would produce a flag altogether too large. Accordingly, Congress, on April 4th, 1818, reduced the number of stripes to thirteen and made the number of stars twenty, that being the number of States at that time. It was further enacted that a new star should be added as each new State was admitted into the Union. By act of Congress, the flag has become a sacred emblem, and cannot be used for other than decorative or patriotic purposes, and cannot serve as a part of an advertisement or other announcement.