| The administration of justice by the state a permanent necessity. |
| The origin of the administration of justice. |
| Justice | Criminal—The punishment of wrongs. |
| Civil—The enforcement of rights. |
| Crimes not necessarily public wrongs. |
| Purposes of punishment:— |
| 1. Deterrent. |
| 2. Preventive. |
| 3. Reformative. |
| 4. Retributive. |
| Civil Justice | Enforcement of primary rights—Specific enforcement. |
| Enforcement of sanctioning rights—Sanctional enforcement. |
| Sanctional enforcement | Compensation | Restitution. |
| Penal redress. |
| Penalty |
| Justice | Remedial—independent of the idea of punishment—always civil. |
| Penal—involving the idea of punishment—civil or criminal. |
| Subsidiary functions of courts of justice:— |
| 1. Petitions of right. |
| 2. Declarations of right. |
| 3. Administration of property. |
| 4. Creation, transfer, and extinction of rights. |