Wings and Legs of Ducks and Fowls
The reduced wings and enlarged legs of domesticated ducks and fowls are attributed by Darwin and Spencer to the inheritance of the effects of use and disuse. But the inference by no means follows. Natural selection would usually favour these adaptive changes, and they would also have been aided by an artificial selection which is often unconscious or indirect. Birds with diminished power of flight would be less difficult to keep and manage, and in preserving and multiplying such birds man would be unconsciously bringing about structural changes which would easily be regarded as effects of use and disuse. “About eighteen centuries ago Columella and Varro speak of the necessity of keeping ducks in netted enclosures like other wild fowl, so that at this period there was danger of their flying away.”22 Is it not probable that the best fliers would escape most frequently, or would pine most if kept confined? On the other hand, birds with lessened powers of flight would not be eliminated as under natural conditions, but would be favoured; and natural selection, together with artificial selection of the most flourishing birds, would thicken and strengthen the legs to meet increased demands upon them.
The diminution of the duck’s wing is not great even in the birds that “never fly,” and from this we must deduct the direct effect of disuse on the individual during its lifetime. As Weismann suggests, the inherited portion of the change could only be ascertained by comparing the bones, &c., of wild and tame ducks similarly reared. If individual disuse diminished the weight of the duck’s wing-bones by 9 per cent. there would be nothing left to account for.
I suspect that investigation would reveal anomalies inconsistent with the theory of use-inheritance. Thus according to Darwin’s tables of comparative weights and measurements23 the leg-bones of the Penguin duck have slightly diminished in length, although they have increased 39 per cent. in weight. Relatively to the weight of the skeleton, the leg-bones have shortened in the tame breeds of ducks by over 5 per cent. (and in two breeds by over 8 per cent.) although they have increased more than 28 per cent. in proportional weight.24 How can increased use simultaneously shorten and thicken these bones? If the relative shortening is attributed to a heavier skeleton, then the apparently reduced weight of the wing-bones is fully accounted for by the same circumstance, and disuse has had no inherited effect.
Another strange circumstance is that the wing-bones have diminished in length only. The shortening is about 6 per cent. more than in the shortened legs, and it amounts to 11 per cent. as compared with the weight of the skeleton. Such a shortening should represent a reduction of 29 per cent. in weight, whereas the actual reduction in the weight of the wing-bones relatively to the weight of the skeleton is only 9 per cent. even in the breeds that never fly. Independently of shortening, the disused wing-bones have actually thickened or increased in weight. In the Aylesbury duck the disproportion caused by these conflicting changes is so great that the wing-bones are 47 per cent. heavier than they should be if their weight had varied proportionally with their length.25 The reduction in weight on which Darwin relies seems to be entirely due to the shortening, and this shortening appears to be irrelevant to disuse, since the wings of the Call duck are similarly shortened in their proportions by 12 per cent., although this bird habitually flies to such an extent that Darwin partly attributes the greatly increased weight of its wing-bones to increased use under domestication.
We find that all the changes are in the direction of shorter and thicker bones—a tendency which must be largely dependent upon the suspension of the rigorous elimination which keeps the bones of the wild duck long and light. The used leg-bones and the disused wing-bones have alike been shortened and thickened, though in different proportions. Natural or artificial selection might easily thicken legs without lengthening them, or shorten wings without eliminating strong heavy bones, but it can hardly be contended that use-inheritance has acted in such conflicting ways. The thickening of the wing-bones has actually more than kept pace with any increase of weight in the skeleton, in spite of the effect of individual disuse and of the alleged cumulative effect of ancestral disuse for hundreds of generations. The case of the duck deserves special attention as a crucial one, if only from the fact that in this instance, and in this instance only, has Darwin given the weights of the skeletons, thus furnishing the means for a closer examination of his details than is usually possible.
If we ignore such factors as selection, panmixia, correlation, and the effects of use and disuse during lifetime, and still regard the case of the domestic duck as a valid proof of the inheritance of the effects of use and disuse, we must also accept it as an equally valid proof that the effects of use and disuse are not inherited. Nay, we may even have to admit that, in two points out of four, the inherited effect of use and disuse on successive generations is exactly opposite to the immediate effect on the individual.
Among fowls the wing-bones have lost much in weight but little or nothing in length—which is the reverse of what has occurred in ducks, although disuse is alleged to be the common cause in both cases. Some of the fowls which fly least have their wing-bones as long as ever. In the case of the Silk and Frizzled fowls—ancient breeds which “cannot fly at all”—and in that of the Cochins, which “can hardly fly up to a low perch,” Darwin observes “how truly the proportions of an organ may be inherited although not fully exercised during many generations.”26 In four out of twelve breeds the wing-bones had become slightly heavier relatively to the leg-bones. Do not these facts tend to show that the changes in fowls’ wings are due to fluctuating variability and selective influences rather than to a general law whereby the effects of disuse are cumulatively inherited?