Appendix III
NASAL INDEX OF LIVING SUBJECTS, 71 SERIES (see p. 79).
| Number of Subjects. | ETHNIC GROUPS. | Nasal Index. | Observers. |
| Leptorhinians (less than 70). | |||
| 110 | Armenians | 60.4 | Pantiukhof |
| 62 | Georgian Imers | 60.8 | Pan., Chantre, Erckert |
| 1,969 | Brahmans, Rajputs and other high castes, N.W. province and Oudh | 63.0 | Crooke, Drake-Brocken |
| 100 | French (fair type, dolicho.) | 63.0 | Collignon |
| 41 | Georgian Mingrelians | 63.1 | Pan., Chantre, Erckert |
| 49 | Georgian Gruzins | 64.5 | Pan., Chantre, Erckert |
| 50 | Lorraines | 64.6 | Collignon |
| 30 | French Catalans (Eastern Pyr.) | 65.1 | „ |
| 20 | Anglo-Scotch | 65.1 | Beddoe |
| 23 | Arabs of Tunis | 65.2 | Collignon |
| 50 | French dolichoceph. of the South | 65.7 | „ |
| 184 | Various Kabyles | 66.5 | Prengruber |
| 160 | French of Normandy | 66.5 | Collignon |
| 88 | Sardinians | 66.6 | Gilbert d’Hercourt |
| 27 | Galchas of Turkestan | 66.8 | Ujfalvy |
| 237 | Ossets | 66.8 | Ghiltchen., Ch., Erck. |
| 168 | Mordvinians | 66.9 | Maïnof |
| 21 | English | 67.0 | Beddoe |
| 1,443 | Dravido-Hindus, N.W. Prov. | 67.0 | —— |
| 1,000 | French in general | 67.3 | Collignon |
| 70 | Bretons | 67.5 | „ |
| 80 | Pathans of the Punjab | 68.4 | Risley |
| 80 | Sikhs | 68.8 | „ |
| 98 | Parisians | 69.1 | Collignon |
| 60 | Baluchis of Baluchistan | 69.4 | Risley |
| 120 | Tunisians (2nd Berber race) | 69.8 | Collignon |
| Mesorhinians (70–84.9). | |||
| 10 | Scotch | 70.0 | Beddoe |
| 1,334 | Tunisians in general | 70.2 | Collignon |
| 444 | Punjabis | 70.2 | Risley |
| 865 | Dravidians(Kharvars, Korwas, Cheros, Khunjas) of N.W. Prov. | 71.0 | Crooke, Drake-Brock. |
| 20 | Baltis of Cashmere | 71.4 | Ujfalvy |
| 50 | Berbers (brachycephalic race) | 72.5 | Collignon |
| 29 | Singhalese | 74.9 | Deschamps, Manouv. |
| 36 | Kalmuks of the Volga | 74.7 | Deniker, Erck., Chantre |
| 40 | Kara-Kirghiz of Semiriechie | 74.9 | Seeland |
| 27 | Todas | 74.9 | Thurston |
| 40 | Badagas of Nilgiris | 75.6 | „ |
| 23 | Siouans | 75.9 | Denik., Laloy, Manouv. |
| 33 | Kanarese of Mysore | 76.8 | Thurston |
| 40 | Tamil-Brahmans of Madras | 77.2 | „ |
| 22 | Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills | 79.2 | „ |
| 36 | Malayalim of the Chevaroy Hills | 74.4 | „ |
| 20 | Dums of Chota Nagpur | 79.1 | Risley |
| 695 | Hindus of Behar | 80.0 | „ |
| 1,616 | Hindus of the N.W. Provs. and Oudh | 80.9 | „ |
| 17 | Rhodias of Ceylon (both sexes) | 81.3 | Deschamps |
| 32 | Kols of the N.W. Provinces and Oudh | 82.2 | Risley and Oude |
| 100 | Kurmis of Chota Nagpur | 82.6 | „ |
| 90 | Maghs or Arakanese of Chittagong | 82.7 | „ |
| 30 | Annamese of Cochin-China | 83.3 | Deniker, Laloy |
| 34 | Irulas of the Nilgiris | 83.4 | Thurston |
| 100 | Chakamas (Arakanese-Bengalis) | 85.4 | Risley |
| 23 | Zuñis | 84.9 | Ten Kate |
| Platyrhinians (85–99.9). | |||
| 23 | Annamese of Tong King | 86.2 | Deniker, Laloy |
| 90 | Bhumij of Chota Nagpur | 86.5 | Risley |
| 27 | Bashilanges | 87.0 | Maistre |
| 21 | Bubangis | 87.2 | „ |
| 100 | Santals of Chota Nagpur | 88.8 | Risley |
| 15 | Kurumbas of Wynaad | 88.8 | Thurston |
| 100 | Munda-Kols of Chota Nagpur | 89.0 | Risley |
| 13 | Polynesians | 89.8 | After Collignon |
| 11 | New Caledonians and New Hebridians | 93.8 | Collignon |
| 17 | Fulahs or Fulbés | 95.3 | Deniker, Collignon |
| 44 | Negroes of Tunis | 96.3 | Collignon |
| 21 | Toucouleurs | 99.9 | Deniker |
| Ultraplatyrhinians (over 100). | |||
| 23 | Leybus and Serers | 100.1 | Deniker, Collignon |
| 52 | Negroes of Zambesi | 101.5 | After Collignon |
| 21 | Mandingans and Bambaras | 101.6 | Deniker, Collignon |
| 13 | Ashantis | 107.5 | Deniker |
| 11 | Australians | 107.6 | After Collignon |
| 14 | Angolese Negroes (both sexes) | 107.9 | Deniker |
Footnotes
1 In these ethnic groups there may further be distinguished several subdivisions due to the diversity of manners, customs, etc.; or, in the groups with a more complicated social organisation, yet other social groups—priests, magistrates, miners, peasants, having each his particular “social type.”
2 Naegeli, Mechanisch-Physiol. Theorie der Abstammungslehre, Munich, 1883.
3 The most recent definitions of species given by Wallace and Romanes approximate closely to that of Cuvier. Eimer has suggested another, based solely on the physiological criterion. His definition has the advantage of covering cases of polymorphism, in which the female gives birth to two or several individuals so unlike that we should not hesitate to classify them in two species if guided only by morphology.
4 See on this point, Y. Delage, L’Hérédité, pp. 252 et seq. Paris, 1895.
5 The question is summed up by Darwin, Descent of Man, vol. i., p. 264, 2nd edition. London, 1888.
6 In questions of hybridity, it must be observed, we often confound the notions of “race” and “people,” or “social class,” and we have to be on our guard against information drawn from statistics. Thus in Central America we consider “hybrids” all those descendants of the Spaniards and the Indians who have adopted the semi-European manner of life and the Catholic religion, without inquiring whether or not this physical type has reverted to that of one of the ancestors—a not infrequent occurrence.
7 Darwin, loc. cit., vol. i., p. 280.
8 Such is, for example, the scheme of Topinard, consisting of two double parts (Elements d’Anthropologie, p. 216, Paris, 1885), to which corresponds the system newly propounded by Em. Schmidt (Centralblatt für Anthropologie, etc., vol. ii., p. 97, Breslau, 1897). The last-mentioned admits in reality two divisions, Ethnography and Ethnology, in what he calls Ethnic Anthropology; and two others, Phylography and Phylology, in what he names Somatic Anthropology. The two last divisions correspond to the Special Anthropology and the General Anthropology of Topinard.
9 If we include the Lemurs in the order of Primates, the five families just enumerated are all included in a “sub-order,” that of Anthropoidea. (See, for further details, Flower and Lydekker, Introduction to the Study of Mammals Living and Extinct, London, 1891.)
10 J. H. Kohlbrugge, “Versuch einer Anatomie... Hylobates,” Zoolog. Ergeb. einer Reise in Ned. Ind., von M. Weber, vols. i. and ii. Leyden, 1891.
11 D. J. Cunningham, “The Lumbar Curve in Man and the Apes,” Cunningham Memoirs of the Royal Irish Academy, No. II., Dublin, 1886.
12 J. Ranke, “Ueber die aufrechte Körperhaltung, etc.,” Corr.-Bl. der deutsch. Gesell. f. Anthr., 1895, p. 154.
13 The enormous development of the laryngeal sacs in the orang-utan is perhaps also in harmony with this protective function, as I have shown in a special work. See Deniker and Boulart, “Notes anat. sur... orang-utans,” Nouv. Arch. Mus. d’hist. nat. de Paris, 3rd Series, vol. vii., p. 47, 1895.
14 R. Munro, “On Interm. Links, etc.,” Proceed. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. xxi. (1896–97), No. 4, p. 349, and Prehistoric Problems, pp. 87 and 165, Edin.-Lond. 1897; Turner, Pres. Address Brit. Assoc., Toronto Meeting, Nature, Sept. 1897.
15 Topinard, L’homme dans la Nature, p. 214. Paris, 1891.
16 Deniker and Boulart, loc. cit., p. 55.
17 Boyd, “Table of Weights of the Human Body, etc.,” Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 1861; Bischoff, Das Hirngewicht der Menschen, Bonn, 1880. The difference remains nearly the same if, instead of the weight of the body, we take its surface, as was attempted by E. Dubois (Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, p. 337, 1897).
18 For further details about this plane, see p. 59.
19 See on this subject the interesting study of Dr. Török in the Centralblatt für Anthropologie, etc., directed by Buschan, 1st year, 1896, No. 3.
20 Pfitzner, “Die kleine Zehe,” Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys., 1890.
21 Bell, The Naturalist in Nicaragua, p. 209, 1874; Shevyref, “Parasites of the Skin, etc.,” Works Soc. of Naturalists, St. Petersburg, 1891, in Russian.
22 Walter Kidd, “Certain Vestigial Characters in Man,” Nature, 1897, vol. lv., p. 237.
23 See for further details Deniker, Recherches anatom. et embryol. sur les singes anthropoides, Paris and Poitiers, 1886 (Extr. from Arch. de Zool. experim., 30 ser., vol. iii., supp., 1885–86).
24 Deniker, “Les Races de l’Europe,” Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, p. 29, 1897.
25 Joest, Verh. Berl. gesell. Anthr., p. 450, 1887; Topinard, Elem. Anthr. gén., p. 436.
26 Manouvrier, Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, p. 264, 1896.
27 B. A. Gould, Investigations in the Milit. and Anthrop. Statistics of American Soldiers, New York, 1869.
28 Final Report of the Anthropometric Committee, Brit. Ass., 1883.
29 Pagliani, Lo sviluppo umano per età, etc. Milan, 1879.
30 These figures differ from those up to the present given in most works, according to Topinard (Elem. Anthro. gén., p. 462), who fixes the limits between 1 m. 44 (Bushmen of the Cape) and 1 m. 85 (Patagonians), but the first of these figures is that of a series of six subjects only, measured by Fritsch, and the second the average of ten subjects measured by Lista and Moreno. This is insufficient, and since the publication of Topinard’s work we have only been able to add a few isolated observations concerning those interesting populations the actual height of which is still to be determined.
31 Topinard, Elem. Anthr. gén., p. 463.
32 Final Report Brit. Assoc., 1883, p. 17.
33 Beddoe, The Stature and Bulk of Man in the Brit. Isles, pp. 148 et seq. London, 1870.
34 Houzé, Bull. Soc. Anthr. Bruxelles, 1887; Roberts, A Manual of Anthropometry, London, 1878, and Jour. Stat. Soc., London, 1876; Anuchin, “O geograficheskom, etc.,” Geograph. Distrib. of Stature in Russia, St. Petersburg, 1889; Erisman, Arch. f. soz. gesetzgeb., Tübingen, 1888.
35 Collignon, “L’Anthropologie au conseil de révision,” Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1890, p. 764.
36 Ammon, Die Natur. Auslese beim Menschen, Jena, 1893; Vacher de Lapouge, Les selections sociales, Paris, 1896; Beddoe, loc. cit., p. 180; Ranke, Der Mensch., vol. ii., p. 109, Leipzig, 1887.
37 Boas (Zeit. f. Ethnol., 1895, p. 375) found, however, in thirty-nine series of Indians the difference greater with tribes of high stature (13.5 centimetres) than with tribes of low stature (9.9 centimetres).
38 Rollet, Mensurations des os longs, etc., Lyons, 1889 (thesis).
39 Manouvrier, Mem. Soc. Anthro., 2nd ser., vol. iv., p. 347, Paris, 1893.
40 Rahon, Mem. Soc. Anthro., vol. iv., p. 403, Paris, 1893.
41 Bischoff, Sitzungsber. Mat. Phys. Cl. Bayr. Akad., Munich, 1882, pp. 243 and 356.
42 Galton, Finger Prints. London, 1892.
43 Haeckel, Natur. Schöpfungsgeschichte, 4th ed., p. 603. Berlin, 1873.
44 Pruner-Bey, “Chevelure comme caracterist. des races hum.,” Mem. Soc. Anthr., vol. ii., p. 1, Paris, 1863; Latteux, Technique microscopique, p. 239, Paris, 1883; Waldeyer, Atlas der Menschl. u. Thier Haare, Lahr, 1894.
45 Topinard, Elem. Anthrop. gén., p. 265; J. Ranke, loc. cit., vol. ii., p. 172.
46 Baelz, “Körperl. Eigensch. d. Japaner,” Mitth. Deut. Gesell. Nat. und Völkerk. Ostasiens, vol. iii., fasc. 28, p. 330, and vol. iv., fasc. 32, p. 39, Yokohama, 1883–85; Montano, Mission aux îles Philippines, Paris, 1885 (Extr. from Arch. Miss. Scient., 3rd series, vol. xi.).
47 P. S. Unna, “Ueber das Haar als Rassenmerkmal,” Deutsche Med. Zeit., 1896, Nos. 82 and 83.
48 See Stewart, Microsc. Journ., 1873, p. 54; and T. Anderson Stuart, Journ. Anat. Phys., 1881–82, xvi., p. 362.
49 B. A. Gould, loc. cit., p. 562.
50 Breul, “Vertheil. d. Hautpigments bei verschied. Menschenrassen,” Morph. Arb., directed by G. Schwalbe, vol. vi., part 3. Jena, 1896.
51 Broca, Instructions génér. pour les rech. Anthropologiques sur le vivant, 2nd ed., Paris, 1879.
52 J. G. Garson and Ch. H. Read, Notes and Queries on Anthropology, edit. for the Anthro. Institute, 2nd ed., London, 1892.
53 Fair hair with all its shades is met with especially among the European populations of the North; it is rarer in the South. There are, it is computed, 16 fair-haired individuals to every 100 Scotchmen; 13 to every 100 Englishmen; and 2 only to every 100 Italians (Beddoe). On the other hand, brown hair is met with in 75 cases out of 100 Spaniards, 39 out of 100 Frenchmen, and 16 only of 100 Scandinavians (Gould). The fair variety is rarer among straight-haired races; it is found, however, among the western Finns, among certain Russians, etc.
54 Baelz, loc. cit., vol. iv., p. 40; Matignon, Bull. Soc. Anthr., p. 524, Paris, 1896; Collignon, ibid., p. 528; Sören-Hansen, Bidrag Vestgrönl. Anthr., Copenhagen, 1893; Extr. from Meddel. om Grönl., vol. vii., p. 237.
55 Havelock Ellis, Man and Woman, p. 223. London, 1897.
56 These characters, in conjunction with several others—the small development of the lower jaw-bone, the frontal sinuses poorly developed, the much greater development of the cranial vault proportionately to its base, the persistence of the frontal and parietal bumps—make the feminine skull approximate to the infantile form. See the works of Broca, Manouvrier, and also Rabentisch, Der Weiberschädel, Morpholog. Arb., Schwalbe, 1892, vol. ii., p. 207; and H. Ellis, loc. cit., p. 72.
57 H. Ellis, loc. cit., p. 89 and onwards; L. Manouvrier, article “Cerveau” in the Dict. de Physiol. de Ch. Richet, vol. ii., part 8, Paris, 1897.
58 According to the quinary nomenclature adopted in many countries of Europe, the indices are grouped by series of five: dolichocephalic from 70 to 74.9; mesocephalic from 75 to 79.9; brachycephalic from 80 to 84.9; hyper-brachycephalic from 85 to 89.9. The two systems might be combined with advantage, as I proposed ten years ago, under the following nomenclature, which I have adopted in this work:—Cephalic index of the skull: From 69.9 and under, hyper-dolichocephalic; from 70 to 74.9, dolichocephalic; from 75 to 77.7, sub-dolichocephalic; from 77.7 to 79.9, mesocephalic; from 80 to 83.2, sub-brachycephalic; from 83.3 to 84.9, brachycephalic; from 85 to 85.9, hyper-brachycephalic; from 90 and upwards, ultra-brachycephalic.
59 Skulls may also be grouped by sections (for instance, ascending to the quinary nomenclature of the cephalic index) to see what is the proportional part of each of these sections. Thus if we take a series of 10 skulls having the following indices, 75, 77, 78, 80, 80, 81, 81, 81, 82, 84, their average index will be expressed by the figure 80 (the sum of the indices divided by the number of skulls), while the most frequent mean index will be 81. Further, the series should be considered as not very homogeneous, for it comprises 1 dolichocephalic, 1 sub-dolichocephalic, 1 mesocephalic, 6 sub-brachycephalic, and 1 brachycephalic.
60 It is rather a line than a plane; the cranium always being asymmetrical, we cannot make a horizontal plane pass exactly through the borders of the two orbits and the two auditory meatus.
61 Broca, “Recherches sur l’indice orbitaire,” Rev. Anthro., p. 577, Paris, 1875.
62 C.E., an abbreviation which is met with in other tables for Crania ethnica of De Quatrefages and Hamy, Paris, 1882.
63 L. Weiss, Beitr. Anat. der Orbita, part 3, p. 25, Tübingen, 1890.
64 Ten Kate, L’Anthropologie, 1894, p. 617.
65 Ten Kate, Zur Anthropologie der Mongoloiden, Berlin, 1882 (thesis).
66 See P. Broca, Instruc. gén., etc.; Garson and Read, Notes and Queries, etc.; as well as P. Topinard, “Instruc. Anthropometr. pour les voyageurs,” Rev. d’Anthro., p. 397, Paris, 1885.
67 Sergi, Congr. internat. d’Archéol. et d’Anthr. préhist., 11th sess., Moscow, 1893, vol. ii., p. 296.
68 Ehrenreich, Anthr. Stud. Urbewohner Brasiliens, chap. i., Brunswick, 1897.
69 A. Gonner, “Vererbung der Forme... des Schädels,” Zeits. für Geburtshilfe und Gynäkologie, 1895, vol. xxxiii., p. 1.
70 Spalikowski, “Études d’anthropologie normande,” Bull. Soc. amis Sciences nat. Rouen, 1895, Nos. 1 and 2, p. 113; Ammon, loc. cit., p. 143; Johansson, and F. Westermarck, Skandin. Arch. f. Physiol., vol. vii., 1897, p. 341; Miss Fawcett and K. Pearson, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, vol. 62, 1898, p. 413.
71 Elem. Anthro. gén., p. 567.
72 Regalia, “Orbita ed obliquità dell’ occhio Mongolico,” Archivio p. Antr., vol. xviii., p. 1, Florence, 1888.
73 E. Metchnikof, Zeitsch. f. Ethnol., p. 153, Berlin, 1874.
74 J. Deniker, “L’Étude sur les Kalmouks,” Revue d’Anthropologie, 2nd series, vol. vi., p. 696, Paris, 1883.
75 Collignon, “La nomenclature quinaire de l’indice nasal,” Rev. d’Anthropol., 3rd series, t. ii., p. 8, Paris, 1887.
76 German anthropologists take the measurement of the breadth of the nose, not level with the nostrils, but behind, at the point of their attachment to the maxillary bone, compressing the soft parts; the nasal indices thus obtained are much too low, and not comparable to those which result from the measurements taken according to the Broca-Collignon method.
77 A. Bertillon, “Morphologie du Nez,” Rev. d’Anthro., 3rd series, vol. ii., 1887.
78 P. Broca, “Recher. sur l’ind. nas.,” Rev. d’Anthro., vol. i., Paris, 1872; Houzé, “L’ind. nas. des Flamands et des Wallons,” Bull. Soc. Anthr., Bruxelles, vol. vii., 1888–89; O. Hovorka, Die aussere Nase, Wien, 1893; Hoyer, “Beitr. zur Anthr. der Nase,” Schwalbe’s Morph. Arb., vol. iv., p. 151, 1894.
79 Schwalbe, “R. Virchow’s Festschrift,” 1891; E. Wilhelm, Rev. Biol. du nord de la France, Lille, 1892, No. 6.
80 See the summing up of the question in Cunningham, “The Neural Spine,” Journal of Anat. and Physiol., vol. xx., p. 637.
81 See, for further details, Verneau, Le bassin dans les sexes, etc., Paris, 1875; Turner, “Report Hum. Skelet.,” Rep. of Challenger: Zoology, part 47; J. Garson, “Pelvimetry,” Journ. Anat. Physiol., vol. xvi., London, October, 1881; Henning, “Rassenbecken,” Arch. für Anthr., 1885, and Sitzungsb. Naturforsch. Gesell., Leipzig, 1890–91, p. 1; Marri, Archivio per l’Antr., 1892, p. 17.
82 On the index of the shoulder-blade see Broca, Bull. Soc. Anthr., 1878, p. 66; Livon, De L’omoplate (thesis), Paris, 1879; Garson, Journ. Anat. Physiol., vol. xiv., 1879–80, p. 13; Turner, loc. cit.
83 Transformed into terms of the pelvic index of Broca these figures, according to the formula: ind. Turn.: 100 = 100: x, we have the figures: Fuegians, 129.8; Australians, 129.8; Europeans, 126.5; European women, 134.6; Australian women, 130.5; Andamanese women, 131.5.
84 It has been thought that this frequency was due to the facility with which the thin lamella in question forming the bottom of the cavity can be destroyed after prolonged interment. However, there are prehistoric burial-places, as, for example, certain long barrows of Great Britain, in which not a single perforated humerus in a series of from ten to thirty bones has been found.
85 Houzé, “Le 3e trochanter,” Bull. Soc. Anthr., Brussels, 1883.
86 See the summary of the question by Dwight in Journ. of Anat. Physiol., vol. xxiv., pt. i., London, 1889, p. 61; also that by Costa, in Archivio per l’Antr., vol. xx., 1890, p. 280; and by Poirier in his Traité d’Anatomie, vol. i., p. 221, Paris, 1890.
87 Manouvrier, Mémoires Soc. Anthr., 2nd ser., vol. iii., Paris, 1888.
88 Ibid., vol. iv., 1890.
89 Hamy, Rev. d’Anthrop., 1872, p. 79.
90 Topinard, L’homme dans la Nature, p. 126.
91 Rojdestvensky, “Proportions of the Head,” Bull. Soc. Friends of Nat. Sc., vol. xc., part 1, Moscow, 1895 (in Russian).
92 Ivanovsky, “Mongols, etc.,” Bull. Soc. Friends of Nat. Sc., vol. lxxi., Moscow, 1893 (in Russian); Topinard, Elem. Anthro. générale, p. 1076.
93 See Ivanovsky, loc. cit., p. 257; Topinard, loc. cit., p. 1089.
94 Deniker and Boulart, loc. cit., p. 53.
95 M. Bartels, Arch. f. Anthr., vol. xiii., 1880, p. 1.
96 Lartschneider, “Die Steissbeinmuskeln, etc.,” Denkschr. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien. mat. nat. Kl., vol. lxii., 1895.
97 See on this subject, Le Double, Traité des variations du Syst. musc. de l’homme, 2 vols., Paris, 1897; and Testut, Anomalies muscul., Paris, 1884.
98 Hovelacque and Hervé, Précis d’Anthro., p. 301. Paris, 1887.
99 Ten Kate, “Sur quelques points d’ostéologie ethnique,” Revista del Museo de La Plata, vol. vii., 1896, p. 263.
100 R. Blanchard, “Observations sur le tablier... d’après Peron et Lesueur,” Bull. Soc. Zool. de France, 1883, with Figs.
[101] H. Ploss, Das Weib, 5th edit., by Max Bartels, vol. i. Leipzig, 1897.
102 Topinard, L’homme dans la Nature, p. 215.
103 Topinard, Elem. d’Anthrop. génér., p. 571.
104 According to the same author, the average weight of the brain of 364 Bavarians is 1372 grammes.
105 Manouvrier, “De la quantité dans l’encéphale,” Mém. Soc. Anthr., 2nd ser., vol. iii., p. 162. Paris, 1888.
106 Elem. Anthr. gén., pp. 611 et seq. The figures are drawn from the series of Broca and Flower, the latter being augmented by 64 c.c. (the mean difference established by Topinard and Garson between the two systems of determining cranial capacity).
107 Article “Cerveau,” in the Dict. de Physiol. of Ch. Richet, vol. ii., part 3, p. 687. Paris, 1897.
108 “11 Ossetes, 1465 grammes; 15 Ingush-Chechen, 1454 grammes; 11 Georgians, 1350 grammes; but 12 Armenians of medium height of 1634 mm. give 1369 grammes for the brain.”—Gilchenko, Congr. Intern. Arch. préhis., vol. i., p. 183, Moscow, 1892.
109 C. Voit, “Gewichte d. Organe,” Zeitsch. für Biologie, 1894, p. 510.
110 Manouvrier has demonstrated (Dict. Phys., p. 688), working on three series of from 54 to 58 Frenchmen, that individuals of low stature have a lighter brain (1329 grammes) than those of high stature (1398 grammes); two series of women (23 and 27 individuals) yielded a similar result (1198 grammes for the low-statured, and 1218 for the tall). A series of 44 distinguished men of all nations and all statures gave a mean weight of 1430 grammes—that is to say, exceeding that of the French of high stature and the Scotch. From this may be drawn the conclusion that intelligence causes an increase in the weight of the brain independently of the stature. Here, by way of documents, are several data of this interesting series. The minimum of this series belongs to the anatomist Döllinger, who died at the age of seventy-one (1207 grammes), the maximum to the novelist Thackeray, who died at the age of fifty-three (1644 grammes). Between these two extremes are inserted, Harless (1238 grammes), Gambetta (1294 grammes), Liebig (1352 grammes), Bischoff (1452 grammes), Broca (1485 grammes), Gauss (1492 grammes), Agassiz (1512 grammes), and De Morny (1520 grammes), to mention only the best known names ranging between these extremes. M. Manouvrier has excluded from this series exceptionally heavy brains, like those of Schiller (1781 grammes), of Cuvier (1829 grammes), of Tourgenieff (2012 grammes), and lastly of Byron (2238 grammes).
111 According to Danilevsky and Dr. Regibus, the weight of the grey substance represents 37 or 38 per cent. of the total weight of the brain.
112 Every nerve-fibre of the adult is composed of an axis-cylinder which communicates with the nerve-cells and with a myeline sheath formed around it. In the course of the development of the embryo this sheath appears after the formation of the axis-cylinder.
113 Flechsig, Gehirn und Seele, 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1896; Die Localization der geistigen Vorgänge, Leipzig, 1896.
114 Sir W. Turner, Opening Address at the British Association, Toronto, 1897, Nature, 2nd Sept. 1897.
115 See the summary of the question in Ramon y Cajal, Nouv. idées struct. syst. nerveux, French trans., Paris, 1894; also Donaldson, Growth of the Brain, ch. vii., 1895.
116 See the works of Bowditch on 2,500 American children of both sexes, Eighth Ann. Rep. State Board of Massachusetts (1877); of Pagliani on the Italians (Archivio per l’Antr., 1876, vol. vi.); of Axel Key on 1,800 Swedish children (Intern. Congr. Med., Berlin, 1887); of Schmidt on 10,000 German children, etc.
117 H. Vierordt, “Das Massen-wachsthum, etc.,” Arch. für Anatom. u. Phys.; Anatom. Division, 1890, supplem. volume, p. 62.
118 Baelz, “Die Körperlichen Eigenschaften der Japaner,” Mittheil. Deutsch. Gesell. Ost. Asi., 1882, vol. iii., p. 348; Hamada and Sasaki in Seii-Kwai (Japanese Med. Journ. of Tokio), February No., 1890.
119 Lapicque, Rev. Mens. École. Anthr., 1897, No. 12.
120 Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., p. 181.
121 These figures, as well as those relating to the pulse, are borrowed for the Fuegians from Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., p. 182; for the American populations from Gould, loc. cit.; for the Europeans from the work of H. Vierordt, Anatomische Daten und Tabellen, 1893; and for the rest from the memoir (in Russian) of Ivanovsky, “The Mongol-Torgootes,” already quoted.
122 Maurel, Bull. Soc. Anth. Paris, 1883, p. 699; Hyades and Deniker, p. 183.
123 R. Andree, Ethnol. Parallele, Neue Folge, Leipzig, 1889.
124 Darwin, Expression of the Emotions, London, 1872; Mantegazza, Physiognomy and Expression (English trans.), London, 1895; M. Duval, Anatomie artistique, p. 285, Paris, 1881.
125 See Globus, 1897, vol. xxi., No. 7.
126 Kotelmann, “Die Augen, etc.,” Zeit. f. Ethn., 1884, Verh., p 77.
127 Dr. Herzenstein, Izviestia, etc., of Friends of Science, Moscow, vol. xlix., part 4, p. 347 (in Russian).
128 See for further details, Ploss, loc. cit., vol. i., p. 288.
129 B. Rosenstadt, “Ursachen welche die Zahl der Conceptionen, etc.,” Mitth. Embryol. Instit. Univers. Wien, 2nd series, part 4, Vienna, 1890.
130 Fr. Müller, Allgem. Ethnographie, 2nd ed., p. 212, Vienna, 1879; Kulischer, Zeit. f. Ethn., vol. viii. (Verh., p. 152), Berlin, 1876.
131 Correspondence of the Temps of the 6th of February 1896.
132 J. M. Campbell, Journ. Anthr. Soc. Bombay, vol. iv., 1895, No. 1.
133 I cannot refute here all the erroneous assertions in regard to the assumed influence of environment, referring the reader to the works of Pallas (Acta of the Acad. of St. Petersburg, 1780, part ii., p. 69) and of Darwin (especially to The Descent of Man). It is enough to give some examples. Negroes are not black because they inhabit tropical countries, seeing that the Indians of South America, who live in the same latitudes, are yellow; Norwegians and Great Russians, who are fair and tall, live side by side with the Laplanders and the Samoyeds, who are dark and of very low stature. It has been said and repeated frequently that the Jews who immigrated to Cochin (India), after the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, became as black as the indigenous Tamils among whom they live. This is so little true that in this country the name of “white Jews” is given to the descendants of true Jews (who really are white), to distinguish them from the “black Jews” or Tamils converted to Judaism. Further, it has been pretended, according to an assertion of Khanikof, reproduced by Darwin (Descent of Man, p. 304), and repeated by so many others, that the Wurtemburgers of blond type, who emigrated to the Caucasus in 1816, had become dark. This statement is no truer than the preceding one. Radde, who has studied these settlers, says expressly (Zeit. f. Ethnol., vol. ix., Verh., p. 12) that they are as fair as their compatriots who have remained in Germany. According to Pantioukhof (Anth. Observ. in the Caucasus, p. 25, Tiflis, 1893, in Russian), 25 out of 51 of the settlers, or 55 per cent., have light eyes, while in Wurtemburg the proportion of light eyes among children is 65 per cent. (Arch. f. Anthr., 1886, p. 412), which reduces the figure to about 56 per cent. or 58 per cent. for the adults,—a figure very near to the preceding one.
134 S. Russkikh, “Influence of the Polar Night on the Human Organism,” Zapiski of the Ourtian Friends of Nat. Sc. Soc., Ekaterinburg, 1895 (in Russian).
135 W. Kochs, “Eine wichtige Veränderung, etc.,” Biol. Centralbl., p. 289, 1891.
136 Davy, Philos. Transac. Roy. Soc. London, 1850, p. 437.
137 Darwin, Descent of Man, 3rd ed., p. 208.
138 Cl. Markham, Travels in India and Peru, London, 1869; Elisée Reclus, Géographie universelle, vol. viii., p. 630, Paris, 1883.
139 Rosenberg, Malayshe Archip., Leipzig, 1878, Preface.
140 Huxley, Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature, London, 1863.
141 Hettner, Zeits. Gesel. Erdk., vol. xxvi., 1891, p. 137.
142 Proceedings Geogr. Soc. London, 1891, p. 34.
143 For details see Bordier, Géogr. Médicale, Paris, 1883, with atlas.
144 Bull. Géogr. histor. et descript., p. 53, Paris, 1889.
145 G. de la Tourette, Journal de Médecine, February, 1893.
146 Brinton, Science, 16th Dec. 1892; and Globus, 1893, 1st half-year, p. 148.
147 See Logan’s Journal of the Indian Archipelago, vol. iii., Calcutta, 1849, pp. 457, 464, and 530; H. O. O’Brien, “The Latah,” Journ. of the Straits Branch of the R. Asiat. Soc., Singapore, June 1883, p. 144; Metzger, “Amok und Mataglap,” Globus, vol. lii., 1882, No. 7; Rasch, Neurolog. Centralbl., 1894, No. 15; 1895, No. 19.
148 L. Morgan, Proc. Am. Assoc. Acad. Sc., Detroit Session, 1875, p. 266, and Journal Anthro. Inst., vol. vi., 1878, p. 114. The distinction between the first and the second form lies, according to Morgan, in the knowledge of pottery—a somewhat unreliable and narrow criterion, which, however, does not directly interest us here.
149 Grosse, Die Formen der Wirtschaft, etc., Leipzig, 1896.
150 Ratzel, History of Mankind, vol. i., p. 24. London, 1896.
151 Vierkandt, Naturvölker und Kulturvölker, Leipzig, 1896; and Geogr. Zeitschr., vol. iii., pp. 256 and 315, 2 maps, Leipzig, 1897.
152 That is to say, engaged in the pursuit of land animals (hunting), or of aquatic (fishing); or gathering plants or fruits.
153 Andree, Anthropologische Parallele, p. 52.
154 G. Mallery, “Sign Language,” First Annual Report Bur. of Ethnol., 1879–80, p. 269. Washington, 1881.
155 See for the details Fr. Müller, Grundr. d. Sprachwissensch., vol. i., Vienna, 1876; Hovelacque, Linguistique, Paris, 1877.
156 For resumé of the question see A. Keane, Ethnology, p. 206., London, 1896.
157 Such are the lingua franca and the sabir, a medley of French, English, Italian, and Turkish spread over all the Asiatic and African coast-lines of the Mediterranean, and particularly among the Levantines. Such also is the Pigeon (or Pidjin) English, a mixture of Chinese, English, and Portuguese, employed in the ports of the Far East; the “whalers’ language,” a mixture of Hawaiian, Chinese, English, Chukchi, Japanese, etc., which is heard in the north of the Pacific Ocean; the Foky-Foky of Guiana, etc.
158 Lajard, Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1891, p. 469, and 1892, p. 23.
159 M. Buchner, Kamerun, Leipzig, 1887; Andree, Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., 1888, p. 411; Betz, Mitth. Forschungsreisenden deut. Schutzgeb., vol. xi., part 1, 1898.
160 See for details, H. Hale, “Four Huron Wampum Records,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxvi., No. 3 (1887), and the interesting note of E. B. Tylor at the end of this paper. Hamy, Galerie Americ. du Mus. Trocadéro, Paris, 1897, Pl. I.
161 Harmand, Mém. Soc. Anthro., Paris, 2nd ser., vol. ii., 1875–85, p. 339.
162 Piette, “Étude d’ethnogr. prehist.,” L’Anthropologie, 1896, No. 4, p. 385. Article accompanied by an excellent folio atlas.
163 S. Mallery, “Pictographs of the North American Indians,” Fourth Rep. Bur. Ethn., 1882–83, Washington, 1884. By the same, “Picture Writing of the American Indians,” 1888–89, Tenth Rep. Bur. Ethn., 1893.
164 Among the present natives of Easter Island there are only one or two who can decipher these tablets.—W. Thomson Smith’s Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1889, p. 513.
165 Aubin, Revue orientale et Americaine, vol. iii., p. 255.
166 The two hundred and fourteen “keys” or hieroglyphics comparable with the hieratic characters of Egypt—that is to say, ideograms representing categories of objects or symbolising general ideas—joined to a thousand phonetic signs, suffice by their combinations to convey a definite sense to the series of homophonous hieroglyphics forming the forty-four thousand characters of Chinese handwriting. Thus the word or syllable pa signifies banana, war-chariot, scar, cry, etc. To distinguish the various acceptations of the word, there must be joined to the phonetic sign pa (derived from a word the proper sense of which has long been obliterated) the key of plants, or that of iron, of diseases, of the mouth, according to the sense which it is desired to give to it. The monosyllabic structure of Chinese lends itself admirably to this hieroglyphic writing.
167 The discovery by A. J. Evans of a special syllabic writing in the island of Crete leads one to conjecture, on the contrary, that it was from this unfortunate island that the first alphabet set out. This writing, more ancient than the Phœnician characters, is a direct derivative of pictography; it is found again at Cyprus and in Asia Minor at the epoch of the Ægean civilisation.—A. J. Evans, Rep. Brit. Ass., 1896, p. 914.
168 C. Vogt, “L’Écriture, etc.,” Rev. Scient., 2nd half-year, p. 1221., Paris, 1880.
169 Bunge, Lehrbuch physiol. Chemie, 2nd ed., p. 110, Leipzig, 1896.
170 Goebel, Bull. Ac. Sc. St. Petersb., vol. v. (1861), p. 397, and Schmidt, ibid., vol. xvi. (1871), p. 203.
171 Wilken, Vergelijk. Volkenk. v. Ned Ind., p. 89, Leyden, 1893; Science et Nature, Paris, 1885, 1st half-year, p. 393.
172 T. Gautier, “Sur une certaine argile blanche, etc.,” Actes de la Soc. Scient. du Chili, vol. v. (1895), pt. 1 to 3, Santiago, 1895.
173 Hellwald, Ethnogr. Rosselsprünge, p. 168, Leipzig, 1891.
174 Thus, merely from a phrase heard from the lips of a Fuegian boy by Byron, and reproduced in the Voyage of the Beagle by Darwin, the Fuegians have until the present time been accused of cannibalism, and yet no observer living months and years among these savages has been able to verify the existence of this custom, in spite of all efforts to discover it.
175 Wissmann, Im Inneren Afrikas, p. 152, Leipzig, 1888.
176 P. Bergemann, Verbreitung d. Anthropoph., Breslau, 1893.
177 Among the Kalebus of Central Africa (between Lomami and Lukassi, 6° lat. S.) the whole of the body is eaten with the exception of the fingers, which are left untouched from a fear of disease “which retires to them as the last place of refuge” (Wissmann).
178 R. S. Steinmetz, “Endocannibalismus,” Mittheilungen der Anthropol. Gesel. in Wien, vol. xxvi. (xvi.), pt. 1–2, 1896.
179 It seems to me that Steinmetz’s theory encounters a great difficulty in the fact that anthropophagous peoples (for example, certain Australian tribes) avoid eating relatives, with the exception of infants; the clans exchange one with another the bodies of their dead in order that each may only eat individuals unrelated to it.
180 Schlegel, “Festgabe Bastians” (suppl. No. to vol. ix. of Internat. Archiv. für Ethnogr., 1896).
181 W. Hough, “The Methods of Fire-making,” Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1890, p. 95. Washington, 1891.
182 An apparatus of this sort was in use half a century ago among Polish peasants (Globus, vol. lix., 1891, p. 388).
183 Tylor, Anthropology, p. 262.
184 A certain moderation must nevertheless be observed in the explanation of myths and practices in which fire is concerned. See on this subject an intelligent though somewhat exaggerated critique by E. Veckenstedt, “Das wilde, heilige und Gebrauchsfeuer,” Zeitschr. für Naturwiss., vol. lxvi., p. 191, Leipzig, 1893.
185 O. Mason, Origins of Invention, p. 158, London, 1895.
186 Otis Mason, loc. cit., p. 158.
187 Internation. Arch. für Ethnographie, vol. ix., pt. 3, Leyden, 1896.
188 Revue scientifique, 1892, 1st half-year, p. 145. It is also from hygienic considerations in regard to the mouth that many peoples of India and the Negroes of Senegal chew continually the dried roots of different plants reputed antiseptic. In Siberia and in the east of Russia the chewing of pine resin (“séra”) has probably the same origin. The habit of chewing tobacco is only common among European sailors and among the Javanese and Chukchi.
189 Hellwald, Rosselsprünge, etc., p. 206
190 H. Bates, Naturalist on... Amazons, vol. i., p. 331, London, 1863.
191 Letourneau, Sociologie, p. 44, Paris, 1880.
192 The beaten-earth and sun-dried clay structures of the Sudan, of Turkestan, and Mexico are of “secondary formation”; they are derived probably from the straw huts, as we shall see further on.
193 We call every habitation “fixed” which has not been constructed with the view of being removed, however light and imperfect it be. Thus, the rude hut which the Fuegian abandons so readily is nevertheless a fixed habitation, whilst the tent of the Kirghiz, a much more complicated structure, and far more comfortable, must nevertheless be classed among movable habitations.
194 E. B. Tylor, Anthropology, p. 281.
195 L. Hösel, “Die Rechteckige Schrägdachhütte Mittelafrikas,” Globus, 1894, vol. xxvi., pp. 341, 360, and 378, with map.
196 There are many other types of dwellings peculiar to different regions: the reed-built houses of Lob Nor (Eastern Turkestan), the Finnish houses derived from semi-underground structures, the dwellings of the Caucasian mountaineers, etc.
197 This tent has never, as a general rule, been placed among the Turco-Mongols on a waggon, to be carried from place to place, as authors have been pleased to affirm, from Rubruquis to our own day. The habit in question has only existed in some Nogaï tribes, and has only been practised in special circumstances (marriage, conveyance of women), the survival of which is found among the Tatars of Koundrov, near Astrakhan.
198 Kharouzin, Istoria, etc. (History of the Development of the Habitation among Turco-Mongol Nomads of Russia), Moscow, 1896 (in Russian).
199 It is possible that in Western Europe a hard leaf of some plant folded in a certain way has served as a model for the lamps with wicks called Roman, to judge from certain actual forms.—Letourneau and Papillault, Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1896, p. 348. Vinchon, ibid., p. 615.
200 Neis, Excursions et Reconnaissances, Saigon, vol. x., p. 33, 1881.
201 Von den Steinen, Unter d. Naturvölk, Zent. Brazil, Berlin, 1894, p. 190.
202 Glaumont, “Usages, etc.,” Rev. d’Ethnogr., Paris, 1888, p. 101.
203 C. Davidson, “Das Nackte, etc.,” Globus, vol. lxx., 1896, No. 18.
204 Mme. Dr. Gaches-Sarraute, L’Hygiène du Corset, Paris, 1896.
205 This intentional deformation must be distinguished from that which is caused by the manner of placing the child in the cradle. This is always less strongly marked, and may pass unnoticed in the head of the living subject, but it may always be recognised in the skull.
206 See for the details, L. A. Gosse, Essai déform. artif. crâne, Paris, 1885; Broca, Instr. craniol., 1875; P. Topinard, Revue Anthro., 1879, p. 497, and Elem. Anthro., p. 744; Delisle, Déform. du crâne, Paris, 1880, and Congr. Américaniste, Paris, 1892, p. 300; Ambialet, L’Anthropologie, 1893, p. 11.
207 O. Mason, loc. cit., p. 274.
208 Note also that almost everywhere foot-gear and often head-gear are made from materials obtained from the mammals: leather, fur, and felt.
209 See for details W. Brigham, “Hawaiian Kapa-making,” Hawaiian Alman. and Annual, p. 76. Honolulu, 1896.
210 Tylor, Anthropology, p. 246.
211 For details see G. de Mortillet, Origines de la chasse, de la pêche, etc.; O. Mason, loc. cit.; Tylor, Anthrop.; Holmes, Fifteenth Rep. Bur. Ethnol.
212 Weeren, “Analyse, etc.,” Verh. Berl. Ges. Anthr., June-Oct. 1895.
213 Reuleaux, Hist. du développ. des machines dans l’humanité (translated from the German), Paris, 1876 (extr. from the section Cinématique).
214 This is a long woven bag in which the tough warp and woof run spirally and diagonally, so that when the two ends are forced together the cylinder becomes short and wide, and when pulled apart, it becomes long and slender.
215 Hahn, Die Hausthiere, etc., Leipzig, 1896, in 8vo, with map.
216 This opinion of Hahn’s appears to be corroborated by this fact, that millet is still the “national cereal” of the Turkish peoples, who, like all other nomad shepherds, beginning with hoe-culture, have arrived at their present state through having preferred to breed animals other than those used in ploughing—that is to say, the camel, sheep, and later, the horse.
217 Th. Studer, “Beiträge zur Geschichte unserer Hunderassen,” Naturwissench. Wochenschrift, 1897, No. 28. See also Mem. Soc. Hélvétique sciences naturelles, 1896.
218 K. Groos, Die Spiele der Thiere, 1896; Die Spiele der Menschen, 1899.
219 Roulette flourished among the Eskimo of Greenland in the eighteenth century; it is known under the name of “Chombino” among the Assiniboines and Blackfeet Indians.—H. Egede and Wied, cited by Andree, Ethnogr. Paral., p. 104 (Neue Folge).
220 See the interesting study on this game by Tylor, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. viii., p. 116, and in Internationales Archiv. Ethnog., suppl. vol. ix. (Festg. Bastian), Leyden, 1896.
221 “Hawaiian Surf-Riding,” Haw. Alman., p. 106, Honolulu, 1896.
222 See, for more details, the excellent article of Andree on “Masks” in his Ethnographische Parallele, Neue Folge, p. 107.
223 In this connection see E. Grosse, Die Anfänge der Kunst, Freib. and Leip., 1894; Haddon, Evolution in Art, London, 1895; H. Stolpe, Studies i Amerikansk Ornamentik, Stockholm, 1896.
224 Von den Steinen, Unt. Natürvolk. Zent. Braz., Berlin, 1894.
225 See the plate at p. 77 of Haddon’s work, already quoted.
226 Andree, Eth. Paral., N.F., p. 67.
227 See on this subject I. Lang, Billedkunst. Fremstell., etc.; Vidensk. Selsk. Shrif., 5th series; Hist. Philos., vol. v., No. 4, Copenhagen, 1892 (with French Summary).
228 Wallaschek, Primitive Music, chap. viii., London, 1893.
229 Grosse, Anf. d. Kunst, chap. iii.
230 Miss. Scientif. Cap Horn; vol. i. Hist. d. Voy. by Martial, p. 210, Paris, 1888.
231 Tylor, Anthropology, p. 292; Wallaschek, loc. cit., pp. 151, 155, and Mitth. Anthr. Ges. Wien., 1897, vol. xxiii., Sitzungsb., p. 11. According to the investigations of Weber, the ear can distinguish sounds which vary 1⁄64th of a semitone.
232 According to Wallaschek (loc. cit., p. 155), the heptatonic scale (diatonic) owes its origin to the construction of the primitive flute, which had at most six to eight holes. To have had more would have been useless, as the instrument could not have been held without more fingers. Facility in making this instrument is due to the fact that, holes simply being pierced at regular intervals along the tube, a series of the most harmonious sounds can be obtained.
233 Here is a description of it: a quill split and cut into the form of a leaf is attached to the end of a bow (Fig. 71); it is held to the mouth and set vibrating; it is then a reed and a stringed instrument combined. But it gives forth such feeble sounds that the artist is obliged to stuff one of his fingers in his nose and the other in his ear so as better to hear the music; it serves thus as a sort of microphone.
234 The only all-round study that I know is the chapter “Poetry” in Grosse’s work, Die Anf. d. Kunst, from which I borrow my account and some selected examples, which he gives from Eyre, Spencer, and Grey.
235 Deniker, “Les Kalmouks,” Rev. d’Anthr., 1884, p. 671.
236 De Quatrefages, L’espèce humaine, 2nd ed., p. 356, Paris, 1890.
237 E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. i.
238 These Yahgans give the name of “Kachpik” vaguely to: 1, very wicked imaginary beings living in the depth of the forests, and, 2, every person who has a strange or wicked character. They give the name of “Hanuch” to: 1, imaginary beings with an eye at the back of the head and no hair, and, 2, to madmen or individuals living alone in the forests. It is the belief in these three or four imaginary beings to which all religious manifestations of the Yahgans may be reduced. (Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., p. 253.)
239 R. Woodthorpe, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxvi., No 1, August 1896. In Yorkshire the country people call the night butterfly (sphinx) “soul,” and in Ireland butterflies are the souls of ancestors (L. Gomme, Ethnology in Folklore).
240 Modigliani, Un Viaggio a Nias, p. 277, Milan, 1890. Besides, the Nias admit, like many other peoples, three souls in man; that which manifests itself by the breath is comparable to the “double” of the ancient Egyptians.
241 The word “fetichism” is a corruption of the Portuguese term feitiço, “charm,” derived probably from the Latin factitius, in the sense “full of magical artifices,” which the first navigators on the coast of Guinea applied to the fetiches venerated by the Negroes. Des Brosses was the first to introduce, in 1760, the term “fetichism” to denote the belief in fetiches. Auguste Comte gave a much more extended meaning to the word, to denote a religious state opposed to polytheism and monotheism. To-day the fetichism of Auguste Comte is the animism of English ethnographers, of which true fetichism forms only a part. (E. Tylor, Prim. Cult., vol. ii., p. 143.)
242 In certain cases, fetiches are supposed to be animated with power of movement; thus the staffs which negro sorcerers put into the hands of men in convulsions, caused by wild dances, are reputed to draw these men in their mad career, and to direct them in the search of persons accused of crime. Similarly, the two staffs which the Siberian Shamans hold in their hands during their exorcisms are supposed to draw them, like horses driven at full gallop, towards regions inhabited by spirits.
243 Macpherson, quoted by Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. ii., p. 325.
244 E. Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. i., p. 427.
245 Put forward by Tylor (Prim. Cult., vol. ii., chaps. xii. and xvii.), the ideas which I here formulate have been developed by L. Marillier (“Survivance de l’âme:” Paris, 1894, Pub. École prat. Hautes Études, sect. Sc. relig.), and combated by Steinmetz (Arch. für Anthro., vol. xxiv., p. 577), but the arguments of the latter do not seem to me convincing. He compares, for example, the difference of the destiny of the noble and the common Polynesians in the other world to distributive justice.
246 Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., p. 254.
247 E. Tylor, loc. cit., vol. ii., p. 199.
248 See A. Lang, Culture and Myth; and his Modern Mythology, London, 1897.
249 Legends, traditional tales, proverbs, etc., are simplified myths, with the poetic element predominating. The study of them forms a special branch of ethnology called “Folk-lore.”
250 Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., p. 316.
251 Brough Smyth, The Aborigines of Victoria, vol. ii., p. 3, London, 1878; Curr, The Australian Race, Melbourne-London, 1886–87, 4 vols. passim.
252 R. Schramm, “Jahrform, etc.,” Mittheil. der Geogr. Gesell., vol. xxvii., 1884, p. 481, Vienna.
253 O. Mason, Origins of Invention, pp. 71 and 116.
254 Brough Smyth, loc. cit., vol. i., p. 284.
255 Schmeltz and Krause, “Museum Godeffroy,” Hamburg, 1881, p. 271 and plate xxxii.
256 S. Holm, Meddelels. om Groenl., p. 101, Copenhagen, 1887.
257 See for the details, Andree, Ethn. Paral., p. 197.
258 See Max Bartels, Medecin der Naturvölker, Leipzig, 1893.
259 M. Monnier, La France Noire, p. 110, Paris, 1894.
260 H. Schintz, Deutsch Süd-west Africa, p. 396, Oldenburg, 1894.
261 S. Wilken, Verglijk. Volkenkunde van Nederl. Ind., p. 293, Leyden, 1893; Ivanowsky, loc. cit., p. 19 of the original impression; Post, Grundz. ethnol. Jurisprud., vol. i., Oldenb.-Leipzig, 1894.
262 Bartels, “Reife-Unsitten, etc.,” Zeit. f. Ethn.,1896 (Verh., p. 363).
263 Giraud-Teulon, Origines du mariage et de la famille, p. 33, note, Paris, 1884; Wilken, loc. cit., p. 294.
264 See for further details, Letourneau, The Evolution of Marriage, etc., chap. i., London; and Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, chaps. iv. to vi., London, 1891.
265 Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, chap. iii., 1875.
266 The long list of peoples practising promiscuity given by Lubbock dwindles as we become better acquainted with the different populations in question. Certain peoples, like the Fuegians (Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit.), the Bushmen, the Polynesians (Westermarck, loc. cit.), the Irulas (Thurston, Bull. Madras Mus., vol. ii., No. 1, 1897), the Teehurs of Oude (W. Crooke, Tribes and Castes N. W. Province, etc., vol. i., p. clxxxiii., Calcutta, 1896), should be mercilessly struck out of this list, since they all have individual marriage to the exclusion of other forms. Others, like the Australians, the Todas, the Nairs, have been entered in it because they practise “group marriage” or certain forms of polyandry, which is not the same thing as promiscuity. There remains of the list but two or three tribes about whom we have no exact general information at all (example, the Olo-Ot of Borneo).
267 A. W. Howitt, “Australian Group Relations,” Smithsonian Rep., Washington, 1883; A. W. Howitt and L. Fison, “Kamilaroi and Kurnai,” Melbourne-Sydney, 1880, and Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xii., p. 30, 1882.
268 A. W. Howitt, “Dieri, etc.,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xx., 1890, p. 53. Among the Nairs of the coast of Malabar things are done in exactly the same way. The main point in both cases is the prohibition of marriage in the clan itself (L. Fison, “Classificat. Relationship,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxv., 1895, p. 369). Among the Todas of Nilgiri the groups are limited in this sense, that the men who cohabit with a woman must be brothers, and at the same time can only marry with the sisters of this woman.
269 Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht, Stuttgart, 1861; J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History, London, 1876.
270 L. Fison, loc. cit., Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxiv., 1895, p. 36.
271 Thus, if there are four clans, A, B, C, and D, as among the Kamilaroi, for example, the children sprung from the parents of the clans A and B may not intermarry; they belong to the clan C, the members of which may only marry with the members of the clan D. It is their children only who will be able to contract marriages in the groups A and B. In this way incest is only possible between the grandfather and the granddaughter, that is to say, reduced practically to zero.
272 L. Morgan, “Syst. of Consanguinity, etc.,” Smithson. Contrib. Knowl., vol. xvii., Washington, 1871; and Ancient Society, London, 1877. See also the very clear statement of the system in Lubbock, loc. cit., and its extension to the Australians and the Melanesians of the Fiji Islands in Howitt and Fison, loc. cit.
273 Tylor, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol xviii., 1888–89, p. 262.
274 Westermarck, loc. cit., p. 82; L. Fison, loc. cit. (“Classific. System”), p. 369.
275 Maine, Ancient Law, p. 241, London, 1885; Westermarck, loc. cit., p. 510.
276 Shortt, Transact. Ethn. Soc., London, N.S., vol. vii., p. 264; Haxthausen, Transcaucasia, p. 403, London, 1854. Leroy-Beaulieu (L’Empire des Tzars, vol. vi., chap. 5, p. 488, Paris, 1885–89) attributes this custom to the over-exercise of paternal authority.
277 The Torgoot Mongols, who practise this custom, explain it by the general rules of hospitality (Ivanovski, loc. cit.); in this respect they are in agreement with Westermarck, loc. cit., chap. vi.
278 It must be observed on this point that, according to Westermarck, the horror of incest is not an instinctive sentiment (animals do not have it), but rather a social habit springing from sexual repulsion for persons, even unrelated to the family, with whom one has been brought up from infancy. Thus we often see marriages prohibited between one village and another (ancient Peru), or between god-parents, who superintend the baptism of a child, and are in no way allied to each other by blood (Russia). The learned Helsingfors professor, who believes in the omnipotence of sexual selection, explains the frequency of the aversion to incest by the survival of individuals who did not contract consanguineous marriages, always mischievous in his opinion. However, he admits that the bad effects of consanguineous marriages may be mitigated by material well-being, as is the case in Europe.
279 See Ploss, Das Weib, 5th ed., vol. ii., 1897, Leipzig.
280 E. Tylor, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xviii., p. 248.
281 Ploss (loc. cit.) mentions Australian, Eskimo, and North American Indian tribes among whom the child is suckled till the age of fourteen or fifteen.
282 For an illustration of this see the “Description of Australian Initiation” (Bura), by R. Mathews, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxv., 1896, No. 4.
283 Deniker, “Le peuple Tchouktch, etc.” (from Avgustinovich), Rev. d’Anthr., 1882, p. 323, and De Windt, Globus, 1897, vol. lxxi., p. 300.
284 Tylor, loc. cit. (Anthr.), pp. 346, 420.
285 In various countries in Europe these objects give place to a piece of money put into the mouth or the hand of the dead; as one never knows what may happen, it is always well to have a little money at one’s service.
286 Many practices in relation to the dead are explained by the belief that they are sleeping for a greater or less time (see p. 216). Thus, among the Micronesians of the Gilbert Islands, the woman sleeps by the side of her dead husband, and covers her body with the putrid matter which oozes from the corpse.
287 Even in the cases where several arrows have pierced the animal their reciprocal positions decided to whom belonged such or such part of the slain animal; the skin, for instance, was his whose arrow had penetrated nearest to the heart.
288 Kovalewsky, Tableau des origines de la famille, etc., pp. 59 and 91, Stockholm, 1890; Maine, Early History of Institutions, London, 1875.
289 G. L. Gomme, The Village Community, London, 1890; and Kovalewsky, loc. cit. Baden-Powell, Indian Village Com., London, 1896.
290 J. G. Frazer, Totemism, London, 1887 (expanded from his article in vol. xxiii. of the Encyclopædia Britannica); E. Smith, Second Ann. Rep. Bur. of Ethnol., 1880–81, p. 77, Washington, 1883.
291 This family régime of society is closely allied to the worship of ancestors and the “hearth,” as the names given to the communities show (“feu” in France, “pechtchiché” in the Ukraine).
292 Laveleye, Propriété primitive, p. 9, Paris, 1891; Kovalewsky, loc. cit., passim; Sakuya Yoshida, Geschichtl. Entwickl. d. Staats-Verfass. in Japan, p. 46, Hague, 1890; Bancroft, Native Races of Pacific States, vol. ii., p. 226, San Francisco, 1882.
293 See Andree, Ethnolog. Parallele, p. 250.
294 See for further details, Post, loc. cit., Grundriss der ethnol. Jurisprud., vol. i.
295 See for more details, Ch. Letourneau, L’évolution de la Morale, Paris, 1887, and A. Post, loc. cit., 2nd vol., Leipzig, 1895.
296 The most common ordeals are the trial by water (swimming across a river, remaining some time under water, etc.) and that by fire. In the latter case the accused is made to run on hot coals, as in India, among the Somalis, in Siam; to lick red-hot iron, as among the Dyaks, the Khonds, the Negroes of Sierra-Leone; or again, to dip the hands in molten lead, as in Burma among the Jakuns of Malacca, or the Alfurus of Buru, etc.
297 Schmeltz and Krause, Ethnogr.-Anthr. Abt. Mus. Godeffroy, p. 17, Hamburg, 1881; W. Powell, Wanderings amongst Cannibals of New Britain, London, 1883; Graf von Pfeil, “Duk-Duk, etc.,” Journ. Anthr. Institute, 1897, p. 197.
298 G. Schultheiss, Globus, 1896, vol. lxx., No. 22.
299 The custom of applying the nose to the cheek and drawing a breath, with closed eyes and a smacking of the lips, exists among the Southern Chinese, but only as an act of love. According to P. D’Enjoy, it is an olfactory gesture derived from the sensations of nutrition, as the European kiss on the lips is derived from the lascivious bite. (Bull. Soc. Anthr., Paris, 1897, pt. 2.)
300 See for details Ling Roth, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xix., 1889, p. 164; Andree, Eth. Paral., N.F., p. 225; Hellwald, Rosselsp., p. 1.
301 The difference between offensive and defensive weapons is often not very marked even in our civilisation; thus the sword and the sabre serve as much for giving as warding off blows; the same is true among savages in regard to the staff, the club, etc. Frequently, too, objects which originally have nothing in common with war, become offensive or defensive weapons. Thus the bracelet is sometimes a defensive weapon. Among several Negroes (Ashantis, Kafirs, Vakambas), and in Melanesia, warriors put on their legs and arms bracelets formed of the long hair of different animals (goat, boar, zebra) which almost completely cover the limbs and protect them effectually against the blows of club and spear. The bracelets of wire rolled in numerous spirals around the fore-arm or the leg, which are met with among the Dyaks, the Mois of Indo-China, the Niam-Niams, and the Baghirmis of Central Africa, are veritable protective armour; they are the prototypes of the vantbrace and greaves.
In certain rarer cases the bracelet is an offensive weapon. Among the Jurs, a negro tribe of the upper Nile, bracelets are found provided with two points or spurs, four inches long, and very dangerous. The bracelet of the Irengas (to the east of the upper Nile), as well as that of the Jibba (living on the banks of the Jibba, a left-hand tributary of the Sabba), is a great disc, with an opening in the middle through which to pass the arm. A portion of the disc is removed in order to give it more elasticity, and its outer edge, exceedingly sharp, forms a kind of circular sabre. In order not to wound himself, the wearer covers the edge with a circular case which he only removes for battle.
302 See for details and series of forms, Lane-Fox (now Pitt Rivers), Cat. Anthr. Collection in the Bethnal Green Museum, London, 1877, with illustrations. (The remarkable collection in question is now at Oxford.)
303 O. Mason, “Throwing-sticks,” Rep. U.S. N. Mus. for 1884; F. v. Luschan, “Wurfholz, etc.,” Festschr.... Bastian, p. 131, Berlin, 1896.
304 See H. Balfour, “On the Structure and Affinities of the Composite Bow,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., London, 1889, vol. xix., p. 220; Anuchin, Look i Strely (Bow and Arrows), Moscow, 1889 (in Russian); O. Mason, “Bows, Arrows, and Quivers of the North American Aborigines,” Smithsonian Report, Washington, 1893.
305 Phillips, Trans. N. Zeal. Inst., vol. x., p. 97, Wellington, 1877.
306 M. Buch, Die Wotiaken, p. 78, Helsingfors, 1882; Extract from Acta Soc. Scient. Fennicæ, vol. xii.
307 The prototype of the true composite bow, characterised by the addition to it of a mass of moistened sinews which, on drying, make the bow curve up, must have had another form; it bore a resemblance probably to the bow of the Indian tribes of the north-west of America and of California, in which the sinew covering often goes beyond the body of the bow and hangs down at its two extremities.
The improved forms of the composite bow are only found on the Asiatic continent. The so-called “Tatar” or Mongolian bow, the Chinese “kung,” is chiefly composed of a piece of wood to which is fixed with bird-lime on the inner side a piece of horn, and on the outer side two layers of sinews covered with two layers of birch-bark. All other composite bows, Persian, Hindu, etc., are only complicated forms of this type, to which we may also refer the exceptional types of bow of the Lapp and Javanese, etc.
Accepting the view of General Pitt Rivers, loc. cit., we may say that the composite bow is not a more perfect weapon than the simple bow, and that it could only have had its origin in countries where the absence of very elastic varieties of wood make it necessary to seek in the superposition of various materials the elasticity required to augment the force of the weapon.
308 The substance used in the manufacture of the bow-string varies with the region; thus in the west of Africa it is always of rattan, as far as Butembo (country of the Ponondas), where strings of Crotalaria and bamboo begin to be used. (Weule, Ethnol. Notizblatt. Mus. Berlin, vol. i., No. 2, p. 39, 1895–96.)
309 E. Morse, “Ancient and Modern Methods of Arrow-release,” Essex Inst. Bull., Salem, Oct.-Dec., 1885.
310 With regard to greaves, see the note on p. 257.
311 W. Hough, “Prim. Am. Armour,” Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1893, p. 625, Washington, 1895.
312 O. Mason, loc. cit., p. 364.
313 Letourneau, L’évolution du commerce, Paris, 1897.
314 Kubary, Ethn. Beitr. Karolinen-Archipel., p. 1, Leyden, 1889–95.
315 Balfour, Journ. Anthro. Inst., vol. xix., 1889, p. 54.
316 Nillsson, Ureinwohner Skand. Nordens, p. 37, Hamburg, 1866, i. Nachtr.
317 Cooper, The Mishmee Hills, London, 1873.
318 It is the English who have given to this porcelain the name of cauri or cowry, which appears to be a corruption of the Sanscrit word Kaparda, Kapardika, whence Kavari in the Mahratta dialect; the Portuguese call it Bouji or Boughi; the inhabitants of the Maldives, boli; the Siamese, bios (which means shell in general in their language); the Arabs, wadda or vadaat.
319 Martens, “Über verschiedene Verwendungen von Conchylien,” Zeit. für Ethn., Berlin, 1872, vol. iv., p. 65; Andree, Ethnol. Parall., p. 233; Stearns, “Ethno-conchology,” Report U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1887.
320 In 1858, 2,938 piculs of cowry-shells (about 177 tons) were exported from Manilla, for the most part to England. In 1848, 59 1⁄2 tons of cowries were imported into Liverpool. At the time of the Dutch dominion of Ceylon, Amsterdam was the principal market of this trade; there were sold there in 1689 192,951 pounds (Dutch) of these shells; and in 1780 133,229 pounds (Johnston).
321 O. Mason, loc. cit., p. 327, and “Prim. Travel and Transport,” Smithsonian Report U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1894, p. 239, Washington, 1896.
322 D. Anuchin, “Sani, etc.” (The sledge, the canoe, and horses in funeral rites, in Russian), Drévnosti (Antiquities), vol. xiv., Moscow, 1890.
323 See the Assyrian bas-reliefs, Maspero, Hist. anc. de l’Orient, vol. ii., p. 628, Paris, 1897; O. Mason, Origins of Invention, p. 334; and Moser, A travers l’Asie Centrale, p. 220, Paris, 1885.
324 See for the history of classifications, Topinard, L’Anthr. gén., pp. 28–107, 264–349; Giglioli, Viaggio... della Magenta, p. xxvii., Milan, 1875; and Keane, Ethnology, p. 162, Cambridge, 1896.
| Principal Races. | Secondary Races. |
| (1) Caucasian. | (1) Caucasian, (2) Alleghanian (Red Indian). |
| (2) Mongolian. | (3) Hyperborean (Lapps), (4) Malay, (5) American (except the Red Indian), (6) Mongolian, (7) Paraborean (Eskimo), (8) Australian. |
| (3) Ethiopian. | (9) Kafir, (10) Ethiopian, (11) Negro, (12) Melanesian. |
| (4) Hottentot. | (13) Hottentot. |
—Isid. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, “Classif. Anthropologique,” Mem. Soc. Anthr. Paris, vol. i., p. 125, 1861.
| Principal Races. | Secondary Races or “Modifications.” |
| (1) Negroid. | (1) Bushmen, (2) Negro, (3) Papuan. |
| (2) Australoid. | (4) Australians, (5) Black race of Deccan(Dravidians), (6) Ethiopian (Hamite). |
| (3) Mongoloid. | (7) Mongol, (8) Polynesian, (9) American, (10) Eskimo, (11) Malay. |
| (4) Xanthochroid. | (12) Xanthochroid of Northern Europe. |
| (5) Melanochroid. | (13) Melanochroid of Southern Europe, (14) Melanochroid of Asia (Arabs, Afghans, Hindus, etc.). |
—T. Huxley, “Geogr. Distrib. of Mankind,” Journ. Ethnol. Soc. London, N.S., vol. ii., p. 404, map, 1870. The classification of Flower (Jl. Anthro. Inst., vol. xiv., 1885, p. 378) differs from that of Huxley in a few details only. This eminent anatomist grouped his eleven races and three sub-races under three “types”—Negro, Mongolian, and Caucasian.
327 In the first edition of his classification (Rev. d’Anthr., 2nd series, vol. i., p. 509, Paris, 1878), Topinard admits sixteen races in three groups:—
(a) Straight-haired Races.—Eskimo, Red Indians, Mexico-Peruvians, Guarani-Caribs, Mongols.
(b) Wavy or Frizzy-haired Races.—Fair-haired people of Europe (Xanthochroids of Huxley), dark-haired people of Europe and Semites (Melanochroids of Huxley), Australians and Indo-Abyssinians (Australoids of Huxley), Fulbé, Finns, Celto-Slavs, Turanians.
(c) Woolly-haired Races.—Bushmen, Papuans, Kafirs, Negritoes.
In the second edition, dating from 1885 (Elém. Anthr. gén., p. 502), we find nineteen races grouped under three heads:—
(a) White Leptorhine Races.—Anglo-Scandinavians, Finns (first type, Western), Mediterraneans, Semito-Egyptians, Lapono-Ligurians, Celto-Slavs.
(b) Yellow Mesorhine Races.—Eskimo, Tehuelches, Polynesians, Red Indians, yellow peoples of Asia (including Finns of the second type), Guaranis (or South Americans, except the Tehuelches), Peruvians.
(c) Black Platyrhine Races.—Australians, Bushmen, Melanesians, Negroes, Tasmanians, Negritoes.
328 Tribes (sub-divisions): (1) Lophocomi (woolly hair, tufted), comprising the following species (races): Papuans, Hottentots; (2) Eriocomi (woolly hair, growing uniformly and not in tufts): Kafirs and Negroes; (3) Euthycomi (straight hair): Australians, Malays, Mongols, Arctic people (Hyperboreans), Americans; (4) Euplocomi (curly hair): Dravidians, Nubians (Ethiopians), Mediterraneans (Aryans). (Haeckel, Natürl. Schöpfungsgesch., 7th ed., pp. 628 and 647, 1879; Fr. Mueller, Allg. Ethnogr., 2nd ed., pp. 17 and 19, Vienna, 1879.)
329 “Trunks”: (1) Negro, with its “branches,” Indo-Melanesian, Australian, African, and Austro-African; (2) Yellow, with its “branches,” Siberian, Thibetan, Indo-Chinese, and American (Eskimo-Brazilian); (3) White, with its “branches,” Allophyle (Ainu, Miao-tse, Caucasian, Indonesian-Polynesian, etc.), Finnish, Semitic, and Aryan. “Mixed Races”: (1) Oceanians (Japanese, Polynesian, Malay); (2) Americans (of North, Central, and South America). (A. de Quatrefages, Hist. Gen. Races Hum., pp. 343 et seq., Paris, 1889.)
330 Deniker, “Essai d’une classification des races hum., etc.,” Paris, 1889 (Extr. du Bull. Soc. Anthr., vol. xii., p. 320). Cf. O. Mason, Smithson. Report for 1889, p. 602.
331 Fig. 153 represents individuals of one tribe only, but belonging to the two sub-races mentioned. Fig. 151 represents the blending of the two types with Polynesian admixture.
332 E. Schmidt, “Die Anthropologie Indiens,” Globus, vol. 61, 1892, Nos. 2 and 3.
333 Ehrenreich, loc. cit. (Urbewohner Brasil.), and Von den Steinen, loc. cit., describe numerous individuals with wavy or frizzy hair among the Bakairis, the Karayas, the Arawaks, etc. I myself have noticed Fuegians with frizzy or wavy hair (Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit.). See also Fig. 171, which represents the blending of the Central American and South American types, and portraits of the Goajires in Le Tour du Monde, 1898, 1st half year.
334 A. Barcena, “Arte... lengua Toba,” Rev. Mus. de la Plata, vol. v., 1894, p. 142.
335 Bain, Census of India, 1891. Calcutta, 1896.
336 Each continent in fact contains distinct populations, with the exception, however, of Asia, to which belongs half a score of peoples, of whom part live outside its borders: in America (Eskimo), Oceania (Malays and Negritoes), Africa (Arabs), Europe (Samoyeds, Vogule-Ostiaks, Tatars, Kirghiz, Kalmuks, Caucasians, Armenians, and Russians), or in other parts of the world (Greeks, Jews, Gypsies).
337 See for details, De Mortillet, Le Préhistorique, chap. iii., Paris, 1883; Stirrup, “So-called Worked Flints of Thenay,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xiv., 1885, p. 289, and Rev. d’Anthr., 1885; Cartailhac, La France Préhistorique, p. 35, Paris, 1889; Newton, “The Evidence for the Existence of Man in the Tertiary Period,” Proceed. Geolog. Assoc., vol. xv., London, 1897; Salomon Reinach, Antiquités Nationales, Descrip. Musée St.-Germain, vol. i., p. 96, Paris, 1889,—this work contains a mass of prehistoric information and a copious bibliography.
338 The so-called tertiary skeleton of Castenedolo, near Brescia, discovered by Ragazonni, is an “odd fact,” an “incomplete observation,” to use the happy phrase of Marcellin Boule, and cannot be taken into account.
339 J. Geikie, Great Ice Age, London, 1894; Marcellin Boule, “Paléontol. stratigr. de l’Homme,” Rev. d’Anthr., Paris, 1888.
340 The extreme limit of the spread of glaciers to the south at that period may be indicated by a line which would pass near to Bristol, London, Rotterdam, Cologne, Hanover, Dresden, Cracow, Lemberg; then would go round Kief on the south, Orel on the north, and rise again (on the south of Saratov) up to Nijni-Novgorod, Viatka, the upper valley of the Kama, to blend with the line of the watershed of this river and the Pechora (see Map 1.).
341 See G. and A. de Mortillet, Musée préhistorique, Paris, pl. vi. to ix.; J. Evans, Ancient Stone Implements, 2nd ed., chap. xxiii., London, 1897.
342 Frequently these implements have been found, in sufficiently deep beds, beside bones of the straight-tusked elephant (Elephas antiquus), the smooth-skinned, two-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros Merckii), the great hippopotamus—that is to say, of animals characteristic of the first interglacial period. As these species are allied to the elephant, the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus of Africa of the present day, the hypothesis has been propounded that they came from this continent, utilising the numerous isthmuses then existing (between Gibraltar and Morocco, between Sicily, Malta and Tunis, etc.). Man, the maker of the Chellean implements, followed, it is supposed, in their steps. One might argue with equal force that the migration took place in the opposite direction.
343 Woldrich (after Nehring), Mit. Anthr. Gesell., vol. xi., p. 187, Vienna.
344 In England it is sometimes designated the “cave period” to distinguish it from the Chellean, called “River-drift” period, but this term is open to objection; thus, for example, in the celebrated Kent cavern there have been found at the bottom implements of the Chellean type identical with certain objects of the River-drift. (See the works already quoted, as well as Windle, Life in Early Britain, p. 26, London, 1897.)
345 According to G. de Mortillet, Mousterian industry also differs from the Chellean in regard to technique. In the Chellean period what is utilised is the core or nucleus of the stone cut right round on both sides; while in the Mousterian period what are fashioned are the splinters struck off from this core, which are trimmed especially on one face, the inner face remaining smooth and showing the trace of its origin under the form of a “cone” or “bulb of percussion,” which corresponds to a hollow in the block from which the splinter has been dislodged. However, implements recalling at first sight the “knuckle-duster,” but which differ from it by their amygdaloidal form and their straight edges (Saint-Acheul type), are still to be found at this period.
346 In G. de Morlillet’s classification a yet additional period is inserted between the Mousterian and the Magdalenian. This is the Solutrian, characterised by finely cut heads (spear or arrow?) in the shape of a laurel leaf. But the zone in which these implements are met with is limited to certain regions of the south and west of France only. For many palæethnographers this is a “facies local” of the Magdalenian period.
347 There may be added to the masterpieces here reproduced the famous representation of the mammoth carved on the tusk of this animal itself by a man of La Madeleine (Dordogne), discovered and described by Lartet; and by Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Brit., p. 105, London, 1880. See Cartailhac, loc. cit., p. 72.
348 After the second interglacial period the “Great Baltic Glacier” still covered the Scandinavian peninsula, with the exception of its southern part (Gothland), extended over the emerged bottom of the Baltic, over nearly the whole of Finland, and spreading round Gothland invaded the east coast of Denmark and the littoral of Germany to the east of Jutland. After the retreat of this glacier and a series of changes in the surface of the ground (a sinking which brought the Baltic into communication with the North Sea by means of the Strait of Svealand, followed by the upheaval which cut off that communication and made of the Baltic the Ancylus Lake of the geologists), the climate became milder in these parts, and the trees of Central Europe, first the pines, then the oaks and birches, penetrated into Denmark and Gothland, while in the north of Sweden there were two other new glacier movements. (Gerard de Geer, Om Skandinavens Geografiska Utveckling, Stockholm, 1897; G. Andersson, Geschichte Végétat. Schwed., Leipzig, 1896.)
349 This supposition is invalidated by this fact among others, that, in the neolithic “shell heaps” of Scandinavia no remains of the reindeer are found.
350 As witnessed by the diggings of Piette at Mas d’Azil, see p. 163.
351 There was yet to take place another sinking of the ground which established a communication, by means of the Sound, between the “Ancylus Lake” of the preceding period with the North Sea, transforming it thus into a very salt and warm sea called, from the principal fossil which reveals to us its existence, the Littorina Sea.
352 Nehring, Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., 1895, No. 6 (Verh., pp. 425 and 573); Salomon Reinach, L’Anthropologie, 1897, p. 53; P. Salmon, Races hum. préhist., p. 9, Paris, 1888; Cartailhac, loc. cit., p. 327; M. Boule, loc. cit., p. 679; G. de Mortillet, La Format. de la Nat. Franc., p. 289.
353 Out of forty-six skulls to which the title “quaternary” has been applied, I have only been able, after a careful examination of all evidence, to recognise as such the ten to fifteen following skulls. For the age of the mammoth or “Mousterian” period, seven skulls certainly quaternary: two skulls from Spy (Belgium), and those from Egisheim (Alsace), Olmo (Val d’Arno, Italy), Bury St. Edmunds (England), Podbaba (Bohemia), and Predmost (Moravia). Perhaps we should refer to this period the skulls which cannot be definitely traced to a certain alluvial bed, like those of Neanderthal (Rhenish Prussia), Denise (Auvergne), Marcilly-sur-Eure (Eure), La Truchère (Saône), and Tilbury (near London). As to the skulls of the “reindeer” age (Magdalenian period), three only are known which are not called in question: these are the skulls of Laugerie-Basse, Chancelade (Dordogne), and Sordes (Landes). Perhaps we should include among them the skulls of uncertain date, like those of Bruniquel, Engis, Sargels (near Larzac), and perhaps others which certain authorities classify as belonging to mesolithic and even neolithic times: the three skulls of Cro-Magnon (Dordogne); the six so-called Mentone skulls (Baoussé-Roussé, Maritime Alps); the skulls of the Trou de Frontal at Furfooz (Belgium), of Solutré (Valley of the Saône), Bohuslan (near Stangenas, Sweden), Clichy and Grenelle (Paris). And, lastly, we have no data on which to form an opinion as to the date of the skulls of Canstatt (Wurtemberg), Maëstricht (Holland), Gibraltar, Brux (Bohemia), Lhar, Nagy-Sap (Hungary), Schebichowitz (Bohemia), Valle do Areciro (Portugal), etc. Cf. S. Reinach, loc. cit. (Antiquités Nation.), p. 134; and Hervé, Rev. École Anthr., p. 208, Paris, 1892.
354 The instances of the skull of Saint Mensuy, an Irish bishop, and others, are universally known. See on this subject, Godron, Mem. Acad. Stanislas, p. 50, Nancy, 1884; Worthington Smith, Man, the Primeval Savage, p. 38, London, 1893; and W. Borlase, The Dolmens of Ireland, vol. iii., p. 922, London, 1897.
355 De Quatrefages and Hamy, Cr. Ethn., p. 44; De Quatrefages, Hist. Gén. Races Hum., vol. i., p. 67; Hervé, Rev. École. Anthr., Paris, 1893, p. 173; 1894, p. 105; 1896, p. 97.
356 Hervé, “Les brachycéphales néolith.,” Rev. École. Anthr., Paris, 1894, p. 393; and 1895, p. 18.
357 J. Beddoe, The Races of Britain, Bristol-London, 1885, and “Hist. de l’indice ceph. dans les îles Britan.,” L’Anthropol., 1894, p. 513; Windle, loc. cit., p. 9; Inostrantsev, Doïstoritcheskii, etc. (Prehistor. Man of Ladoga), St. Petersburg, 1882, fig. and pl.
358 Montelius, Temps. préhist. en Suède, p. 41, Paris, 1895; Cartailhac, Âges préhist. Esp. et Portug., p. 305, Paris, 1886; H. and S. Siret, Prem. âges du métal dans le sud-est de l’Esp., 3rd part (by V. Jacques), Antwerp, 1887.
359 S. Reinach, “Mirage oriental,” L’Anthropologie, 1894, pp. 539 and 699; A. Evans, “Eastern Question,” Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1896, p. 911; Montelius, loc. cit.; Much, “Die Kupferzeit in Europa,” Jena, 1893.
360 A. Evans, loc. cit., “Eastern Question”; Sal. Reinach, L’Anthropol., 1893, p. 731; Montelius, “The Tyrrhenians, etc.,” Jour. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxvi., 1897, p. 254, pl.; and “Pre-classic Chronology in Greece,” ibid., p. 261.
361 This term, used first in Germany, is accepted by almost all men of science. The La Tène period corresponds pretty nearly with the “âge Marnien” of French archæologists and the late Celtic of English archæologists. Cf. M. Hoernes, Urgesch. d. Mensch., chaps. viii. and ix., Vienna, 1892.
362 Together with the Sards, the Turses are the only European peoples of which the Egyptian inscriptions anterior to the thirteenth century B.C. make mention, under the name of Shordana and Thursana (W. Max Müller, Europa und Asien, 1894).
363 D’Arbois de Jubainville, Les Anciens Habitants de l’Europe, new ed., vol. i., p. 201, Paris.
364 See for this history, Isaac Taylor, The Origin of the Aryans, chap. i., London, 1890, and S. Reinach, L’origine des Aryens, Paris, 1892.
365 Th. Poesche, Die Arier, Jena, 1878; Penka, Die Herkunft der Arier, Vienna, 1886. This identification has been turned to account by several men of science, especially by O. Ammon (loc. cit.) in Germany and V. de Lapouge (Sélections sociales, Paris, 1895) in France, in the construction of somewhat bold sociological theories.
366 Osc. Schrader, Sprachvergl. u. Urgesch., 2nd ed., Jena, 1890.
367 According to Hirt, “Die Urheimat... d. Indogermanen,” Geogr. Zeitsch., vol. i., p. 649, Leipzig, 1895, the home of dispersion of the primitive Aryan language would be found to the north of the Carpathians, in the Letto-Lithuanian region. From this point two linguistic streams would start, flowing round the mountains to the west and east; the western stream, after spreading over Germany (Teutonic languages), left behind them the Celtic languages in the upper valley of the Danube, and filtered through on the one side into Italy (Latin languages), on the other side into Illyria, Albania, and Greece (Helleno-Illyrian languages). The eastern stream formed the Slav languages in the plains traversed by the Dnieper, then spread by way of the Caucasus into Asia (Iranian languages and Sanscrit). In this way we can account, on the one hand, for the less and less marked relationship between the different Aryan languages of the present day and the common primitive dialect, and, on the other hand, the diversity between the two groups of Aryan languages, western and eastern.
368 A. Bertrand and S. Reinach, Les Celtes dans la vallée du Pô, etc., Paris, 1894.
369 D’Arbois de Jubainville, loc. cit., vol. ii., p. 297.
370 For particulars see J. Deniker, “Les Races de l’Europe,” Bull. Soc. d’Anthropol., 1897, pp. 189 and 291; L’Anthropologie, 1898, p. 113 (with map); and “Les Races de l’Europe,” first part, L’indice Céphal., Paris, 1899 (coloured map). Cf. Ripley, “Racial Geography of Europe,” Appleton’s Popular Science Monthly, New York, for the years 1897, 1898, and 1899.
371 See in Appendices I. to III. the figures relative to the different populations of Europe, taken from the works referred to by me in the previous note.
372 Sergi, Origine... Stirpe Mediterranea, Rome, 1895.
373 Houzé, “Caract. phys. des races européennes,” Bull. Soc. Anthro., Brussels, vol. ii., 1883, 1st part.
374 R. Collignon, Bull. Soc. Anthro., Paris, 1883, p. 463, and L’Anthropologie, 1890, No. 2.
375 Ch. de Tourtoulon and Bringuier, “Limite... de la langue d’oc, etc.,” Arch. Miss. Sc. Paris, 1876. Cf. Rev. École Anthr. Paris, 1891, p. 218.
376 Province of Namur, nearly the whole of the provinces of Hainault, Liège, and Luxemburg, as well as the southern part of Brabant. Cf. Bremer, Nationalit. und Sprache in Belgien (with map), Stuttgart, 1887.
377 H. Gaidoz, “Die französisch. Thäler Piemonts,” Globus, p. 59, 1891, with map; Sachier, Le Français et le Provençal (Fr. trans. by Monet, Paris, 1891).
378 F. Pullé, “Profilo antr. dell’ Italia,” Archivo. p. Antr., 1898 (with maps).
379 Dr. N. Manolescu, Igiena Teranului (Hygiene of the Rumanian peasant, an ethnographical inquiry), Bucharest, 1895; S. Weigand, Die Aromunen, vol. i., Leipzig, 1895 (with plates and maps).
380 A. J. Ellis, English Dialects, London, 1890, two maps; and other publications of the English Dialect Society (1873–98).
381 Almost all the two Flanders, the half to the north of Brabant, the provinces of Antwerp and of Limbourg. Cf. Bremer, loc. cit.
382 R. Andree, “Gränzen Niederd. Sprache,” Globus, 1891, vol. lix., No. 2.
383 See Langhans, Deutsch. Kolon. Atlas, maps Nos. 3 to 7. For a comprehensive view of the Germans generally, see Ranke, Der Mensch., vol. ii. (Somat., Archeol.), and E. H. Meyer, “Deutsche Volkskunde” (Ethnography, Folk-lore), Strassburg, 1898; for the Austrians: Oester.-Ung. Monarchie, vols. iv. and vi., Vienna, 1886–89; and for the Bavarians, Beiträge z. Anthr., etc., Bayerns, Munich (1876–99).
384 See for the Slav languages: A. Pypine and Spassovitch, Istoria, etc. (Hist. of Slavonic Literatures), St. Petersburg, 1879, 2 vols., of which there is a translation of the first in French by S. Denis (1881); for a slight general view: F. von Hellwand, Die Welt der Slaven, Berlin, 1890; Zograf, Les peuples de la Russie, Moscow (1895); and Oester-Hung. Monarch., vols. ix., xi., xiv., xv. (1891–96); for ethnogeny and archæology: Lubor Niederle, O Puvodu Slovanu (Origin of the Slavs), Prague, 1897 (in Czech); and Cheloviechestvo, etc. (Prehistoric Man), Russian translation, St. Petersburg, 1898.
385 Beddoe, “The Kelts of Ireland,” Journ. of Anthropol., 1871, p. 117 (map); Broca, “La Question Celtique,” Bull. Soc. Anthro. Paris, 1873, pp. 313 and 247; Havelock Ellis, “The Men of Cornwall,” New Century Review, 1897, Nos. 4 and 5.
386 T. Aranzadi, El pueblo Escalduna, San Sebastian, 1889 (maps); R. Collignon, “La Race Basque,” L’Anthropologie, vol. v., 1894, p. 276.
387 Oester.-Ung. Monarchie, vols. v., ix., and xii., 1888–93.
388 Retzius, Finska Kranier, Stockholm, 1878, pl. (with French summary); see also publications of the Finno-Ugrian Society of Helsingfors, etc.
389 S. Sommier, Un Estate in Siberia, Florence, 1885; and Archivo p. l’Antro., vols. xvii. and xix. (1887–89); Maïnof, Resooltaty, etc. (Anthr. and Jurid. Studies of the Mordva); “Zapiski,” Russian Geog. Socy. (Ethnog. Sec.), vols. xi. and xiv. (1883–85); works of Smirnov on the Mordva, Cheremiss, etc., Fr. trans. by Boyer (Paris, 1897–98).
390 P. Mantegazza and Sommier, Studii antr. sui Lapponi, Turin, 1880 (phot. pl.); “Notes on the Lapps,” by Prince R. Bonaparte, Keane, and Garson, Jour. Anthr. Inst., vol. xv., 1885, pp. 210 et seq.; Montefiore, “The Samoyeds,” Jour. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxiv., 1895, p. 396; Zograf, “Esquisse des Samoyedes,” Izviestia (Bull.) Soc. Friends. Nat. Sc., Moscow, vol. xxxi., 1878–79, supl. (analysed in the Rev. d’Anthr., 1881); Sommier, loc. cit. (analysed Rev. d’Ethnogr.), Paris, 1889.
391 R. Erckert, Der Kaukasus u. Seine Völker, Leipzig, 1885 (with map); E. Chantre, Rech. Anthropol., dans le Caucase, Lyons, 1885–87, 4th vol., and atlas; Pantiukhof, “Obser. Anthr. au Caucase,” Zapiski Caucasian Sec. of Russ. Geog. Soc., vol. xv., Tiflis, 1893, phot.
392 For particulars see Deniker, loc. cit. (Races de l’Europe).
393 The flint flakes resembling palæolithic tools, found by F. Noetling (Records Geol. Survey, India, vol. xxvii., p. 101, Calcutta, 1894) in Miocene or lower Pliocene beds, at Yenang-Yung (Central Burma), are considered by Oldham and other scholars as natural products. However, Noetling has since (in 1897) described an animal bone, artificially polished(?), of the same beds.—Nat. Science, London-New York, 1894, p. 345; 1895, 1st half-year, p. 367; 2nd, pp. 199 and 294; and 1887, 1st half-year, p. 233.
394 The bones of the Pithecanthropus, a thigh-bone, a calvaria (Figs. 112 and 113), and two molar teeth (Fig. 112), were found by Dr. Dubois at Trinil (province of Madioun), on the bank of the river Bengavan, in a layer of lava, by the side of bones of animals of the Pliocene period. The calvaria, indicating a cranial capacity of about 900 cubic centimetres, recalls rather the Neanderthal-Spy skull (Fig. 86) than that of a gibbon; the thigh-bone is entirely human; the teeth are of a form intermediate between those of Man and of the Anthropoids.—For particulars see E. Dubois, Pithecanthropus... aus Java, Batavia, 1894; and his articles in the Anat. Anzeig., 1896, No. 1, and the Jour. Anthr. Inst., London, vol. 25, p. 240 (1896); Manouvrier, Bull. Soc. Anthr., Paris, 1895, pp. 12 and 553; 1896, pp. 396 and 467; G. Schwalbe, Zeitsch. Morph. u. Anthr., vol. i., p. 16, Stuttgart, 1899.
395 Uvarof, Arkheologia, etc. (Archeol. of Russia, vol. i., Moscow, 1881, p. 162, in Russian); Kuznétzof, Mittheil. Anthr. Gesell., Vienna, 1896, Nos. 4 and 5; “Age de la pierre au Japon,” Mater. hist.... homme, Toulouse-Paris, 1879, p. 31; S. Fuse, Journ. Anthr. Soc. Tokyo, vol. xi., 1896, No. 122 (in Japanese); Inuzuka, ibid., No. 119; E. Cartailhac, “L’âge de la pierre en Asie,” Congr. Orientalistes, 3rd ser., 1, p. 315, Lyons, 1880; G. Chauvet, “Age de la pierre en Asie,” Congr. intern. arch. prehis., 11th session, vol. i., p. 57, Moscow, 1892. The arrows picked up by Abbé A. David in Mongolia, and supposed to be palæolithic, belong to the historic period (Hamy, Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat., 1896, p. 46).
396 Medlicot and Blandford, Manual of Geol. of India, Calcutta, 1879, 2 vols.; Cartailhac, loc. cit.; Rivett-Carnac, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xiii., 1884, p. 119.
397 Potanin, Otcherki, etc. (North-West Mong. Sketches), St. Petersburg, 1881–83, 4 vols., (in Russian); Adrianof, “Zapiski, etc.,” Mem. Russ. Geog. Soc., Sect. Gen. Geog., vol. xi., 1888, p. 149; Radloff, Aus Sibirien, Leipzig, 1884, 2 vols., and Arbeit. Orkhon. Exped., St. Petersburg, 1893–97 (in course of publication). For summary of the question and bibliography, see Deniker, Nouvelles Geogr., p. 54, Paris, 1892 (with map).
398 Radloff, loc. cit. (Arbeit., etc.); Thomson, Mem. Soc. Finno-Ougrienne vol. v., Helsingfors, 1896. We cannot admit as a general rule an exact synchronism between the prehistoric periods of Europe and those of Northern Asia. If, as Uvarof says, the age of the mammoth was earlier in Siberia than in Europe, it is none the less true that many peoples of Eastern Siberia were still in the midst of the “stone age” at the time when the Russians penetrated into this country (seventeenth century). As to the peoples of Western Siberia and the Kirghiz Steppes, the beginning of their bronze age goes back at the furthest to the beginning of the Christian era.
399 Margaritof, Memoirs Amurian Soc. of Naturalists, vol. i., Vladivostok, 1887. The only skull found in these heaps is dolichocephalic and reminds one of the Ainu skull. Thus one might suppose, as Milne had done (Trans. As. Soc. Jap., Tokio, 1899, vol. vii., p. 61), in connection with the similar kitchen refuse found in Japan, that they are the work of the Ainus; however, the presence of pottery, unknown to the Ainus even to recent times, militates against this view.
400 The Nagas have still at the present day axes of precisely the same form, which they use as hoes. (S. Peal, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. lxv., Part III., p. 9, Calcutta, 1896.) Cf. Noulet, “Age de la pierre... au Cambodge d’après Moura,” Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. i., p. 3, Toulouse, 1879; and Mater. Hist. Nat. Homme, vol. xiv., p. 315, Toulouse, 1879; Cartaillac, L’Anthropol., p. 64, 1890 (a summary of Jammes’s discoveries).
401 Schrenck, Reisen in Amur-Lande, vol. iii., Parts I. and II., St. Petersburg, 1881–91.
402 Müller and Gmelin saw in 1753 the last surviving Arines, and in 1855 Castren was still able to find five individuals speaking the Kotte tongue.
403 Yadrintsef, “Ob Altaïtsakh, etc.” (On the Altaians and Tatars of Chern), Izviestia of the Russ. Geogr. Soc., St. Petersb., 1881.
404 Nordenskiold, Voyage de la Vega, vol. ii., chap. xii., Paris, 1883–84; Deniker, loc. cit. (Rev. Anthr., p. 309, 1882).
405 The disappearance of these tribes is more apparent than real. The Anauls, in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Anadyr, exterminated by the Cossacks in 1649, were only a fraction of the Yukaghirs, as is indicated by the termination “ul” which is found again in the name “Odul,” which the Yukaghirs use to describe themselves. The word “Omok” means simply people, “tribe” in Yukaghir language. As to the Cheliags, who, according to the Cossack Amossof, occupied at the end of the last century the Siberian coast between the Gulf of Chaun and the mouth of the Kolima—they were probably one of the Chukchi tribes.
406 Iokhelson, “Izviestia, etc.,” Bull. East-Siberian Sect. of the Russ. Geogr. Soc., vol. xxix., p. 8, Irkutsk, 1898.
407 Anuchin, “Izviestia” Soc. Friends Sc. Moscow, suppl. to vol. xx., 1876 (analysed Rev. d’Anthr., 1878, p. 148); Scheube, Mitt. Deut. Gesell. Natur. u. Volkenk, vol. iii., pp. 44 and 220, Yokohama-Tokio, 1880–82; G. Batchelor, Trans. As. Soc. Japan, vol. x., part 2, Tokio, 1882, and The Ainu of Japan, London, 1892; Chamberlain, Mem. Imper. Univ. Japan, Litter. coll. No. 1, Tokio, 1887 (analysed Rev. d’Anthr., 1888, p. 81); Tarenetsky, Mem. Ac. Sc. St. Petersburg, 1890, vol. xxxvii., No. 13; Hitchcock, Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1890, pp. 408 and 429; S. Landor, Alone with the Hairy Ainu, 1893; Koganeï, Beitr. z. Phys. Anthr. Aino (extr. from Mit. Med. Fakult., vols. i. and ii., Tokio, 1893–94).
408 Schrenck, loc. cit.; Seeland, Russiche Rev., vol. xi., St. Petersburg, 1882; Deniker, Les Ghiliaks, Paris, 1884 (extr. from Rev. d’Ethnogr.).
409 C. Hiekisch, Die Tungusen, St. Petersburg, 1879; L. Schrenck, loc. cit.; H. James, “A Journey in Manchuria,” Proc. Geogr. Soc. London, 1886, p. 779; D. Pozdniéef, Opissanie, etc. (Description of Manchuria, in Russian), vol. i., chap. vi., St. Petersburg, 1897. For measurements, see Appendices II. and III.
410 This classification is not at all absolute. Turks and Mongols inhabit the wooded regions of Northern Asia (Yakuts, Buriats); they are also to be found in Europe and Asia Minor. The table-land of Iran, belonging to the region without outlet, assimilated since the works of Richthofen to Central Asia, is mostly inhabited by Iranian peoples having a connection with those of anterior Asia. The Thibetans chiefly occupy the upper valley of the Yaro-tsanpo, which is now in the line of communication between Central and peripheral Asia, etc.
411 See my articles “Turks” and “Tatars” in the Dict. Univ. de Geogr. of Vivien de Saint-Martin and Rousselet, vol. vi., Paris, 1894; and for details the works of Radloff and Vambery, to which reference is therein made.
412 These “Tatars” have sprung from the intermixture of three elements: the primitive Tatars, the probable descendants of the Tu-Kiue of Chinese authors, the founders of the kingdom of Sibir destroyed by the Russians in the sixteenth century; the Sartes and the Uzbegs, coming especially from Bokhara; lastly, the Tatars of the Volga, immigrating in the wake of the Russians. In the west of Siberia there are also Ostiak tribes which bear the name of Tatars (such as the Zabolotnyé Tatary), because they have adopted the customs and religion of their neighbours the Tatars.
413 Dutreuil de Rhins and Grenard, Miss. Sc. Haute Asie, vol. ii., Paris, 1898.
414 See bibliography in the monograph on the Kirghiz-Bukei by Kharouzin, “Izviestia” Soc. Friends of Nat. Sc., Moscow, vol. 72, 1891.
415 We must distinguish among the “Tatars of the Crimea” two ethnic groups, speaking the same Turkish dialect: the Tatars of the Steppes (Nogai), and the Tatars of the Mountains and of the Coast, or Tauridians (Krimchaki in Russian). These are the Islamised descendants of the ancient populations of the Taurus (Kipchaks, Genoese, Greeks, Goths). The Nogai belong to the Turkish race, more or less crossed, while the Tauridians have many traits of the Adriatic and Indo-Afghan races.
416 For statistics as to stature, ceph. index, etc., see Appendices I. to III.; these figures are borrowed from the works of Benzengre, Bogdanof, Chantre, Elissiéef, Erckert, Hecker, Kharuzin, Lygin, Malief, Merejkovsky, Nazarof, Païssel, Pantiukhof, Sommier, Ujfalvy, Vyrubof, Weisbach, Weissenberg, Yadrintzef, etc. (Cf. Deniker, Les Races de l’Europe, 1. Ind. ceph., Paris, 1899.)
417 Pallas, Samml. Hist. Nachricht., St. Petersburg, 1776–1801, 2 vols.; Bergmann, Nomad. Streifereien. u. d. Kalmuk, Riga, 1804, 4 vols.; Howorth, History of Mong., London, 1877, 4 vols.; Deniker, loc. cit. (Rev. Anthr., 1883–84); Ivanovsky, loc. cit. (Mongols-Torg.); Potanin, loc. cit.; A. Pozdniéef, Mongolia, etc. (Mongolia and the Mongols, in Russian), St. Petersburg, 1896, vol. i., and other publications of this learned writer.
418 In many works to these three divisions of Mongols are also added the so-called Hezare or Hazara and the Aimaks, tribes styled Mongolian, left by Tamerlane in Afghanistan. It appears that at the present time these tribes have only preserved of their origin a few physiognomical features; they speak a Turkish dialect and have intermixed with the Jemchids, whose mode of life and religion they have adopted.
419 Cf. Prjevalsky, Trétie, etc. (Third Journey in Central Asia), St. Petersburg, 1883; and Jour. Geog. Soc., 1886–87; Rockhill, The Land of the Lamas, London, 1891; Ethnol. of Tibet, Washington, 1895; and Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1893, p. 665; Desgodins, Le Tibet, 2nd ed., Paris, 1885; Waddell, Buddhism of Thibet, London, 1895; and Among the Himalayas, London, 1899.
420 See Dalton, Descrip. Ethnol. of Bengal, p. 13 et seq., Calcutta, 1872. We leave untouched the peoples sprung from the intermixture of the Thibetans with the Mongols (Kara-Tanguts of the Kuku-Nor), with the Iranians and the Hindus (Balti, of Cashmere, etc.), with the Punjabi Hindus (Gurkhas, Nepalese), with the Assam peoples (Dophlas, Miris, etc.).
421 Prjevalsky, loc. cit.; Risley, “Tribes and Castes of Bengal,” Anthr. Data, Calcutta, 1891, 2 vols.; Rockhill, loc. cit.; Dutreuil de Rhins, loc. cit.
422 Fr. Garnier, Voyage... en Indo-Chine, Paris, 1873, vol. i., p. 519, and vol. ii., p. 32 (Memoir of Thorel).
423 Colb. Baber, “Travels... in West China,” Supp. Pap. Geogr. Soc., vol. i., London, 1882; Colquhoun, Across Chryse, London, 1883, vol. ii., Appendix.
424 Roux, Le Tour du Monde, 1897, 1st half, p. 254. The adorning of the body and limbs with rings, so characteristic of the Dyaks and other Indonesians, is also found among the Lu-tse; they wear around the loins and limbs numerous iron wire rings coated with black wax and fastened together in two places with metal rings. Great phalanstery-like houses, 40 metres long, similar to those of certain Indonesians and Polynesians, and used by several families, in which men and women sleep promiscuously, are met with among the western Kew-tse on the boundary of their country with the Khamti (see p. 40).
425 Terrien de Lacouperie, The Languages of China before the Chinese, p. 92, London, 1887; Fr. Garnier, loc. cit.; H. Hallet, Proc. Geogr. Soc., p. 1, London, 1886 (with map).
426 See the summary of the data in this respect in Richthofen, China, vol. i., Berlin, 1875, and in Reclus, Geogr. Univ., vol. vi., Paris, 1882.
427 See in the appendices the statistics of stature, ceph. index, etc., from the works of Girard, Hagen, Janka, Poyarkof, Ten Kate, Weisbach, Zaborowski, and my own observations.
428 Note also the inferior position of woman, her ability to move about limited by deformation of the feet (p. 175).
429 The exact figures for the height of Coreans are contradictory: Dr. Koïke (Internat. Arch. Ethnogr., vol. iv., Leyden, 1891, Parts I. and II.) gives the excessively high stature of 1 m. 79 as the average of seventy-five men measured; while Elissiéef (“Izviestia” Russ. Geogr. Soc., St. Petersburg, 1890) found 1 m. 62 the average height, but according to the measurements of ten men only.
430 W. Carles, Life in Corea, London, 1888; Gottsche, “Land. u. Leute in Korea,” Verh. Ges. Erdk., p. 245, Berlin, 1886; A. Cavendish and Goold-Adams, Korea, London, 1894; Pogio, Korea, trans. from the Russian, Vienna and Leipzig, 1895; L. Chastaing, “Les Coréens,” Rev. Scientif., p. 494, 1896, second half-year; Maurice Courant, Bibliogr. Coréenne, Introduc., vol. i., Paris, 1895; and Transact. As. Soc. Japan, vol. xxiii., p. 5.
431 See Appendices I. and III. for the measurements given from Miss Ayrton, Bälz, Koganei, etc.
432 It might be supposed that the representatives of the first type were the descendants of tribes who had come by way of Corea and the Tsu-shima and Iki-shima islands in the south-west of Nippon at some period unknown, but at any rate very remote. As to the coarse type, its representatives are perhaps descended from the warriors who invaded about the seventh century B.C. (according to a doubtful chronology) the west coast of the island of Kiu-siu and then Nippon. These invaders, intermixing with the aborigines of unknown stock, founded the kingdom of Yamato, and drove back the Ainus towards the north (see p. 372).
433 The ancient practice of suicide in case of injury (Harakiri), now abolished, also denoted great courage; sometimes it was a disguised form of vendetta, for the relatives of the suicide were bound in honour to exterminate the offender.
434 Mohnike, Die Japaner, Münster, 1872; Bälz, loc. cit.; J. J. Rein, Japan, Leipzig, 1881–86, 2 vols.; Mechnikof, L’empire Japonais, Paris-Geneva, 1882; B. Chamberlain, Things Japanese, Yokohama, 1891; “Tokyo Jinruigaku,” etc. (Journ. Anthr. Soc. Tokio, in Japanese), 1888–98.
435 Dodd, Jour. Str. Br. As. Soc., No. 15, p. 69, Singapore, 1885; I. Ino, “Distrib. géog. tribu. Formose,” Tokyo Jinruigaku, p. 301, 1898 (analysed in l’Anthropologie,1899); Imbault-Huart, L’île de Formose, Paris, 1893; A. Wirth, “Eingeborn. Stämme auf Formosa u. Liu-Kiu,” Peterm. Mitt., p. 33, 1898.
436 Dourisboure, Les Sauv. Ba-Hnars, Paris, 1873; Neïs, Excurs. et Reconn., Saigon, Nos. 6 (1880), 10 (1881), and Bull. Soc. Géogr., p. 372, Paris, 1884; Harmand, loc. cit., and Tour du Monde, 1879 and 1880; Pinabel, Bull. Soc. Géogr., p. 417, Paris, 1884.
437 Aymonier, “Voyage dans le Laos,” Ann. Mus. Guimet. (Bibl. d’Étude, vol. v.), vol. i., p. 38, Paris, 1895; Harmand, loc. cit.
438 E. Kuhn, Sitzungsberichte, Phil.-hist. Kl. Bayer. Akad. Wiss., p. 289, Munich, 1889.
439 Aymonier, Excurs. et Reconn., Saigon, Nos. 8 and 10 (1881), 24 (1885), chap. viii., No. 32 (1890), and Rev. d’Ethnogr., 1885, p. 158; Bergaigne, Journ. Asiat., 8th series, vol. xi., 1888; Maurel, Mem. Soc. Anthr., 1893, vol. iv., p. 486.
440 Mrs. Mason, Civilising Mountain Men, etc., London, 1862, and other works of this author. Smeaton, The Loyal Karen, etc., London, 1886.
441 There exists among them a strange custom: the men experience great pleasure in putting into their mouths and then spitting out the juice from the narghiles smoked by the wives. The offer of tobacco juice is one of the first duties of hospitality.
442 J. Butler, “Angami Nagas,” Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xliv., p. 216, Calcutta, 1875; Woodthorpe, “Notes... Naga Hills,” Jour. Anthro. Inst., vols. ix. (1882) and xix. (1890); Reid, Chin-Lushai Land, Calcutta, 1893; Peal, “Naga,” Jour. Anthr. Inst., vol. iii., 1874, p. 476; Nature, 20th May 1897; Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. lxv., part 3, p. 17, Calcutta, 1897; and “Ein Ausflug, etc.,” Zeit. f. Ethn., 1898, p. 281 (trans. by Klemm, with notes and bibliog.); Miss Godden, “Naga, etc.,” Jour. Anthr. Inst., vols. xxvi. and xxvii. (1896–97).
443 J. Anderson, The Selungs, Lond., 1890; Lapicque, Bull. Soc. Anthr., 1894, p. 221, and “A la rech. des Negritos,” Le Tour du Monde, 1895, 2nd half-year, and 1896, 1st half-year; Man, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xiv., 1886, p. 428; Roepstorff, Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., 1882, p. 51.
444 Man, “Aborig. Andam. Isl.,” Jour. Anthr. Inst., vol. xi., 1882; De Quatrefages, Les Pygmées, Paris, 1887; Lapicque, loc. cit., and “La race Negrito,” Ann. de Geogr., No. 22, Paris, 1896.
445 Moura, Royaume de Cambodge, Paris, 1883, 2 vols.; Aymonier, Géographie du Cambodge, Saigon-Paris, 1876; L. Fournereau and Porcher, Les Ruins d’Angkor, etc., Paris, 1890; Morel, Mém. Soc. Anthr., vol. iv., Paris, 1893.
446 Deniker and Laloy, “Races exot.,” L’Anthropologie, 1890, p. 523.
447 Risley, loc. cit.
448 Terrien de Lacouperie, loc. cit.; Colquhoun, loc. cit., Appendix and Preface by T. de Lacouperie; Bourne, Parliam. Pap., C., 5371, London, 1888; C. Baber, loc. cit.; Hosie, Three Years’ Jour. in Western China, London, 1890; Labarth, “Les Muongs,” Bull. Soc. Géogr. hist. et descr., Paris, 1886, p. 127; H. Hollet, loc. cit.; Aymonier, loc. cit., ch. vii; Billet, “Deux ans dans le Haut Tonkin,” Bull. Scient. de la France et de la Belgique, vol. xxviii., Paris, 1896–98; Deblenne, Mission Lyonnaise en Chine, p. 34, Lyons, 1898.
449 From Dr. Girard, quoted by Billet, loc. cit., p. 69.
450 Harmand, loc. cit.; Aymonier, loc. cit. (Voyage au Laos).
451 The so-called primitive division into four castes: Brahmans (priests), Kshatriya (soldiers), Vaisyas (husbandmen and merchants), and Sudra (common people, outcasts, subject peoples?), mentioned in the later texts of the Vedas, is rather an indication of the division into three principal classes of the ruling race as opposed, in a homogeneous whole, to the conquered aboriginal race (fourth caste).
452 Sénart, “Les Castes dans l’Inde,” Ann. Mus. Guimet., Bibl. de Vulgar, Paris, 1896 (sums up the question). To the bibliographic references to castes which are found in this excellent book must be added the “Introduction” to the work of W. Crooke, already quoted; it appeared subsequently.
453 The ingenious deductions of Risley (loc. cit., Ethnogr. Glossary, vol. i., Preface, p. 34, Calcutta, 1892), which may be summed up in the aphorism, “The nasal index increases in a direct ratio to the social inferiority of the caste,” have been criticised by Crooke (loc. cit., p. 119), who however is too absolute in his statements, and does not take any account of the seriation of anthropometric measurements.
454 E. Schmidt, “Die Anthrop. Indiens,” Globus, vol. lxi. (1892), Nos. 2 and 3. For the measurements of the different peoples of India see Appendices I. to III.; the figures are chiefly borrowed from Risley, loc. cit., Crooke, loc. cit., Jagor, Thurston, loc. cit., Sarasin, loc. cit., E. Schmidt, loc. cit., Deschamps, Au pays des Veddas, Paris, 1892, with pl.
455 Jellinghaus, “Sagen, Sitten... der Munda-Kolhs,” Zeit. f. Ethn., vol. iii., 1872, p. 328; Dalton, loc. cit., p. 150; Risley, loc. cit., Ethnogr. Glossary; Crooke, loc. cit.
456 The word Ho (Hor or Horo), which recurs in the name of all these tribes, signifies everywhere “man,” and indicates their close linguistic relationship; their manners and customs are also alike, especially in regard to the constitution of the community. Religion among them all is an animism blended with very vague polytheism. In their physical characters there are some differences; the Munda and the Bhumij are short (1 m. 59) and very dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. on the liv. sub. 74.5 and 75), the Santals are below the average height (1 m. 61) and a little less dolichocephalic (76.1). The Ho, among whom we may assume a greater infusion of Indo-Afghan blood, are of somewhat high stature (1 m. 68). The number of these four tribes, united under the name of Santals in the census of 1891, amounted to a million and a half.
457 Ball, Jungle Life in India, p. 267; Fawcet, “The Saoras of Madras,” Journ. Ant. Soc. Bombay, vol. i., 1888, p. 206; E. Dalton, loc. cit., p. 149.
458 They must not be confused with the Mal-Paharia, who dwell farther to the south in the same district of Santhal Parganos (Bengal), and whose affinities are still obscure; from the somatic point of view there is, however, hardly any difference between the two groups.
459 They must not be confounded with the Kharwar or Kharvar, Dravidians of Chota Nagpur, the southern parts of Behar and Mirzapur; these are half-civilised husbandmen, having a particular social organisation. Their higher castes have an infusion of Hindu blood, while the type of the lower castes recalls that of the Santals. The Kûrs of the Mahadeva hills are closely allied to the Kharwar.
460 Cf. Shortt, Account of the Tribes of the Nilghiris, 1868; Marshall, A Phrenologist among the Toda, London, 1873; Elie Reclus, Primitive Folk, ch. v.; Thurston, Madras Gov. Museum Bullet., vol. i., No. 1, and vol. ii., No. 4; G. Oppert, The Original Inhabitants of India, London, 1894, and Zeit. f. Ethnol., 1896, pt. 5.
461 The name Rajputs is only honorary, and is attached to a crowd of tribes and castes varying in origin, in mode of life, and in dress. The Jats of the Punjab, of which the Sikhs are only a section, are constituted of a mixture of strongly differentiated populations.
462 Risley, loc. cit.; Crooke, loc. cit.; Fonseca Cardoso, “O indigena de Satory,” Revista de Scien. Naturæs, vol. iv., No. 16, Oporto, 1896.
463 Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo-Koosh, Calcutta, 1880; De Ujfalvy, Aus dem Westl. Himalaya, Leipzig, 1884; Leitner, The Hunza and Nagar Handbook, London, 1893; Capus, Manuscript Notes; Risley, loc. cit.
464 The brother of the dead husband may marry all the latter’s widows, and none of them has the right to marry again without the consent of her brother-in-law. There is no term in the Chin and Yeshkhun languages to denote nephews and nieces—they are called “sons or daughters”; aunts on the maternal side are called “mothers.”
465 De Ujfalvy, “Les Koulou,” Bull. Soc. Anthr., 1882, p. 217; Forsyth, Yarkand Mission, Calcutta, 1875; S. Mateer, Native Life in Travancore, London, 1883; Elie Reclus, loc. cit., p. 143 (Nairs); E. Schmidt, “Die Naïrs,” Globus, vol. lxviii. (1895), No. 22; Waddell, loc. cit. (Am. Himal.), chap. ix.
466 Sarasin, loc. cit., gives bibliog.; Deschamps, Ceylan, loc. cit. For the measurements of these peoples, see the Appendices I. and II.
467 The Hajemis of the Caspian littoral are called more particularly Talych and Mazandarani.
468 The interminglings with the Turks must be of recent date; for if we may still discuss the “Turanian” characters of the Sumero-Acadian language, there is no indication of the existence of the Turkish race in Asia Minor in ancient times. The famous sculptured head of Tello (in the Louvre) has a false Turkish air, owing to the head-dress and the broken nose; three other statuettes from the same locality, preserved at Paris, have a fine and prominent nose and meeting eyebrows: Assyroid characters (see De Clercq, Album des Antiq. de la Chaldée, Paris, 1889–91; Maspero, Hist. des peupl. Orient. Class., vol. i., p. 613, Paris, 1895; and E. de Sarzec, Découvertes en Chaldée, published by Heuzey, Paris, 1885–97).
469 D. Menant, “Les Parsis,” Ann. Mus. Guin., Bibl. Et., vol. vii., Paris.
470 E. Oliver, Across the Border, Pathan and Biloch, London, 1890.
471 For the measurements of the Iranians see Appendices I. to III. (from Danilof, Houssey, Ujfalvy, Bogdanof, Chantre, Troll, Risley).
472 Möckler, “Origin of Baluch,” Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, 1893, p. 159.
473 Chantre, Rech. Anthr. As. Occid. Transcaucasie, Asie Min. et Syrie, Lyons, 1895 (with pl. and fig.); and “Les Kurdes,” Bull. Soc. Anthr. Lyons, 1897. The Lurs of Western Persia living south of the Kurds are akin to the latter; they may be divided into Luri-Kuchucks (250,000) or little Lurs in Luristan, and into Luri-Buzury, farther south, in Hazistan, a part of Fars. Their best known tribes are those of the Bakhtyari and Maamaseni. The Lurs are above the average height (1 m. 68), and sub-brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 84.5), according to Houssay, Duhousset, and Gautier. Cf. Houssay, “Les Peuples de la Perse,” Bull. Soc. Anthr. Lyons, 1887, p. 101; and Pantiukhof, loc. cit.
474 The Arab tongue of the present day includes three dialects: Western, extending from Morocco to Tunis; Central, spoken in Egypt; and Eastern, spoken in Arabia and Syria.
475 Petersen and Von Luschan, Reisen in Lykien, etc., chap, xiii., Vienna, 1889; Chantre, loc. cit.
476 It is known, in fact, that the isolation of the Jews from the rest of the population is not always absolutely complete. There have been peoples of other races converted to Judaism: the Khasars in the seventh century, the Abyssinians (present Falacha), the Tamuls or “black Jews” (p. 115, note), the Tauridians of the Karaite sect, etc. (p. 222). Cf. J. Jacobs, “Racial Charact.... Jews,” Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xv. (1885–86), p. 24; and Jacobs and Spielmann, ibid., vol. xix. (1889–90).
477 The Aissors or Chaldeans who migrated to the Caucasus are probably allied to these “Jews of the mountains”; they are also very brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 88) and of rather high stature (1 m. 67) (Erckert, Chantre).
478 See the art. “Juifs” in the Dict. Géog. Univers. of Vivien de Saint-Martin and Rousselet, vol. ii., Paris, 1884 (with bibliog.); Andree, Zur Völkerkunde der Juden, Bielefeld, 1881, with map; and publications of the Soc. des Études Juives, Paris. The measurements given in the Appendices are after Ikof, Chantre, Jacobs and Spielmann, Gluck, Kopenicki, Weissenberg, Weisbach, etc.
479 See my art. “Tsiganes,” in the Dict. Géog. Univ., quoted above, vol. vi., 1893; Paspati, Étude sur les Tchinghiané, Constantinople, 1870; A. Colocci, Gli Zingari, Turin, 1889, with map; H. von Wlislocki, Vom... Zigeuner-Volke, Hamburg, 1890; and the publications of the Gypsy-Lore Society, London (1886–96).
480 Fl. Petrie and Quibell, Nagada and Ballas, London, 1896; De Morgan, Recherches sur les Origines de l’Egypte, Paris, 1897–98, 2 vols. See for summary of the question: S. Reinach, L’Anthropol., 1897, p. 322; and J. Capart, Rev. Université, Brussels, 4th year (1898–99), p. 105. Let us remember while on this point that at the quaternary period lower Egypt was still covered by the sea, and that the climate of Egypt and the Sahara was much more humid than to-day (Shirmer, Le Sahara, p. 136, Paris, 1893). Most of the prehistoric finds in Egypt have been made on the table-lands, not covered by the alluvial soils of the Nile.
481 W. Gooch, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xi. (1882), p. 124; Seton Karr, “Discov. of Evid. Paleolith. Age in Somaliland,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxv. (1896), p. 271; X. Stainier, “L’âge de la pierre au Congo,” Annales Mus. du Congo, 3rd series (Anthr.), vol. i., part 1, Brussels, 1899 (with plates).
482 R. Collignon, “Les âges de la pierre en Tunisie,” Mater. Hist. Nat. Homme, 3rd series, vol. iv., Toulouse, 1887; Couillault, “Station préhist. Gafsa,” L’Anthropologie, vol. v., 1894, p. 530; Zaborowski, “Period néolith. Afr. du nord,” Rev. Ec. Anthr., Paris, 1899, p. 41.
483 See for details, R. Andree, “Steinzeit Afrikas,” Globus, vol. xli. (1882), p. 169; and X. Stainier, loc. cit., p. 18.
484 Recent discoveries of stone objects in Egypt have revived the question of Asiatic or European influence in Africa. While Flinders Petrie, De Morgan, and others suppose that Petrie’s “new race” of the neolithic period which preceded Egyptian civilisation in the Nile valley is related to the Libyans coming from the north-west of Africa, and perhaps from Europe, Schweinfurth (Zeitsh. f. Ethnol., 1897; Verhandl., p. 263) thinks that these neolithic people were immigrants from Arabia (Semites?), who had come into the Nile valley from the south, through Nubia. The recent discovery of chipped flints in the country of the Somalis, as well as considerations of a botanic character, confirm this supposition, without excluding, however, the possibility of the arrival of the Libyans of the north-west in the palæolithic period, and the tribes of Syria and Mesopotamia in historic times. (Evidence: the “Hyksos” of the Egyptian annals, the presence of cuneiform tablets at Tel-el-Amarna, upper Egypt, to which attention was drawn by Sayce, etc.)
485 Barthel, “Völkerbewegungen... Afrikan. Kontin.,” Mittheil. Verein Erdkunde, Leipzig, 1893, with map.
486 Jews and Maltese on the coast of the Mediterranean; Persians and Hindus on the east coast and the islands off it; a few hundred Chinese introduced into the Congo State and the Mauritius and Réunion islands. Among the Europeans, the Boers of Cape Colony, of the basin of the Orange river, and the Transvaal, as well as the Portuguese of Angola and Mozambique, are more or less intermingled with the natives. The English of the Cape, and the French of Algeria-Tunis, and the “Creoles” of the island of Réunion have kept themselves more free from intermixture. Finally, let us note the Spanish of Algeria-Morocco and the Canary Isles, the latter the hybrid descendants of the prehistoric Guanches, which are perhaps connected with the European Cro-Magnon race. (See S. Berthelot, “Les Guanches,” Mem. Soc. Ethnol., Paris, vols. i. and ii., 1841–45; Verneau, Iles Canaries, Paris, 1891.)
487 Hartmann, “Les Peuples de l’Afrique,” Paris, 1880 (Bibl. Internat.), a work written from a different standpoint from the present chapter.
[488] See for details, Hanoteau and Letourneux, La Kabylie, etc., Paris, 1872–73; Quedenfeld, “Berberbevölkerung in Marokko,” Zeits. f. Ethn., vol. xx.-xxi., 1888–89; Topinard, “Les types de... l’Algérie,” Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1881; Villot, Mœurs, coutumes... des indig. de l’Algérie, Algiers, 1888; Ch. Amat, “Les Beni-Mzab,” Rev. Anthr., 1884, p. 644.
489 Collignon, “Ethn. gén. de la Tunisie,” Bull. Géogr. hist. et descr., Paris, 1887. Cf. Bertholon, “La population de la Tunisie,” Rev. gén. des Sc., Paris, 1896, p. 972 (with fig.).
490 It is to be noted that these last belong, like the islanders of Djerba, to the Ibadite sect, an offshoot of orthodox Islamism.
491 Duveyrier, Les Touareg du Nord, Paris, 1864; Schirmer, loc. cit.
492 Rohlfs, Quer durch Africa, vol. i., Leipzig, 1888.
493 Faidherbe, “Les Berbers... du Sénégal,” Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1864, p. 89; R. Collignon and Deniker, “Les Maures du Sénégal,” L’Anthropologie, 1895, p. 287.
494 According to the best preserved monuments, the ancient Egyptians had a brownish-reddish complexion of skin, long face, pointed chin, scant beard, straight or aquiline nose like the Ethiopian race (see p. 288). The hair of the mummies makes us think of the black and frizzy hair of the Ethiopians themselves. Lastly, the few ancient Egyptian skulls examined are meso- or dolicho-cephalic. See Pruner-Bey, Mem. Soc. Anthr. Paris, vol. i., 1863; Hartman, Zeits. für Ethnol., vols. i. and ii., 1869–70, and Die Nigritier, Berlin, 1876; E. Schmidt, Arch. f. Anthr., vol. xvii., 1888; S. Poole, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xvi., 1886, p. 371; S. Bertin, ibid., 1889, vol. xviii., p. 104; Phot. Coll., Flinders Petrie (Brit. Assoc. 1887); Sergi, Africa Antropol. della stirpe camitica, Turin, 1897. Virchow (Sitzungsb. Preuss Akad. Wiss., 1888) has endeavoured to show that the most ancient type of the Egyptians was brachycephalic, but his deductions are disputable, being based on measurements of statues.
495 Sometimes the Barabras are also similarly designated, in my opinion wrongly, for this leads to a triple confusion, “Nuba” being still the name of a Negro tribe (see p. 444). It would be more correct to employ this term as a synonym of Northern Ethiopian; besides, according to Strabo (Book XVII.), Eratosthenes refers to the “Nubians” in his time as a people distinct from the Negroes and Egyptians. The Barabras are not so dark, have not such frizzy hair, and are not so tall as the Bejas, the Hamrans, and other Ethiopians their neighbours, and consequently belong, not only by their language, but also by their physical type, to the Arabo-Berber group.
496 For general works see Paulitschke, Beiträge Ethnogr. u. Anthr. d. Somâl. Galla, Leipzig, 1886, and Ethnogr. Nordost Africas, Berlin, 1893–96, 2 vols.; Sergi, loc. cit. (Africa).
497 Hartmann, “Die Bedjah,” Zeit. f. Ethnol., vol. xi., 1879, p. 117; Virchow, Zeit. f. Ethn., vol. x., 1878 (Verh. p. 333, etc.), and vol. xi., 1879 (Verh. p. 389); Deniker, Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1880, p. 594.
498 Révoil, La Vallée du Darrar, Paris, 1882; Paulitschke, loc. cit.; Sergi, loc. cit., p. 178; Santelli, Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1893, p. 479.
499 See Appendices I. to III. for the measurements given from the works already quoted of Deniker, Paulitschke, Santelli, Sergi, and Virchow.
500 J. Thomson, Through Masai Land, 2nd ed., London, 1887; Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika, Berlin, 1894; F. von Luschan, Beitr. zur Völkerk. d. Deutsch. Schulzgebiet, Berlin, 1897, with meas. and phot.
501 W. Junker, Reisen in Afrika, Vienna and Olmütz, 1889–91; and Ergänzungsh. Peter. Mit., Nos. 92 and 93, Gotha, 1888–89.
502 Schweinfurth, “Die Monbuttu,” Zeits. f. Ethn., 1873, p. 1, and Artes Africanæ, Leipzig, 1875; Junker, loc. cit.; P. Comte, Les N’Sakkaras, Bar-le-Duc, 1895.
503 See Schweinfurth, loc. cit. (Artes Africanæ), and The Heart of Africa, 2nd ed., London, 1878; Junker, loc. cit.
504 Crampel, Le Tour du Monde, 1890, 2nd half-year, p. 1; Dybowski, La Route du Tchad, Paris, 1893; Maistre, De l’Oubanghi à la Bénoué, Paris, 1895.
505 Béranger-Féraud, Peuples de la Senagambie, chap, iii., Paris, 1879; and the works of Faidherbe, Binger, Tautin, P. C. Meyer, quoted later.
506 Stature, 1 m. 75; ceph. ind., 74.3; nas. ind., 95.3 (Collignon and Deniker on 32 subjects).
507 It follows from what has been said previously that in many places the northern portion of the Negro territory is invaded by the Ethiopians, the Fulah-Zandeh, and the Arabo-Berbers.
508 Nachtigal, Sahara et Soudan, vol. i. (trans. into French), p. 245, Paris, 1881.
509 Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan, Berlin-Leipzig, 1879–89, 3 vols.
[510] Schweinfurth, loc. cit., vol. i., chaps. vii. and lciv.; Stuhlmann, loc. cit., chap. xxii.; Frobenius, Die Heiden-Neger, Berlin, 1893; E. de Martonne, Annales de Géogr., Paris, 1896, p. 506, and 1897, p. 57.
511 Nachtigal, loc. cit.; Barth, Reisen... in Nord u. Centr. Afr., Gotha, 1857–58, 5 vols.; Monteil, De Saint-Louis à Tripoli, Paris, 1895; Maistre, loc. cit.; Staudinger, Im Herzen der Haussaländer, Berlin, 1889, 2 vols.
[512] The Diumma or Diammo, to the north-east of the bend of the Black Volta, are probably a branch of the Gurunga; only having for long been subject to the Ashantis they have adopted their language, which is the only one they use in addressing strangers. (Binger, Du Niger au golfe de Guinée, Paris, 1892.)
513 Béranger-Féraud, loc. cit., ch. v., and Rev. Anthr., 1874, p. 444; Binger, loc. cit.
514 Faidherbe, “Les Sarakolés,” Rev. de Linguist., 1881, p. 80.
515 For details see C. Madrolle, En Guinée, Paris, 1895.
516 They must not be confounded with the Diula of the regions of Kong and the upper Niger, one of the first Mandénké tribes converted to Islamism, at the same time one of the least fanatic, perhaps because the most given to trade. (See M. Monnier, loc. cit.)
517 Coffinières de Nordeck, Tour du Monde, vol. li., p. 273, 1886.
518 Binger, loc. cit.; Tautin, “Les Castes des Mandingues,” Rev. Ethnogr., vol. iii., Paris, 1884.
519 For details in regard to the Wolofs, the Toucouleur, etc., see Béranger-Féraud, loc. cit., chap. i., and Rev. Anthr., 1875; Tautin, “Études... ethnol. peuples Senegal,” Rev. Ethnogr., 1885; Deniker and Laloy, loc. cit., p. 259; Collignon and Deniker, unpublished notes; Verneau, “Serer, Leybou, Ouolofs,” L’Anthropol., 1895, p. 510.
520 Deniker and Laloy, loc. cit.; Ten Kate and Serrurier, Musée Ethnogr. Leyden, Notices Anth., No. I., undated (1891?), in fol.
521 Buttikofer, Reisebilder aus Liberia, vol. ii., Leyden, 1890.
522 Fleuriot de Langle, Le Tour du Monde, 1873, 2nd half-year; Binger, loc. cit., 2nd vol.; Delafosse, “Les Agni,” L’Anthropologie, 1893, p. 403.
523 Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples, etc., London, 1887, and The Ewe-speaking Peoples, etc., London, 1890; Foa, Le Dahomey, Paris, 1895; D’Albecca, Le Tour du Monde, Feb. 1896; F. von Luschan, loc. cit. (Beitr. Deutsch. Schützg....).
524 Rev. Dennis Kemp, Nine Years on the Gold Coast, London, 1898.
525 The name Mina was applied in Brazil without distinction to all Negroes imported from the Slave Coast, while those from the Gold Coast were called Apollonians. Batty, “Yorouba Country,” Journ. Anthro. Inst., vol. ix. (1890), p. 160; Moloney, ibid., p. 213; Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples, London, 1894.
526 Deniker, “Les Dahoméens,” Rev. gén. Sciences, 1891, p. 174; Deniker and Laloy, loc. cit.
527 See, about these populations, the 1st Appendix, by Comte de Cardi, in West Afric. Stud., by Miss M. Kingsley, London, 1899.
528 Schweinfurth, loc. cit.; Stanley, In Darkest Africa, London, 1890; Wolff, Zeit. f. Ethn., 1886 (Verh., p. 25); De Quatrefages, loc. cit. (Les Pygmées), p. 253; De Quatrefages and Hamy, Cran. Ethn., p. 334; Falkenstein, Zeit. f. Ethn., 1877 (Verh., p. 194 and pl. xii.-xiv.); W. Flower, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xviii. (1889), p. 3; Deniker and Laloy, loc. cit., p. 288; Emin Bey (afterwards Pasha), “Sur les Akka, etc.,” Zeit. f. Ethn., 1886, p. 145; Junker, loc. cit.; Nebout, Tour du Monde, 1892, vol. i., p. 64; Crampel, “Les Bayagas,” Compte rend. Soc. Geogr., Paris, 1890, p. 548; O. Lenz, Ueber Zwergvölker Afr., Vienna, 1894; Deniker, Bull. Soc. Anthr., 1894, p. 440; Dybowski, La Nature, 1894, 2nd half-year; Stuhlmann, loc. cit., pl. xvi.-xvii., p. 436; Schlichter, “Pygmy of Africa,” Scot. Geog. Mag., 1892, p. 289, and Peterm. Mitteil., 1896, p. 235; Donaldson Smith, Geog. Journ., London, 1896, pp. 225 and 235; Burrows, loc. cit.
529 Schinz, loc. cit.; Emin, loc. cit.; Wissmann, Wolff, Von François, and Müller, Im Innern. Afrik., Leipzig, 1888, Appendix IV., and Zeit. f. Ethn., 1884, Verh., p. 725.
530 Dybowski, loc. cit.; Maistre, loc. cit.; Clozel, Tour du Monde, 1896, vol. ii.; Guiral, Le Congo Français, Paris, 1889; Deniker and Laloy, loc. cit., p. 274; Buchner, Kamerun, Leipzig, 1887; Morgen, Durch Kamerun, Leipzig, 1893; Zintgraff, Nord-Kamerun, Berlin, 1895, and “Congo-Völk.,” Z. f. Ethn., 1886, Verh., p. 27, and 1889, p. 90; F. von Luschan, loc. cit. (Beitr., etc.); V. Jacques, “Le Congolais de l’expos. d’Anvers,” Bull. Soc. Anthr., p. 284, Brussels, 1894; J. Wauters, L’État Indép. du Congo, Brussels, 1899; Mensé, “Völk. Mittl. Kongo,” Z. f. Ethn., 1897, Verh., p. 624.
531 The Oshyeba are a section of the Fan people; they may be divided into Makima (in the Upper Ogowe) and into Mazuna (of the Gabun). They are a people of famous warriors, composed of 200,000 individuals, which number is increasing with extraordinary rapidity.
532 A. Bastian, Zeilschr. f. Ethnol., vol. vi., 1874; E. Reclus, Geogr. Univers., vol. xiii., p. 125, Paris, 1888.
533 It is supposed that the Bubangis arrived at the north of French Congo about the eighteenth century, and their migration towards the south, stayed for the time being by the Batekes, has gone on to the present day.
534 Pogge, Im Reiche d. Muata Jamwo, Berlin, 1880, and Mittheil. Afrik. Gesell., vol. iv., 1883–85, p. 179; Wolff, Verh. Gesell. Erdkunde, Berlin, 1887, No. 2; A. J. Wauters, L’État independant du Congo, Brussels, 1899, p. 257 et seq.; Serpa Pinto, How I Crossed Africa, 2 vols., London, 1881, with figs.; Wissmann, Wolff, Von François, and Müller, Im Inneren Afrikas, Leipzig, 1888, with figs.; Jacques, Les Congolais.
535 L. Frobenius (Der Ursprung der Afrik. Kulturen, Berlin, 1898) sees in this last-cited fact a proof of the supposed influence of the Malays; E. Reclus (Geogr. Univers., vol. xiii., p. 271) regards it as the result of imitation of the European factories which have been established for three centuries on the coast.
536 The prefix Ki means “language,” as U means “country,” and Va-Ua, or Ba, “people,” or “men.”
537 Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Sud-Afrikas, Breslau, 1872, with atlas; Holub, Sieben Jahre in Sud-Afrika, Vienna, 1881, vol. ii., figs. and maps, and “Die Matabele,” Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., vol. xx., 1893; Kropf, Das Volk d. Xosa-Kaffern, Berlin, 1889; Wood, loc. cit., vol. i.; Macdonald, “Manners... South-African Tribes,” Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xix., p. 264, and vol. xx., p. 123 (1889–90); Johnston, British Central Africa, London, 1897; Junod, “Les Ba-Ronga,” Bull. Soc. Neuchateloise de Géogr., vol. x., 1898.
538 The Bechuana are a little shorter (1 m. 68, according to Fritsch) and more dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. of four skulls, 70.9, according to Hamy, “Documents Cafrerie,” Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat., p. 357, Paris, 1882). Shrubsall (Journ. Anth. Inst., N.S., vol. i., 1898) gives the ceph. index as 71.3 for the Basuto skulls. The Herrero and Damara skulls have the indices, 71 and 72.
539 Fritsch, loc. cit.; Schinz, loc. cit.; Von Luschan, loc. cit.
540 The Bushmen represent the race almost in its purity, while the Hottentots show the traits of this race somewhat modified. The stature of the latter is higher, the head more dolichocephalic, the complexion darker, and the hands are not so small as is the case with Bushmen. Their features are more negroid, and it has been suggested that contact with the neighbouring Bantu tribes has had something to do with this. (See Deniker, “Les Hottentots,” Rev. d’Anthrop., 1889, p. 1.) The skin of the Hottentots, however, is still of a hue of yellow, and their steatopygy is almost as pronounced as with the Bushmen.
541 For particulars see Sibree, Great Afric. Island... Madagascar, 1880; M. Leclerc, “Les peuplades de Madagascar,” Rev. d’Ethnogr., vol. v., 1886, p. 397, and vol. vi., 1887, p. 1; Catat, Voyage à Madagascar, Paris, 1895, in quarto; Grandidier, “Les Hovas,” Rev. gén. des Sciences, No. for 1st June, 1895; A. Jolly, L’Anthropologie, 1894, p. 385; Besson, ibid., p. 674; “Le Madagascar,” Rev. gén. des Sciences, Paris, No. for 15th Aug., 1895, fig.; Last, Journ. Anthr. Inst., 1896, p. 47; Bouchereau, L’Anthr., 1897, p. 149; J. Carol, Chez les Hovas, Paris, 1898.
542 The prefix Antan or Anta (in some dialects Ta) in Malagasy language means “people of,” and is found in the nomenclature of all the tribes and people of the island.
543 See the measurements given in Appendices I. to III., according to Bouchereau, loc. cit., and my own unpublished observations made in conjunction with Dr. Collignon.
544 For particulars see C. Pleyte, “De prähist. steenen wapenen... Oost-Indish. Archipel.,” Bijdr. t. d. Taal-Land-en Volkenk. van Nederl. Ind., Batavia, 5th series, vol. ii., p. 586; Wilken, loc. cit., p. 83; Etheridge, “Has Man a Geological History in Australia?” Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, 1890, p. 259; B. Smyth, loc. cit., vol. i., p. 239, and vol. ii., p. 234; R. Chapmann, Trans. N. Zeal. Inst., 1891, p. 479.
545 See W. Thomson Smith, loc. cit.; Tautain, “Monuments des Marquises,” L’Anthropol., 1897, p. 4; F. Christian, “On Micronesian Weapons,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., N.S., 1899, vol. i., p. 288, pl. xx. and xxiv.
546 Besides, the Maoris of New Zealand know nothing of pottery, notwithstanding their clay deposits, nor of weaving, notwithstanding the presence in their island of Formium and other textile plants.
547 The division, based on physical characters, of tribes of the interior, composed of a strong people of high stature and regular features, and of tribes of the coast, formed of a little, ugly, and puny people, a division proposed by Topinard (Bull. Soc. Anthro., 1872), has not been confirmed by later investigations.
548 “Report... Horn Scientif. Exped. Centr. Austr.,” Part IV., Anthropology, by E. Stirling, London-Melbourne, 1896; Baldwin Spencer and F. Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia, London, 1899, pl.; W. E. Roth, Ethnol. Stud.... N. W. Centr. Queensl. Aborig., Brisbane-London, 1897. For tribes of the east and south, see E. Curr, The Australian Race, Melbourne, 1886, 3 vols. with atlas; Lumholtz, Among Cannibals, London, 1890; and the works already quoted of Howitt, Fison, and B. Smyth. The measurements given in the Appendices are obtained from the works of Stirling and Gillen, Houzé (Bull. Soc. Anthr. Bruxelles, vol. iii., 1884–85); Cauvin, “Les Races de l’Océanie,” Arch. Miss. Scient., 3rd series, vol. iii., Paris, 1882; Topinard, loc. cit.; Turner, loc. cit., etc.
549 These natives and mixed breeds are apportioned by colonies, thus:—Victoria, 565; New South Wales, 8,280; South Australia, 23,789; West Australia, 6,245; Queensland, 20,585 (of which 12,000 are pure aborigines).
550 See L. Parker, Australian Legendary Tales, London and Melbourne, 1897, and More Australian Tales, ib., 1898; Spencer and Gillen, loc. cit.
551 Estimated at 1000 in 1817, the Tasmanians numbered 340 in 1824 (first census). The number fell to 111 in 1834, to 51 in 1842, to 16 in 1854, to 4 in 1865 (H. Hull, Statist. Summary of Tasmanians, 1866). The last representative of the Tasmanian people, a woman called Truganina, died in 1876. Miss F. C. Smith, still living, and described as a Tasmanian, in 1889, is a Tasmano-European half-breed (Ling Roth, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxvii., p. 451, 1897–98).
552 In his work, The Aborigines of Tasmania, 2nd ed., London, 1899, with figs., Ling Roth has conscientiously summarised all that has been published about the Tasmanians.
553 There is no justification for supposing that the Kalangs of Java are Negritoes, as A. R. Meyer has assumed in his memoir (Leopoldina, part xiii., Nos. 13–14, 1877). See on this point, Kohlbrugge, “L’Anthr. des Tenggerois,” L’Anthropologie, p. 4, 1898.
554 See Montano, “Mission aux Philippines,” Arch. Miss. Scient., 3rd series, vol. xi., with figs., Paris, 1885; De Quatrefages, loc. cit. (Les Pygmées); Schadenberg, Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., 1880.
555 Ten Kate, “L’Anthropologie d’Oceanie,” L’Anthropologie, vol. iv., 1893, p. 279; “Verslag eener Reis in Timorgrœp,” Tijdschr. Nederl. Aardrijk. sk. Genoot., Amsterdam, vol. xi., 1894, with summary in French; and Anthropol. Problem in Insulindie... Festbundel... Dr. P. Veth aangeboden, p. 212, Leyden, 1894; Lapicque, loc. cit. (Tour du Monde).
556 Modigliani, loc. cit., and L’isola delle Donne... Engano, Milan, 1894; Danielli, “Cranii di Engano,” Archiv. p. l’anthr., vol. xxiv. See also the works already quoted of Montano, Hagen (as well as his Anthropolog. Atlas Ostasiat.... Völk., Wiesbaden, 1898), Ten Kate, Deniker and Laloy, Lapicque, Kohlbrugge, etc.
557 Junghuhn, Battaländer auf Sumatra, vol. ii., p. 375; Hamy, “Les Alfourous de Gilolo,” Bull. Soc. Geogr. Paris, 6th ser., vol. xiii., p. 490.
558 The dwellings in trees at Sumbawa, among the Mandayas of Mindanao (Philippines), among the Lubu of Sumatra, should also be noted.
559 Pleytte, “De Geogr. Otbreiding v. h. Koppensnellen, etc.,” Tijdschr. v. h. Aardrijksk. Genoots, p. 908, Amsterdam, 1891.
560 For the anthropometry of some of the peoples enumerated below, see Appendices I. to III. The figures there given are derived from the works of Hagan, Ten Kate, Lapicque, Deniker and Laloy, Kohlbrugge, Jacobs, Weisbach, Lubbers and Langen.
561 See J. Jacobs, De Badoejs, S’Gravenhage, 1891, and Kohlbrugge, loc. cit., and “De heilige bekers d. Tenegerezen,” Tijdschr. v. Ind. Taal-Land-in Volkenk, vol. xxxiv., 1896. Among the Tenggerese some vestiges of Buddhism may be discovered.
562 See Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak, 2 vols., London, 1896, and Jour. Anthr. Inst., vols. xxi. and xxii. (1892–93).
563 Blumentritt, “Versuch. einer Ethnographie der Philip.,” Ergänzungsheft, Peterm. Mitteil., No. 67, Gotha, 1887, with map; Montano, loc. cit.; Virchow, “Die Bevölker. d. Philip.,” Sitzungsber. Berlin Acad. Wiss., 1897, p. 279, and 1899, p. 14; Brinton, “The Peoples of Philip.” (short summary), Amer. Anthropologist, October, 1898.
564 For the populations of Celebes, Timur, Floris, etc., see Max Weber, Tijdsch. Aardrijksk. Genoots., 2nd ser., vol. vii., Amsterdam, 1890, and Inter. Arch. Ethnogr., suppl. to vol. iii., Leyden, 1890, pl.; Brothers Sarasin, Verh. Ges. Erdk. Berlin, 1894, 1895, and 1896; Ten Kate, “Reis in de Timor groep,” Tijd. Aardr. Genoot., 2nd ser., vol. xi., p. 199, Amsterdam, 1894, and L’Anthropologie, 1893, p. 279; Lapicque, loc. cit.
565 See my summary of what was known of the Papuans in 1882 in the Rev. d’Anthr., 1883, p. 484, and the following works which have since appeared: Chalmers, Pioneering in New Guinea, London, 1887, and other works; De Clercq and Schmeltz, Ethnogr. Beschrijving van de W. en N. Nederl. New Guin., Leyden, 1893; Finsch, Samoafahrten, Leipzig, 1888, and his articles in the Ann. naturh. Hofmus., Vienna, 1888 and 1891, in the Rev. d’Ethnogr., 1886, etc.; Haddon, “Decorat. art Brit. N. Guin.,” Cunningham Memoirs, vol. x., Roy. Irish Acad., 1894; and “The Ethnography of Brit. New Guinea,” Science Progress, vol. ii., 1894, pp. 83 and 227, London, with map and bibliog.; Macgregor, Proc. R. Geogr. Soc., 1890, p. 191, and his official reports; Thomson, Brit. New Guinea, London, 1892.
566 It is also to be noted that the supposed Papuan-Polynesian cross-breeds of the south-east of New Guinea neither drink kava nor know the art of pottery, unlike true Polynesians. Besides, their language approximates more nearly to the Melanesian dialects and presents no affinities with Polynesian languages (Ray, “Languages of Brit. N. Guinea,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxiv., p. 15, 1894).
567 Papuan skulls are generally very dolichocephalic (av. ceph. ind. 73), and the presence of brachycephalic skulls in the series of New Guinea origin is certainly of significance, only their proportion is very slight. Out of 500 New Guinea skulls described I have been able to find only 36 brachycephalic, or seven per cent. More than half of these skulls come from one and the same locality, the Kiwai and Canoe Islands in the delta of the Fly. Either a Malay colony may therefore be assumed there, a remnant of Negritoes, or that it was a centre of the custom of deforming the head, a custom which in fact obtains in the neighbourhood of the mouth of the Fly. On this question see my summary of 1882 cited above, and Haddon, loc. cit.; Schellong, “Anthr. d. Papus,” Zeit. f. Ethn., p. 156, 1891; J. Chalmers, “Anthropometr. observ., etc.,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxvii. (1897).
568 The Kerepunu are good agriculturists; their mode of working is quite remarkable (Fig. 152). The soil is turned up at the word of command by a row of men, each of whom thrusts into the earth two pointed sticks, then using these sticks as levers a layer of earth is raised and a furrow is thus made.
569 Hamy, “Papous de la mer d’Entrecasteaux,” Rev. Ethnog., 1889.
570 Haddon, Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xix., p. 297; S. Ray and Haddon, “Languages of Torres Straits,” Proceed. R. Irish Acad., 3rd ser., vol. iv., 1897; Rev. Hunt, Journ. Anthr.... Inst., N.S., vol. i., p. 5, 1898–99.
571 R. Codrington, The Melanesians, Oxford, 1891, fig.; Finsch, loc. cit., Rev. Ethnogr., 1883, p. 49, and Anthrop. Ergeb. einer Reise in der Sudsee, Berlin, 1884, with fig.; Flower, “Cran. caract. Fiji Islanders,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. x., 1881, p. 153; Hagen and Pineau, “Les Nouvelles-Hébrides,” Rev. Ethnogr., 1888, p. 302; Guppy, The Solomon Islands and their Natives, London, 1887; Hagen, “Les Indigènes des Salomon,” L’Anthropol., 1893, pp. 1 and 192; Aug. Bernard, La Nouvelle Caledonie (thesis), p. 249 et seq., Paris, 1894; Luschan, loc. cit.; Schellong, loc. cit.
572 The number of Polynesians (2,310 in 1897) has diminished by half in the Fijis since 1881, while that of the natives (100,321 in 1897) has hardly varied. The Polynesian element is appreciable in the Aoba, Tanna, and Espiritu Santo islands of the New Hebrides, but its importance has been exaggerated so far as the Loyalty Islands and New Caledonia are concerned (see my note in the Bull. Soc. Anthr., p. 791, 1893).
573 Ellis, Polynesian Researches, 4 vols., London, 1853; Tautain, “Les Marquisiens,” L’Anthropologie, 1894, 1895, and 1898; Meinecke, Die Inselen des stillen Oceans, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1875; Markuse, Die Hawaischen Inselen, Berlin, 1894; Lister, “Natives of Fakaofu (Bowditch Island),” Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxi., 1892, p. 43; Ch. Hedley, “The Atoll of Fanafuti, Ellice group,” Australian Museum, Memoir III., Sydney, 1897; H. Gros, “Les populations de la Polynesie française en 1891,” Bull. Soc. Anthr. Paris, 1896, p. 144; Ten Kate, loc. cit.
574 Kubary, loc. cit., and Journ. Mus. Godeffroy, parts 2 and 4, 1873.
575 De Quatrefages, Les Polynesiens et leurs migrations, Paris, 1866, with maps.
576 A. Bernard, loc. cit., p. 272.
577 Sittig, “Unfreiwillige Wanderungen...,” Peterm. Mittheil., p. 61, 1890.
578 A. von Humboldt, in his Évaluation numérique de la population du Nouveau Continent, Paris, 1825, reckoned that in the Americas there were 13 millions of Whites, 6 millions of Half-breeds, 6 millions of Negroes, and 9 millions of Indians; three-quarters of a century later (in 1895–97) it was computed that there were 80 millions of Whites, 37 millions of Half-breeds, 10 millions of Negroes and 10 millions of Indians in a total population of 137 millions (1897).
579 Williams, Hist. of the Negro Race in America, 2 vols., New York, 1885; B. A. Gould, loc. cit.
580 The celebrated skull discovered by Whitney in the auriferous sands of Calaveras (California), which has been said to belong to the pliocene age, has been disputed both as regards its authenticity and the supposed date of its bed; and it is the same with the pestles and mortars discovered in the same neighbourhood by such geologists as Skertchly and C. King (cf. W. Holmes, “Prelim. Revis. Evidence to Aurif. Gravel Man in Calif.,” Am. Anthropologist, N.S., vol. i., Nos. 1 and 2, New York, 1899). The imprints of human feet, or rather of moccasins, discovered at Carson (Nevada), even granted that they are authentic, have in any case been found in beds whose period is by no means tertiary.
581 At this period Greenland, all Canada, a corner of Alaska, and a good part of the United States were covered with glaciers almost uninterruptedly. The limit of the moraine to the south may be indicated by a line which, leaving New York, for Lake Erie, would follow the course of the Ohio as far as the region of its junction with the Mississippi, and would be continued along or a little to the west and to the south of the Missouri to coincide then with the Canadian frontier. The fauna of the American quaternary period differed somewhat from that of Europe: the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, for instance, was missing, while the Mastodon ohioticus and several large edentata, such as the Megatherium, Mylodon, etc., are met with.
582 See for details, Abbott, Primitive Industry, Cambridge (Mass.), 1881, and Evidence... Antiquity of Man in East N. America, 1888; F. Wright, The Ice Age in North America, New York, 1889, chaps. xxi. and xxii., and Meet. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sc. of Buffalo, 1896; Geikie, loc. cit. (chap. li., written by T. Chamberlin); Metz, Proceed. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxiii., p. 242; W. Upham, ibid., p. 436; Hille-Cresson, Proceed. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1889; Holmes, loc. cit. (Fifteenth Rep. Bur. Ethn.); Th. Wilson, A Study of Prehist. Anthrop., Washington, 1890 (Extract from Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1887–88, p. 597). For the discussion, see Science for 1892 and 1898. Marcellin Boule has summarised most of the works quoted, and shows the present state of the question in Revue d’Anthropologie, 1888, p. 647, and in L’Anthropologie, 1890 and 1892; see also Nadaillac, L’Anthropologie, 1897 and 1898. I will merely note that the tendency of surface objects to sink towards deep beds, brought forward by the opponents of Abbott, Wright, etc., altogether fails to explain why other implements (in flint, jade, etc.) or pieces of pottery have not similarly been carried down, and that only argilite tools are found flat in deep beds.
583 Hamy, “Anthropologie du Mexique,” Miss. scientifique du Mexique (Rech. zool., 1st part), p. 11, Paris, 1884.
584 S. Herrera, Proceed. Am. Ass. Adv. Sc., Madison, 1893, pp. 42 and 312; Th. Wilson, loc. cit.; De Nadaillac, L’Amerique préhistorique, Paris, 1883, and Revue d’Anthropol., 1879 and 1880.
585 Ameghino, La Antiguedad del hombre en El Plata, Paris-Buenos-Ayres, 1880, 2 vols.
[586] De Quatrefages, “L’homme foss. de Lagoa-Santa,” Izviestia Soc. of Friends of Nat. Sc., Moscow, vol. xxxv., 1879; Sören Hansen and Lutken, Lagoa Santa Racen, Copenhagen, 1889, extract from E Museo Lundii, vol. iv.; Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., p. 163.
587 Lacerda and Peixoto, “Contribuições... raças indig. do Brasil,” Archiv. do Mus. nac., Rio-de-Janeiro, vol. i., 1876, and Mem. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, 2nd ser., vol. ii., 1875–82, p. 535; H. von Ihering, “A civilisaçao prehist. de Brazil merid.,” Revista do Museu-Paulista, vol. i., p. 95, S. Paulo, 1895.
588 Moreno, “Cimet. et paraderos prehist., etc.,” Rev. Anthrop., 1874, p. 72; Verneau, “Crânes préhist. de Patagonie,” L’Anthropol., 1894, p. 420.
589 E. Schmidt, Die Vorgeschichte Nord-Amerikas, Brunswick, 1894; cf. Arch. f. Anthrop., vol. xxiii., 1894. For details see Cyrus Thomas, “Burial Mounds,” Fifth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn., Washington, 1887 and “Rep. Mound Explorat.,” Twelfth Rep. Bur. Ethn. for 1890–91, Washington, 1894; Carr, “Crania from Stone Graves, etc.,” Eleventh Rep. Peabody Mus.; Hale, “Indian Migration, etc.,” Amer. Antiquar., 1883; Shepherd, Antiquities of State Ohio, Cincinnati, 1890; Brinton, Essays of an Americanist, p. 90, Philadelphia, 1890.
590 The northern zone, circumscribing the great lakes, is characterised by monuments of rude form; the southern zone, between the Gulf of Mexico and the basin of the Ohio, is distinguished by mounds in the form of a truncated pyramid; while the middle zone, that of the basin of the Ohio, presents a large number of mounds of peculiar and very perfected types. In each of these zones special regions may be distinguished, characterised by the shape of the mounds and by the nature of the objects immured in them.
591 Cushing, C. R. Congr. Internat. des Americanistes, p. 150, Berlin, 1888; V. Mindeleff, “Pueblo Architecture,” Eighth Report Bur. Ethnol. for 1886–87, p. 1, Washington, 1891–93; C. Mindeleff, “Casa Grande Ruin,” Thirteenth Report Bur. Ethn. for 1891–92, Washington, 1894; Nordenskiold and Retzius, The Cliff-Dwellers, etc., Stockholm, 1893, in fol. L. Morgan has sought to show in his monograph, “Houses and House Life of Am. Aborigines,” Contrib. N. Amer. Ethn., vol. iv, Washington, 1881, that the phalanstery-houses were the typical form of dwelling-place all of the North, and some of the South Americans, in association with the communal organisation of the tribes.
592 I have always maintained this opinion, which is amply confirmed to-day by the investigations made by Ten Kate (“Somatol. Observ. Ind. South-west,” Journ. Amer. Ethnol., vol. iii., p. 122, Cambridge, Mass., and Rev. d’Anthrop., 1887, p. 48), from Canada to the Pampas. As to South America, the prevalent yellow colouring has been further noticed by A. von Humboldt, and recently confirmed by Ranke (Zeitsch. f. Ethnol., 1898, p. 61).
593 Gatschet, “Klamath Indians,” Contrib. N. A. Ethnol., vol. ii., Part I., p. 43, Washington, 1890; D. Brinton, The American Race, p. 57, New York, 1891; Ehrenreich, loc. cit.
594 D. Brinton, “Certain Morph. Traits of Am. Languages,” Amer. Antiquarian, November, 1894.
595 Powell, “Indian Linguist. Families, etc.,” Seventh Rep. Bur. Ethn. for 1885–86, Washington, 1891 (92), p. 1 (with map).
596 A curious fact is brought out by the study of the linguistic chart published by Powell: that most of the families of different languages are grouped in the western, mountainous part of North America. Thus, out of 59 linguistic families, 40 are found in the limited area between the Pacific and the Rocky Mountains, while all the rest of the continent is divided among 19 linguistic families only. The same fact is observed in South America. We can reduce to a dozen groups the languages of the Atlantic slope of this continent, while in the Andes and on the Pacific slope an enormous number of linguistic families have been noted without any apparent common connection.
597 E. Petitot, Monogr. Esquim. Tchiglit du Mackenzie, Paris, 1876, 4to; Dall, “Tribes of... extr. North-West,” Contrib. to North Amer. Ethnol., vol. i, p. 1, Washington, 1877; Ray, Intern. Polar Exped. Point Barrow, Washington, 1888; Sören Hansen, loc. cit., and “Ost Grönl. Anthropol.,” Meddel om Groenland, vol. x.; Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethn., 1888, p. 409; G. Holm, loc. cit.; Rink, “The Eskimo Tribes,” Meddelel. om Grönl., vol. xi., and other works by this author in Danish, quoted by Bahnson, Ethnographien, vol. i., p. 223, Copenhagen, 1894; F. Nansen, Eskimo Life, London, 2nd edit., 1894, figs.; Dix Bolles, Catal. Eskimo Collect. Rep. U.S. Nation. Mus. for 1887, p. 335; R. Peary, Northward over the Great Ice, 2 vols., New York, 1898.
598 The most northern point now inhabited by the Eskimo is situated on the Greenland side of Smith’s Sound, 78° 8´ N. lat. (see the description of this tribe of 2,344 persons in Peary, loc. cit., vol. i., p. 479); but Greely found traces of the permanent settlement of this people near Fort Conger, in Greenland, 81° 44´ N. lat. The most southern point occupied by the Eskimo is Hamilton Inlet (55° N. lat.) in Labrador, but it is not long since they reached as far as the straits of Belle-Isle in Newfoundland and even farther south, to the estuary of the St. Lawrence (50° N. lat.).
599 A great change in the habits of the Eskimo of Alaska will be effected by the introduction of reindeer, through the agency of the United States Government (see Jackson, Rep. Introd. Reindeer in Alaska, Washington, 1894 and 1895).
600 Erman, “Ethnol. Wahrnem Behring Meeres,” Zeitsch. für Ethnol., vol. iii., pp. 159 and 205; Dall, Alaska, etc., London, 1870; Bancroft, Native Races Pacif. St. of America, Washington, vol. i., 1875–76, pp. 87 and 111, and 1882, p. 562.
601 Brinton, loc. cit. (Amer. Race); Schoolcraft, loc. cit.; Powell, loc. cit. (Ind. Ling. Fam.); Catlin, Letters and Notes N. Amer. Ind., London, 1844 (cf. Report U.S. Nation. Mus., 1885).
602 Ten Kate, Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, 1884, p. 551, and 1885, p. 241.
603 According to Powell, Smiths. Rep., 1895, p. 658, the Atlantic slope may be divided into four provinces: Algonquian, Iroquoian, that of the southern part of the United States (Muskhogean), and that of the plains of the Great West. The Pacific slope is split up in its turn into five provinces: North Pacific, Columbia, Interior Basin, California-Oregon, and the Pueblos region which encroaches upon Mexico.
604 The “Pueblos,” Zuñis, Moquis, etc., from whom these Athapascans have conquered their territory, are short and brachycephalic. Interminglings have modified only the form of the head of the Southern Athapascans; but it must be remembered that the practice of deforming the skull prevails among them.
605 There are some Apache tribes in Mexico, the Lipans, the Jarros, but their numerical force is not known.
606 See J. Stevenson, “Navajo Ceremonial,” Eighth Rep. Bur. Ethnol., and articles by Matthews on the Navajos in the 2nd, 3rd, and 5th Reports of the Bur. Ethnol.; Ten Kate, Reizen en Ondezokongei in N. Amer., Leyden, 1885; cf. Bull. Soc. Anthropol., 1883, and “Somatol. Observ. Ind. South-west,” Journ. Amer. Ethnol., vol. iii., Cambridge, 1891.
607 Lloyd, “On the Beothucs,” Journ. Anthropol. Inst. Great Britain, vols. iv. and v. (1874–75); and Gatschet, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., 1885–86, and 1890.
608 H. Hale, “The Iroquois Book of Rites,” No. 2 of the Library of Aborig. Amer. Lit. of Brinton, Philad., 1883, chaps. i. and ii. (history of the confederation summarised from the standard works of Morgan, Colden, etc.); C. Royce, “The Cherokee Nation, etc.,” Fifth Rep. Bur. Ethn. for 1883–84; Mooney, “Sacred Formulæ of Cherokee,” Seventh Rep. Bur. Ethn. for 1885–86.
609 The primitive population of Florida, the Timuquanans, appear to have been exterminated in the eighteenth century. See MacCauley, “The Seminol Ind.,” Fifth Rep. Bur. Ethn. for 1883–84, p. 467, Washington, 1887.
610 R. Rigges, “Dictionary... and Ethnogr. of Dakota,” Contrib. N. Amer. Ethn., vol. viii.; Dorsey, “Furniture and Implements of Omaha,” Thirteenth Rep. Bur. Ethn.; “Omaha Sociology,” Third Rep. Bur. Ethn.; Mooney, “Siouan Tribes of the East,” Bull. Bur. of Ethn., No. 24, Washington, 1894.
611 See Appendices I. to III.; the measurements there given are principally taken from Boas, Ten Kate, the American military commission, and my own observations with Laloy.
612 Not less than 39 linguistic families may be enumerated on that long but narrow strip of land which extends from Alaska to California, between the Rocky Mountains and the ocean. (Powell, loc. cit.)
613 The Moquis and Zuñis are in fact 1 m. 62 in height, and have a ceph. ind. of 83.3 and 84.9. We must, however, notice some exceptions in regard to the somatic type of the Indians of the Pacific slopes: the Salishans of the coast (with the exception of the Bilcoolas) are almost short and brachycephalic, while those of the interior are almost tall and brachycephalic, like the Bilcoolas, the Maricopas, the Mohares (Fig. 4).
614 The first of these groups occupies Powell’s North Pacific and Columbian “ethnographic provinces” (loc. cit.); the second, the province of Oregon-California; the third, the Interior Basin and the region of the Pueblos.
615 Gibbs, “Tribes of W. Washington and N.-W. Oregon,” Contrib. N. Am. Ethn., vol. i., p. 157, Washington, 1887; Dall, “Tribes N.W. Washington,” ibid.; Petroff, Rep. on Populat.... of Alaska, Washington, 1884; Amerikas Nordwesküste (Publ. Ethn. Mus.), Berlin, 1883–84, 2 vols., fol.; Krause, Die Tlinkit Indianer, Jena, 1885; “Reports... Committee, North-West Tribes... Canada” (in the Rep. Brit. Assoc. from 1885 to 1898; especially the reports by H. Hale and Wilson on the Black-Feet in 1885 and 1887, and the full reports of Boas, 1888 to 1890, and in 1898, partly summarised in Peterm. Mittheil., 1887 and 1896, and in the Transact. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1888, 2nd sect.); Boas, “Die Tsimshian,” Zeitsch. f. Ethn., 1888, p. 231; Niblack, “Coast Ind. South Alaska and N. Brit. Colomb.,” Rep. U.S. Nat. Mus. for 1898.
616 Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. iii.; Ten Kate, Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, 1884, and loc. cit.; Deniker, Bull. du Museum d’Hist. Nat., 1895, No. 2.
617 The Shoshones, who inhabited by themselves the interior basin between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra-Nevada, have now dwindled to 17,000 individuals, just managing to subsist by fishing and gathering roots on infertile soil. They are composed of twelve tribes, of which the more important are those of the Shoshones, the Utes (Fig. 40), the Piutes or Pai-Utes, and the Comanches. Buschmann (Die Spuren d. Aztek Sprache, etc., Berlin, 1859) was the first to draw attention to the affinity of their dialect with the Sonoran-Aztec linguistic group (see p. 535), while Gibbs (loc. cit., p. 224) was the first to point out their probable migration from the region situated between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Lakes towards the deserts of the Great Basin. Brinton (Amer. Race, p. 119) confirms this observation, arriving at his conclusion from new facts.
618 It should be mentioned that this brachycephaly is also found, even a little more accentuated, in the skulls which Mr. Cushing and the members of the Hemenway expedition discovered in the ancient habitations of the Salado valley and in the Hanolawan pueblo, attributed to the not very remote ancestors of the Pueblos of the present day. These skulls are hyper-brachycephalic (mean ceph. ind. of 94 skulls, 89); they also exhibited an extraordinary frequency of the “Inca bone” (p. 67), and several other osteological peculiarities, as, for instance, in the structure of the hyoid bone (p. 96).
619 Orozco y Berra, Geografia de las lenguas... de Mexico, Mexico, 1864, with ethn. chart (which may still be profitably consulted).
620 According to Brinton, the great Uto-Aztecan linguistic family is composed of three branches: Shoshonean (or Ute), Sonoran, and Nahuatlan (Aztec).
621 It is the same with the Coras (3000), and especially with the Huicholes (4000) of the Nayarit Sierra (north of Jalisco), who are tillers of the soil, and the last remnants of a formerly numerous and warlike population. The Huicholes worship the sun and various plant divinities, more particularly the “peyote” (a cactus, Anhalonium Lewinii), the fruit of which has stimulative and anaphrodisiac properties. (Hamy, Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat., 1898, p. 197; Lumholtz, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1898, p. 1, with plates; L. Diguet, Nouv. Arch. Miss. Scientif., vol. ix., p. 571, plates, Paris, 1899.)
622 Hamy, “Distrib. geogr. des Opatus, Tarahumars, etc.,” Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, 1883, p. 785; Ten Kate, “Sur les Pimas, etc.,” Bull. Soc. Anthr., 1883; Lumholtz, “Tarahumara,” Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., 1894, p. 219.
623 It is impossible to enter here into details on the ancient Aztec society. Let us simply bear in mind that from the economic point of view it was based on “hoe-culture” (see p. 192) of maize, tobacco, and cocoa, as well as on a well-developed industry: the weaving of stuffs, pottery, manufacture of paper, malleation and melting (a somewhat rare case in pre-Columbian America) of gold, silver, copper, and bronze. Architecture and sculpture had attained there a great perfection, as well as ideographic and iconomatic writing (see p. 140). It was politically a confederacy of democratic states, often under the dominion of a dictator on whom the Spaniards bestowed the title of king. It was thought until recent times that there had been several invasions of different peoples into Mexico, the Toltecs in the first instance, then the Chichimecs, lastly the Nahuatlans; but from the recent works by Morgan, loc. cit. (The House-life, etc.), Bandelier (Report Peabody Mus., vol. ii., Cambridge, Mass., 1888), Brinton (Essays of an Americanist, Philadelphia, 1890, and Am. Race), and Bruhl (Die Culturvolker Alt-Amerikas, Cincinnati, 1875–87), we may conclude that the name Toltec has only relation to a small clan or even perhaps to an imaginary mythical people. As to that of Chichimec, it was employed by the Nahuas to denote all those peoples outside of their own civilisation; they used this term as the Romans did that of “barbarian.”
624 L. Biart, Les Aztèques, histoire, mœurs, Paris, 1885.
625 E. Hamy, loc. cit. (Anthr. Mex.); Brinton, loc. cit. (Am. Race).
626 E. Hamy, loc. cit., Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, 1883, p. 787, chart.
627 D. Charnay, quoted by Hamy, loc. cit. (Anthr. Mex.).
628 Berendt, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., New York, 1875–76, No. 2; Brinton, loc. cit. (Am. R.), p. 117.
629 The Chontals of Nicaragua are the Lenkas (see p. 540). The “Popolucas” of Puebla speak a Miztec dialect; those of Vera Cruz the Mixe dialect; those of Guatemala the Cakchiquel, one of the Maya dialects adopted as the official language by the Catholic Church, etc.
630 Mercer, Hill-Caves of Yucatan, Philad., 1896.
631 A. Stoll, Zur Ethnogr. d. Rep. Guatemala, Zurich, 1884; K. Sapper, “Ethnogr. von S.-E. Mexico und Brit. Honduras,” Peterm. Mittheil., 1895, p. 177, chart, and “Die unabhängige Indianerstaaten von Yucatan,” Globus, vol. 67, 1893, p. 196.
632 See for the geographical distribution of these peoples in pre-Columbian times, D. Pector, Arch. Soc. Americaine, new series, vol. vi, Paris, 1888, pp. 97 and 145.
633 Fernandez and Bramford, Rep. Smiths. Inst., 1882, p. 675; Brinton, loc. cit. (Am. R.), p. 163.
634 Wickham, “Soumoo or Woolwa Indians,” Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxiv., 1894–95, p. 198.
635 The name half-breed (Mestizo) is given in Mexico only to a child born of the union of a Spaniard with an Indian woman. By being crossed with a Spaniard a “Mestizo” may give birth to a “Castiza”; the scion of the latter and a Spaniard reverts, it is said, to the race of the father, and is set down as Spanish. A Mulatto woman, the offspring of a Spaniard and a negress, may give birth to a “Morisco” by uniting with a Spaniard; this Morisco will produce with a Spaniard what is called an “Albino,” and it is only to her son, the offspring of a Spanish father, who should revert to his father’s race, that the name of “Tornatro” will be applied. An Indian marrying a negress produces a “Sobo,” and the latter engenders with a negress a “Chino.” The progeny of a Chino and an Indian is called “Cambujo,” and that of an Indian and a half-breed, “Cayote.” (Hamy, following Ignacio de Castro, quoted by de Quatrefages, Hist. Gén. Races Hum., p. 605.)
636 I think that it corresponds better with the facts themselves than the mixed and chronological classification of the South Americans into four groups (Eskimoid and Ugroid peoples of the early stone age; Caribs of the later stone age; Mongoloid semi-civilised brachycephals of the stone and bronze ages; hunting and warlike tribes of the bronze age) proposed by Siemiradzki, Mittheil. Anthrop. Gesellsch., vol. xxviii., p. 127, Vienna, 1898.
637 Lafone Quevedo, Preface to the “Arte de la lengua Toba” of Barcena, Revista Mus. La Plata, vol. v., p. 143, 1894. This distinction is criticised by Brinton, Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., vol. xxxvii., p. 179, Philad., 1898.
638 The “Mamelucos” or Paulists of the province of Sao Paulo (Brazil), European and Indian half-breeds; the Gauchos of Chaco, offspring of Whites and Indians of the Pampas; the Curibocos, Indo-negro half-breeds in Brazil, etc.
639 D’Orbigny, L’homme Americain, Paris, 1859, 2 vols.
[640] G. Bovalius, “En reza... Talamanca Land,” Ymer, p. 183, map, Stockholm, 1885.
641 Pinart, “Chiriqui,” Bull. Soc. Géogr., Paris, 1885, p. 433.
642 The Chibchas were husbandmen, manufacturers, and merchants, but unacquainted with the use of metals, except gold. They too have not left any great monuments of architecture (see for further information the works already quoted of Bruhl, Brinton, etc.).
643 Are they not related to the Cayapas of Ecuador, described by Santjago Basurco? (Tour du Monde, 1894, p. 401.)
644 I shall not deal further with the important part which the Quechua civilisation played in all the western regions of South America. Let me observe, however, that this civilisation differed in many respects from that of the Nahuas; the Incas lived under a despotic communistic régime, they had no art of writing, and were content with mnemonic means to communicate with one another, they reared the llama, their religious rites were less sanguinary than those of the Nahua, etc. (Seler, Peruanische Alterthüm, Berlin, 1893; Brinton, loc. cit.; Bruhl, loc. cit.; Uhle, Kultur Sud-Amerik. Völker, vol. ii., Berlin, 1889–90.)
645 Middendorf (E.), Peru, Berlin, 1893, 3 vols.
[646] Ten Kate, “Excursion Archæol.... Catamarca, etc.,” Rev. Mus. La Plata, vol. v., 1893, p. 329; Intern. Arch. für Ethnog., vol. vii., 1894, p. 142; Ambrozetti, “Archeol. Calchaqui,” Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg., 1896, p. 117; Brinton, Amer. Anthropologist, N.S., vol. i., No. 1, New York, 1899.
647 L. Catat, “Les Habitants du Darien Merid.,” Rev. Ethnogr., 1888, p. 397; Pinart, “Les Indiens de Panama,” Rev. Ethnogr., No. 33, 1887, p. 117.
648 Siemiradzki, loc. cit., p. 160. The figures here given from Oldendorf, Manouvrier, Hamy, Virchow, and derived from my own observations, relate to the Chilian Araucans. The Araucans of the Pampas are shorter (1 m. 57, according to De la Vaulx, Compt. rend. Soc. Geogr., Paris, 1898, p. 99), and brachycephalic, to judge from the measurements of Ten Kate (Rev. Mus. La Plata, vol. iv., p. 209), who finds the mean cephalic index of 53 skulls to be 83.92 in a series in which, however, several skulls of the Palæo-American type are met with.
649 The Manzanieros, so named from the country of crab-apple-tree forests which they inhabit, have preserved better than the Araucans of the Pampas their physical type; but they have adopted for the most part, like the latter, the manners and customs of the Indians of the Pampas and the Gauchos Euro-Indian half-breeds, similar to the Cow-boys of the western parts of the United States. They live as nomadic shepherds in tents of guanaco skins, and wear garments of tanned skin, after the manner of the Gauchos; they have no pottery, subsist almost exclusively on meat, etc. Excellent horsemen, they hunt the guanaco with bolas, exactly like the Patagonians and the Gauchos.
650 The Archipelagoes of Chiloé and Chonos, which lie off the Chilian coast in the neighbourhood of Cape Peñas, were peopled by Araucan tribes of Gauchos, Payos and Chonos, of whom there remain only a few descendants, with a strain of Spanish blood. These Gauchos must not be confounded with the half-breeds of the same name (see above, note 1), nor the Chonos with the tribe of the same name living farther to the south between Cape Peñas and the Straits of Magellan; the latter tribe appears to be related rather to the Fuegians.
651 For the philology of the Caribs and the Arawaks, see L. Adam, “Trois fam. linguist.... de l’Amazone, de l’Orénoque, etc.,” Congrès Intern. Americanistes, Berlin, 1888, p. 489, and Biblioth. linguist. Americaine, vol. xviii., Paris, 1893; Von den Steinen, loc. cit., and Centr. Brasil, Leipzig, 1886; Ehrenreich, loc. cit., and Peterm. Mitth., 1897, No. 4. For the ethnography, see the works already quoted of Ehrenreich, of Von den Steinen, and the following works: Schomburgh, Reisen in Brit. Guyana, Leipzig, 1847, 2 vols.; Coudreau, “Note sur 54 trib. Guyane,” Bull. Soc. Geogr., Paris, 1891, and “Dix ans de Guyane,” ibid., p. 447, map; E. Im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, London, 1883; Crevaux, Voyages dans l’Amer. du Sud, Paris, 1883; Stoddard, Cruising among the Caribbees, London, 1895.
652 According to Siemiradzki, loc. cit., p. 147, the Guancavelica and Montubio Indians of the coast of Ecuador, who are completely Hispanified, as well as the Payaguas (see p. 572), bear a strong resemblance in physical type to the Caribs.
653 These figures are given from the measurements of Manouvrier and Deniker (Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, 1893), of Maurel (Mem. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, 2nd ser., vol. ii., 1875–85), Ten Kate (Rev. d’Anthr., Paris), and Prince Roland Bonaparte (Les Habitants de Surinam, Paris, 1884), for the Caribs of the north; from Ehrenreich, loc. cit. (Anthrop. Stud.), for the Caribs of the south.
654 See, for example, the summary of the data of ancient authors in J. Ballet’s La Guadeloupe, vol. i., 2nd pt., p. 220, Basse-Terre, 1894.
655 O. Ordinaire, “Les Sauvages du Perou,” Rev. Ethnogr., 1887, p. 264.
656 This traveller also mentions a tribe very different from the Goajires, inhabiting the mountains of the north, now completely unknown. These Indians call themselves Piecer(?). They might possibly have some slight relation with the Arawaks inhabiting the upper valleys of Sierra Nevada. De Brette, loc. cit.; H. Candelier, Rio Hacha et les... Goajires, Paris, 1893.
657 Particulars concerning the archæological and osteological remains of the aborigines of the Greater Antilles will be found in J. Duerden’s “Aborig. Ind. Remains in Jamaica,” Journ. of the Instit. of Jamaica (with “note on the craniology,” by Haddon), Kingston, 1897, vol. ii., No. 4; and in Brinton’s “The Archæology of Cuba,” Amer. Archæologist, vol. ii., No. 10, Columbus, 1898.
658 R. de la Grasserie, Congr. Internat. Americanistes, Berlin, 1888, p. 438.
659 Barboza Rodriguez (Revista da Exposiçao Anthrop. brazileira, Rio de Janeiro, 1882) has measured four specimens, which have given him the mean height of 1 m. 47.
660 Ordinaire (loc. cit.) also describes together with these populations the wholly savage tribe of the Lorenzos living completely in the stone age on the banks of the Palcazu.
661 Hamy, Rev. d’Anthr., 1873, p. 385; Colini, Atti. Acc. Lincei., Rome, 1883.
662 Both these authors prefer the term “Ges” to that of Tapuyas, by which the aborigines in question are known to the Brazilians. In fact, the word “Tapuya,” which in the Tupi tongue means “barbarian,” is not only applied to the Ges, but also to a host of other backward tribes, as, for instance, the Puris (p. 565).
663 Probably on account of the numerous cataracts on the rivers.
664 Maxim Pr. von Wied Newied, Reise nach Brasil., Frankfort-a-M., 1820, 2 vols.; Martius, Beitr. zur Ethnogr.... Amerikas, Erlangen-Leipzig, 1863–67; Lacerda and Peixolo, “Contrib. estudo. Anthrop. das raças Indig. do Brazil,” Archiv. de Mus. Nacion., Rio de Janeiro, vol. i., 1876, p. 47; Ph. Rey, Étud. Anthrop. sur les Botocudos, Paris, 1880 (thesis); Peixoto, “Novos estudos. craniol. sobra Botocudos,” Arch. Mus. Nac., Rio de Janeiro, vol. vi., 1884, p. 205; Ehrenreich, “Ueber die Botocudos,” Zeitschr. für Ethnol., 1887, pp. 1 and 49.
665 Castelnau, Expedition parties Centr. Am. dn Sud. Hist. des vog., Paris, 1852–57, 6 vols.; Martius, loc. cit.; Ehrenreich, loc. cit. (Peterm. Mitt.).
666 See the works of Castelnau, Von den Steinen, and Ehrenreich, already quoted.
667 J. Koslowsky, “Algun. datos sobre los Bororos,” Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argent., vol. vi., 1895; Ehrenreich, loc cit. (Anthr. Unter.).
668 See on this point the suggestive monograph of H. Meyer, “Bows and Arrows in Centr. Brazil,” Smiths. Rep. for 1896, p. 549, pl., Washington, 1898.
669 The way in which the aborigines cut trees with their stone hatchets is remarkable: they make in the first place a great number of holes all around the trunk, then enlarge them till they touch, and so form a continuous incision. Similarly, in order to cut a thin piece of wood from a tree branch they make notches in the latter at equal distances, then they remove the portions of wood between the notches, making use of the same stone hatchet like a wedge. (Ehrenreich, “Mittheil.... Xingu Exped.,” Zeitschrift für Ethnol., 1890, p. 61.)
670 L. Adam, Bibliothèque Linguist. Amer., vol. xviii., Paris, 1896.
671 I. Ambrosetti, “Los Indios Caingua,” Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argentino, vol. xv., Buenos Ayres, 1895.
672 It is in the vicinity of the Cainguas, between the Parana and the central chain of Paraguay, south of the sources of the Acaray, that the five or six hundred Guayakis dwell, primitive hunters, still in the stone age, of whom Bove (Bull. Soc. Geogr. Ital., 1884, p. 939) had caught a glimpse, and whom La Hitte and Ten Kate have quite recently described (Ann. Mus. La Plata, vol. ii., Anthrop., 1897). Armed with their enormous bows and their polished stone hatchets, with their caps of jaguar skin, they have rather a grotesque appearance, and their low stature (the only adult subject measured was 1 m. 52, and the skeleton of a woman, 1 m. 42), as well as their legs wide apart, are not such as to improve their appearance. They are sub-brachycephalic, and nevertheless in type remind us of the Fuegians and the Botocudos. Their habitations are tree shelters, sometimes eighty feet long; their principal tool consists of a tooth of the agôuti fastened to the thigh-bone of a monkey. Their household vessels are plaited baskets rendered impermeable by the addition of a layer of wax, etc. The Cainguas are perhaps hybridised Guayakis.
673 Coudreau, loc. cit., pp. 123 and 131.
674 Köppig, quoted by Brinton (Am. R., p. 231). We must not confound these Cocomas with the tribe of the same name living between the upper Burus and the Jurua, and which appears to belong to the Pano family.
675 Barboza Rodriguez, loc. cit.; Ehrenreich, loc. cit. (Anthrop. Stud.); D’Orbigny, loc. cit., vol. ii., p. 324.
676 Martin de Moussy, Descrip. Confed. Argent., vol. ii., p. 141, Paris, 1861, and Industr. des Indiens La Plata, Paris, 1866; Lafone Quevedo, “La Razza Americana de Brinton, etc.,” Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argent., vol. xiv., 1894, p. 524 (on the disappearance of the Charruas), and Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argent., vol. xviii., 1897, pp. 124 and 127; Arrivée en France de quatre sauvages Charrua, Paris, 1830, and Flourens, Ann. Sc. Nat., 2nd ser., Zool., vol. viii., p. 156; F. Outes, Los Querandies, Buenos Ayres, 1897, and Ethnogr. Argent., Seconda Contrib. al Ethnog. Querandi, Buenos Ayres, 1899; Ambrozetti, “Alfarerias Minuanes,” Bol. I. G. Argent., vol. xiv., 1893, p. 212; I. Quevedo, Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argent., vol. xviii., 1897, pp. 117 and 130.
677 Dobrizhoffer, An Account of the Abipones, London, 1822, 2 vols.
[678] L. Quevedo, loc. cit., La Razza, etc., p. 519, Arte Toba, etc.; Massei and L. Quevedo, “Grupo Mataco-Mataguayo,” Bol. Inst. Geogr. Arg., 1895 and 1896; Pelleschi, “Los Indios Matacos,” Bol. Inst. Geogr. Arg., 1897, p. 173.
679 Certain authorities (Ameghino, Brinton, etc.) place the Charruas, the Chanases, and the Querandis in the Tupi-Guaranian family, and make a separate group of the Matacos.
680 Boggiani, Viaggi d’un artista in Amer. Merid., I. Caduvei, II. Ciamococo, Rome, 1894–95 (preface and note by Colino); and “Ethnografia del Alto Paraguay,” Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg., vol. xviii., 1897, p. 613, ethn. chart. According to Brinton (“Ling. Cartogr. of Chaco,” Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., vol. 37, p. 178, Philad., 1898), the dialect of the Samucos should belong to the Arawak family.
681 Koslowsky, “Tres semanas entre... Guatos,” Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg., vol. vi., p. 221, Buenos Ayres, 1895.
682 Siemiradzki, loc. cit.; De la Vaulx, C. R. Soc. Geog. Paris, 1898.
683 Ch. Musters, At Home with the Patagonians, London, 1871, and “The Races of Patagonia,” Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. i., 1875, p. 193; F. Moreno, Viage à la Patagon. settentr.... Buenos Ayres, 1876, and Viage Pat. Austral., Buenos Ayres, 1879; R. Lista, Viage al païs de Tehuelches, Buenos Ayres, 1878, and Explorat. de la Pampa, etc., Buenos Ayres, 1883. As regards the Onas, see R. Lista, “La Tierra del Fuego,” Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg., vol. ii., 1881, and Viage al païs... Ona, Buenos Ayres, Darapsky, “Patagonia,” Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg., vol. x., 1889, p. 368; J. Hultkrantz, “Nagra Bidrag, etc.,” Ymer, pt. i., Stockholm, 1898, with figs. The three Ona skulls described by Hultkrantz are dolichocephalic (ceph. ind. 74.7).
684 For measurements see the Appendices. The bibliography of the Fuegians will be found in the work of Hyades and Deniker already quoted. To these must be added the following selection from important works omitted or recently published: L. Darapski, “Fuegians,” Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg., vol. x., 1889, p. 276; Bridges, “La Tierra del Fuego, etc.,” Bol. Inst. Geog. Arg., vol. xiv., 1893; and O. Nordenskjold, “Das Feuerland,” Geog. Zeitsch., vol. ii., p. 663, Leipzig, 1896.