Lecture IX Of Conjunctions
A conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, “Thou and he are happy, because you are good.”
Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in different ways, mark the connexions and various dependances of human thought. They belong to language only in its refined state.
The term CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words, con, which signifies together, and jungo, to join. A conjunction, then, is a word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fully comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect sentences.
A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense.
A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb which agrees with that nominative; as, “Wheat grows in the field.”
You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentence containing many parts of speech; but, if it has only one nominative and one finite verb, (that is, a verb not in the infinitive mood,) it is a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences.
A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentences connected together; as, “Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it.”
This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences joined together by the word and; which word, on account of its connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, “Wheat grows in the field. Men reap it.”
The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illustrated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish to add another, or several others, which are closely connected with it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus, “The Georgians cultivate rice and cotton;” that is, “They cultivate rice add cotton.” This sentence is compound, and without the use of the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences: thus, “The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton.” The conjunction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes connects only words; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the preposition; as, “The sun and (add) the planets constitute the solar system.” In this, which is a simple sentence, and connects two words.
A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and exhibit the use of this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it. The following simple sentences and members of sentences, have no relation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions. He labors harder—more successfully—I do. That man is healthy—he is temperate. By filling up the vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words: thus, He labors harder and more successfully than I do. That man is healthy because he is temperate.
Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive.
I. The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a supposition, or a cause; as, “Two and three are five; I will go if he will accompany me; You are happy because you are good.”
In the first of these examples, and joins on a word that expresses an addition; in the second, if connects a member that implies a supposition or condition; and in the third, because connects a member that expresses a cause.
II. The Conjunction Disjunctive serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning; as, “They came with her, but they went away without her.”
But joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not only something added, but, also, opposition of meaning.
The principal conjunctions, may be known by the following lists, which you may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however, frequently used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if you study well the nature of all the different sorts of words, you cannot be at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language.
Lists of the Conjunctions
Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides.
Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as.
Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so that, in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the former; as,
1. Though—yet or nevertheless; as, “Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor.”
2. Whether—or; as, “Whether he will go, or not, I cannot tell.” It is improper to say, “Whether he will go or no.”
3. Either—or; as, “I will either send it, or bring it myself.”
4. Neither—nor; as, “Neither thou nor I can comprehend it.”
5. As—as; as, “She is as amiable as her sister.”
6. As—so; as, “As the stars, so shall thy seed be.”
7. So—as; as, “To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary.”
8. So—that; as, “He became so vain, that everyone disliked him.”
Notes
1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple sentences only, and form them into compound sentences; such as, further, again, besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple members only, so as to make them compound members; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or simple members.
2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences; as, “Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his commandments.”
You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or five times over; and then, after committing the following order, you may parse the subsequent exercises.
Systematic Order of Parsing
The order of parsing a CONJUNCTION, is—a conjunction, and why?—copulative or disjunctive, and why?—what does it connect?
“Wisdom and virtue form the good man’s character.”
And is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but in this example it connects only words—copulative, it serves to connect and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition—it connects the words “wisdom and virtue.”
Wisdom is a noun, the name of a thing—(You may parse it in full.)—Wisdom is one of the nominatives to the verb “form.”
Virtue is a noun, the name, &c.—(Parse it in full:)—and in the nom. case to the verb “form,” and connected to the noun “wisdom” by and, according to RULE 33. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case.
Form is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c.—of the third person, plural, because its two nominatives, “wisdom and virtue,” are connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to RULE 8. Two or more nouns in the singular number, joined by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the plural.
“Wisdom or folly governs us.”
Or is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences: it sometimes connects words—disjunctive, it serves not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to join on a member which expresses opposition of meaning—it connects the nouns “wisdom and folly.”
Governs is a verb, a word that signifies, &c.—of the third person, singular number, agreeing with “wisdom or folly,” according to RULE 9. Two or more nouns singular, joined by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the singular:
If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of me last two Rules presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. For example; in the sentence, “Orlando and Thomas, who study their lessons, make rapid progress,” you notice that the two singular nouns, Orlando and Thomas, are connected by the copulative conjunction and, therefore the verb make, which agrees with them, is plural, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives or actors. And you observe, too, that the pronouns who and their, and the noun lessons, are plural, agreeing with the nouns Orlando and Thomas, according to RULE 8. The verb study is plural, agreeing with who, according to RULE 4.
But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and see how the sentence will read: “Orlando or Thomas, who studies his lesson, makes rapid progress.” Now, you perceive, that a different construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, that Orlando and Thomas, both study and make rapid progress; but it asserts, that either the one or the other studies, and makes rapid progress. Hence the verb makes is singular, because it expresses the action of the one or the other of its nominatives. And you observe, too, that the pronouns who and his, and the noun lesson, are likewise in the singular, agreeing with Orlando or Thomas, agreeably to RULE 9. Studies is also singular, agreeing with who, according to RULE 4.
Exercises in Parsing
Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The Sun, moon, and stars, admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respect my friend, because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey their teacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher, improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man’s happiness and interest: they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity. Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly as Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions.
NOTE. The verb form is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verb comfort agrees with they for its nominative. It is connected to support by the conjunction and, agreeably to RULE 34. Angels is nom. to are understood, and Great Britain is nom. to can boast understood, according to RULE 35.
Remarks on Conjunctions and Prepositions
The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an adverb, or a preposition. “I submitted, for it was in vain to resist;” in this example, for is a conjunction, because it connects the two members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and governs victory in the objective case: “He contended for victory only.”
In the first of the following sentences, since is a conjunction; in the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; “Since we must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen him since that time; Our friendship commenced long since.”
“He will repent before he dies; Stand before me; Why did you not return before” [that or this time;] in the first of these three examples, before is an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses time and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition.
As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may sometimes be at a loss to perceive the connecting power of a preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its members are transposed; as, “In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha;” “If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; but, if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever.”
“When coldness wraps this suffering clay,
“Ah, whither strays the immortal mind?”
That the words in, if, and when, in these examples, connect the members of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order, and bring these particles between the members which they connect: thus, “Elisha the prophet flourished in the days of Joram, king of Israel;” “The Lord will be found of thee if thou seek him; but he will cast thee off for ever if thou forsake him:”
“Ah, whither strays the immortal mind,
“When coldness wraps this suffering clay?”
As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these
Questions Not Answered in Parsing
From what words is the term conjunction derived?—What is a sentence?—What is a simple sentence?—What is a compound sentence?—Give examples.—In what respect do conjunctions and prepositions agree in their nature?—How many sorts of conjunctions are there?—Repeat the lists of conjunctions.—Repeat some conjunctions with their corresponding conjunctions.—Do relative pronouns ever connect sentences?—Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction.—Do you apply any Rule in parsing a conjunction?—What Rule should be applied in parsing a noun or pronoun connected with another?—What Rule in parsing a verb agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copulative conjunction?—What Rule when the nouns are connected by a disjunctive?—In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction, what Rule do you apply?—Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of speech?—Give examples.—What is said of the words for, since, and before?—What is said of the transposition of sentences?
Philosophical Notes
On scientific principles, our connectives, commonly denominated prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps, in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives.
“I wish you to believe, that I would not wilfully hurt a fly.” Here, in the opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunction that, is merely a demonstrative adjective, in a disguised form; and he attempts to prove it by the following resolution: “I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe that [assertion.”] Now, if we admit, that that is an adjective in the latter construction, it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer transition of thought, and both the mode of employing that, and its inferential meaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I assert, positively, that “I would not wilfully hurt a fly:” whereas, by the former, I merely wish you to believe that “I would not wilfully hurt a fly;” but I do not affirm, that as a fact.
That being the past part, of thean, to get, take, assume, by rendering it as a participle, instead of an adjective, we should come nearer to its primitive character. Thus, “I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe the assumed [fact or statement;] or, the fact assumed or taken.”
If, (formerly written gif, give, gin,) as previously stated, is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give. In imitation of Horne Tooke, some of our modern philosophical writers are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb. Thus, “I will go, if he will accompany me:”—“He will accompany me. Grant—give that [fact] I will go.” For the purpose of ascertaining the primitive meaning of this word, I have no objection to such a resolution; but, by it, do we get the exact meaning and force of if as it is applied in our modern, refined state of the language? I trow not. But, admitting we do, does this prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously adopted by learners in common schools? I presume it can not be denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself correctly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and rude state of their language, to express themselves in short, detached sentences, employed if as a verb when they used the following circumlocution: “My son will reform. Give that fact. I will forgive him.” But in the present, improved state of our language, by using if as a conjunction, (for I maintain that it is one,) we express the same thought more briefly; and our modern mode of expression has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient, not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In Scotland and the north of England, some people still make use of gin, a contraction of given: thus, “I will pardon my son, gin he reform.” But who will contend, that they speak pure English?
But perhaps the advocates of what they call a philosophical development of language, will say, that by their resolution of sentences, they merely supply an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they mean such a one as is necessary, to the grammatical construction, I cannot accede to their assumption. In teaching grammar, as well as in other things, we ought to avoid extremes:—we ought neither to pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode of resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of our language, and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age.
But comes from the Saxon verb, beon-utan, to be-out. “All were well but (be-out, leave-out) the stranger.” “Man is but a reed, floating on the current of time.” Resolution: “Man is a reed, floating on the current of time; but (be-out this fact) he is not a stable being.”
And—aned, an’d, and, is the past part. of ananad, to add, join. A, an, ane, or one, from the same verb, points out whatever is aned, oned, or made one. And also refers to the thing that is joined to, added to, or made one with, some other person or thing mentioned. “Julius and Harriet will make a happy pair.” Resolution: “Julius, Harriet joined, united, or aned, will make a happy pair;” i.e. Harriet made one with Julius; will make a happy pair.
For means cause.
Because—be-cause, is a compound of the verb be, and the noun cause. It retains the meaning of both; as, “I believe the maxim, for I know it to be true;”—“I believe the maxim, be-cause I know it to be true;” i.e. the cause of my belief, be, or is, I know it to be true.
Nor is a contraction of ne or. Ne is a contraction of not, and or, of other. Nor is, not other-wise: not in the other way or manner.
Else is the imperative of alesan, unless, of onlesan, and lest, the past part. of lesan, all signifying to dismiss, release, loosen, set free. “He will be punished, unless he repent;”—“Unless, release, give up, (the fact) he repents he will be punished.” Though is the imperative of the Saxon verb thafigan, to allow, and yet of getan, to get. Yet is simply, get; ancient g is the modern y. “Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him:—Grant or allow (the fact) he slay me, get, or retain (the opposite fact) I will trust in him.”
Questions on the Philosophical Notes
From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions derived?—What is Horne Tooke’s opinion of that?—From what is each of the following words derived, that, if, but, and, because, nor, else, unless, lest, though, and yet?