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| THE SECONDARY MECHANICAL SCIENCES. |
| BOOK VIII. |
| HISTORY OF ACOUSTICS. |
| | | | Page |
| Introduction. | 23 |
| Chapter I.—Prelude to the Solution of Problems in Acoustics. | 24 |
| Chapter II.—Problem of the Vibrations of Strings. | 28 |
| Chapter III.—Problem of the Propagation of Sound. | 32 |
| Chapter IV.—Problem of Different Sounds of the Same String. | 36 |
| Chapter V.—Problem of the Sounds of Pipes. | 38 |
| Chapter VI.—Problem of Different Modes of Vibration of Bodies in general. | 41 |
| BOOK IX. |
| HISTORY OF OPTICS, FORMAL AND PHYSICAL. |
| Introduction. | 51 |
| FORMAL OPTICS. |
| Chapter I.—Primary Induction of Optics.—Rays of Light and Laws of Reflection. | 53 |
| Chapter II.—Discovery of the Law of Refraction. | 54 |
| Chapter III.—Discovery of the Law of Dispersion by Refraction. | 58 |
| Chapter IV.—Discovery of Achromatism. | 66 |
| Chapter V.—Discovery of the Laws of Double Refraction. | 69 |
| Chapter VI.—Discovery of the Laws of Polarization. | 72 |
| Chapter VII.—Discovery of the Laws of the Colors of Thin Plates. | 76 |
| Chapter VIII.—Attempts to Discover the Laws of other Phenomena. | 78 |
| Chapter IX.—Discovery of the Laws of Phenomena of Dipolarized Light. | 80 |
| PHYSICAL OPTICS. |
| Chapter X.—Prelude to the Epoch of Young and Fresnel. | 85 |
| Chapter XI.—Epoch of Young and Fresnel. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Introduction. | 92 |
| Sect. | 2. | Explanation of the Periodical Colors of Thin Plates and Shadows by the Undulatory Theory. | 93 |
| Sect. | 3. | Explanation of Double Refraction by the Undulatory Theory. | 98 |
| Sect. | 4. | Explanation of Polarization by the Undulatory Theory. | 100 |
| Sect. | 5. | Explanation of Dipolarization by the Undulatory Theory. | 105 |
| Chapter XII.—Sequel to the Epoch of Young and Fresnel.—Reception of the Undulatory Theory. | 111 |
| Chapter XIII.—Confirmation and Extension of the Undulatory Theory. | 118 |
| 1. | Double Refraction of Compressed Glass. | 119 |
| 2. | Circular Polarization. | 119 |
| 3. | Elliptical Polarization in Quartz. | 122 |
| 4. | Differential Equations of Elliptical Polarization. | 122 |
| 5. | Elliptical Polarization of Metals. | 123 |
| 6. | Newton’s Rings by Polarized Light. | 124 |
| 7. | Conical Refraction. | 124 |
| 8. | Fringes of Shadows. | 126 |
| 9. | Objections to the Theory. | 126 |
| 10. | Dispersion, on the Undulatory Theory. | 128 |
| 11. | Conclusion. | 128 |
| BOOK X. |
| HISTORY OF THERMOTICS AND ATMOLOGY. |
| Introduction. | 137 |
| THERMOTICS PROPER. |
| Chapter I.—The Doctrines of Conduction and Radiation. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Introduction of the Doctrine of Conduction. | 139 |
| Sect. | 2. | Introduction of the Doctrine of Radiation. | 142 |
| Sect. | 3. | Verification of the Doctrines of Conduction and Radiation. | 143 |
| Sect. | 4. | The Geological and Cosmological Application of Thermotics. | 144 |
| 1. Effect of Solar Heat on the Earth. | 145 |
| 2. Climate. | 146 |
| 3. Temperature of the Interior of the Earth. | 147 |
| 4. Heat of the Planetary Spaces. | 148 |
| Sect. | 5. | Correction of Newton’s Law of Cooling. | 149 |
| Sect. | 6. | Other Laws of Phenomena with respect to Radiation. | 151 |
| Sect. | 7. | Fourier’s Theory of Radiant Heat. | 152 |
| Sect. | 8. | Discovery of the Polarization of Heat. | 153 |
| Chapter II.—The Laws of Changes occasioned by Heat. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Expansion by Heat.—The Law of Dalton and Gay-Lussac for Gases. | 157 |
| Sect. | 2. | Specific Heat.—Change of Consistence. | 159 |
| Sect. | 3. | The Doctrine of Latent Heat. | 160 |
| ATMOLOGY. |
| Chapter III.—The Relation of Vapor and Air. | |
| Sect. | 1. | The Boylean Law of the Air’s Elasticity. | 163 |
| Sect. | 2. | Prelude to Dalton’s Doctrine of Evaporation. | 165 |
| Sect. | 3. | Dalton’s Doctrine of Evaporation. | 170 |
| Sect. | 4. | Determination of the Laws of the Elastic Force of Steam. | 172 |
| Sect. | 5. | Consequences of the Doctrine of Evaporation.—Explanation of Rain, Dew, and Clouds. | 176 |
| Chapter IV.—Physical Theories of Heat. | |
| Thermotical Theories. | 181 |
| Atmological Theories. | 184 |
| Conclusion. | 187 |
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| THE MECHANICO-CHEMICAL SCIENCES. |
| BOOK XI. |
| HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY. |
| Introduction. | 191 |
| Chapter I.—Discovery of Laws of Electric Phenomena. | 193 |
| Chapter II.—The Progress of Electrical Theory. | 201 |
| Question of One or Two Fluids. | 210 |
| Question of the Material Reality of the Electric Fluid. | 212 |
| BOOK XII. |
| HISTORY OF MAGNETISM. |
| Chapter I.—Discovery of Laws of Magnetic Phenomena. | 217 |
| Chapter II.—Progress of Magnetic Theory. | |
| Theory of Magnetic Action. | 220 |
| Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism. | 224 |
| Conclusion. | 232 |
| BOOK XIII. |
| HISTORY OF GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. |
| Chapter I.—Discovery of Voltaic Electricity. | 237 |
| Chapter II.—Reception and Confirmation of the Discovery of Voltaic Electricity. | 240 |
| Chapter III.—Discovery of the Laws of the Mutual Attraction and Repulsion of Voltaic Currents.—Ampère. | 242 |
| Chapter IV.—Discovery of Electro-Magnetic Action.—Oersted. | 243 |
| Chapter V.—Discovery of the Laws of Electro-magnetic Action. | 245 |
| Chapter VI.—Theory of Electrodynamical Action. | |
| Ampère’s Theory. | 246 |
| Reception of Ampère’s Theory. | 249 |
| Chapter VII.—Consequences of the Electrodynamic Theory. | 250 |
| Discovery of Diamagnetism. | 252 |
| Chapter VIII.—Discovery of the Laws of Magneto-Electric Induction.—Faraday. | 253 |
| Chapter IX.—Transition to Chemical Science. | 256 |
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| THE ANALYTICAL SCIENCE. |
| BOOK XIV. |
| HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. |
| Chapter I.—Improvement of the Notion of Chemical Analysis, and Recognition of it as the Spagiric Art. | 261 |
| Chapter II.—Doctrine of Acid and Alkali.—Sylvius. | 262 |
| Chapter III.—Doctrine of Elective Attractions.—Geoffroy. Bergman. | 265 |
| Chapter IV.—Doctrine of Acidification and Combustion.—Phlogistic Theory. | |
| Publication of the Theory by Beccher and Stahl. | 267 |
| Reception and Application of the Theory. | 271 |
| Chapter V.—Chemistry of Gases.—Black. Cavendish. | 272 |
| Chapter VI.—Epoch of the Theory of Oxygen.—Lavoisier. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Prelude to the Theory.—Its Publication. | 275 |
| Sect. | 2. | Reception and Confirmation of the Theory of Oxygen. | 278 |
| Sect. | 3. | Nomenclature of the Oxygen Theory. | 281 |
| Chapter VII.—Application and Correction of the Oxygen Theory. | 282 |
| Chapter VIII.—Theory of Definite, Reciprocal, and Multiple Proportions. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Prelude to the Atomic Theory, and its Publication by Dalton. | 285 |
| Sect. | 2. | Reception and Confirmation of the Atomic Theory. | 288 |
| Sect. | 3. | The Theory of Volumes.—Gay-Lussac. | 290 |
| Chapter IX.—Epoch of Davy and Faraday. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Promulgation of the Electro-chemical Theory by Davy. | 291 |
| Sect. | 2. | Establishment of the Electro-chemical Theory by Faraday. | 296 |
| Sect. | 3. | Consequences of Faraday’s Discoveries. | 302 |
| Sect. | 4. | Reception of the Electro-chemical Theory. | 303 |
| Chapter X.—Transition from the Chemical to the Classificatory Sciences. | 305 |
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| THE ANALYTICO-CLASSIFICATORY SCIENCE. |
| BOOK XV. |
| HISTORY OF MINERALOGY. |
| Introduction |
| Sect. | 1. | Of the Classificatory Sciences. | 313 |
| Sect. | 2. | Of Mineralogy as the Analytico-classificatory Science. | 314 |
| CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. |
| Chapter I.—Prelude to the Epoch of De Lisle and Haüy. | 316 |
| Chapter II.—Epoch of Romé De Lisle and Haüy.—Establishment of the Fixity of Crystalline Angles, and the Simplicity of the Laws of Derivation. | 320 |
| Chapter III.—Reception and Corrections of the Hauïan Crystallography. | 324 |
| Chapter IV.—Establishment of the Distinction of Systems of Crystallization.—Weiss and Mohs. | 326 |
| Chapter V.—Reception and Confirmation of the Distinction of Systems of Crystallization. | |
| Diffusion of the Distinction of Systems. | 330 |
| Confirmation of the Distinction of Systems by the Optical Properties of Minerals.—Brewster. | 331 |
| Chapter VI.—Correction of the Law of the Same Angle for the Same Substance. | |
| Discovery of Isomorphism.—Mitscherlich. | 334 |
| Dimorphism. | 336 |
| Chapter VII.—Attempts to Establish the Fixity of Other Physical Properties.—Werner. | 336 |
| SYSTEMATIC MINERALOGY. |
| Chapter VIII.—Attempts at the Classification of Minerals. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Proper Object of Classification. | 339 |
| Sect. | 2. | Mixed Systems of Classification. | 340 |
| Chapter IX.—Attempts at the Reform of Mineralogical Systems.—Separation of the Chemical and Natural History Methods. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Natural History System of Mohs. | 344 |
| Sect. | 2. | Chemical System of Berzelius and others. | 347 |
| Sect. | 3. | Failure of the Attempts at Systematic Reform. | 349 |
| Sect. | 4. | Return to Mixed Systems with Improvements. | 351 |
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| CLASSIFICATORY SCIENCES. |
| BOOK XVI. |
| HISTORY OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. |
| Introduction. | 357 |
| Chapter I.—Imaginary Knowledge of Plants. | 358 |
| Chapter II.—Unsystematic Knowledge of Plants. | 361 |
| Chapter III.—Formation of a System of Arrangement of Plants. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Prelude to the Epoch of Cæsalpinus. | 369 |
| Sect. | 2. | Epoch of Cæsalpinus.—Formation of a System of Arrangement. | 373 |
| Sect. | 3. | Stationary Interval. | 378 |
| Sect. | 4. | Sequel to the Epoch of Cæsalpinus.—Further Formation and Adoption of Systematic Arrangement. | 382 |
| Chapter IV.—The Reform of Linnæus. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Introduction of the Reform. | 387 |
| Sect. | 2. | Linnæan Reform of Botanical Terminology. | 389 |
| Sect. | 3. | Linnæan Reform of Botanical Nomenclature. | 391 |
| Sect. | 4. | Linnæus’s Artificial System, | 395 |
| Sect. | 5. | Linnæus’s Views on a Natural Method. | 396 |
| Sect. | 6. | Reception and Diffusion of the Linnæan Reform. | 400 |
| Chapter V.—Progress towards a Natural System of Botany. | 404 |
| Chapter VI.—The Progress of Systematic Zoology. | 412 |
| Chapter VII.—The Progress of Ichthyology. | 419 |
| Period of Unsystematic Knowledge. | 420 |
| Period of Erudition. | 421 |
| Period of Accumulation of Materials.—Exotic Collections. | 422 |
| Epoch of the Fixation of Characters.—Ray and Willoughby. | 422 |
| Improvement of the System.—Artedi. | 423 |
| Separation of the Artificial and Natural Methods in Ichthyology. | 426 |
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| ORGANICAL SCIENCES. |
| BOOK XVII. |
| HISTORY OF PHYSIOLOGY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. |
| Introduction. | 435 |
| Chapter I.—Discovery of the Organs of Voluntary Motion. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Knowledge of Galen and his Predecessors. | 438 |
| Sect. | 2. | Recognition of Final Causes in Physiology.—Galen. | 442 |
| Chapter II.—Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Prelude to the Discovery. | 444 |
| Sect. | 2. | The Discovery of the Circulation made by Harvey. | 447 |
| Sect. | 3. | Reception of the Discovery. | 448 |
| Sect. | 4. | Bearing of the Discovery on the Progress of Physiology. | 449 |
| Chapter III.—Discovery of the Motion of the Chyle, and Consequent Speculations. | |
| Sect. | 1. | The Discovery of the Motion of the Chyle. | 452 |
| Sect. | 2. | The Consequent Speculations. Hypotheses of Digestion. | 453 |
| Chapter IV.—Examination of the Process of Reproduction in Animals and Plants, and Consequent Speculations. | |
| Sect. | 1. | The Examination of the Process of Reproduction in Animals. | 455 |
| Sect. | 2. | The Examination of the Process of Reproduction in Vegetables. | 457 |
| Sect. | 3. | The Consequent Speculations.—Hypotheses of Generation. | 459 |
| Chapter V.—Examination of the Nervous System, and Consequent Speculations. | |
| Sect. | 1. | The Examination of the Nervous System. | 461 |
| Sect. | 2. | The Consequent Speculations. Hypotheses respecting Life, Sensation, and Volition. | 464 |
| Chapter VI.—Introduction of the Principle of Developed and Metamorphosed Symmetry. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Vegetable Morphology.—Göthe. De Candolle. | 468 |
| Sect. | 2. | Application of Vegetable Morphology. | 474 |
| Chapter VII.—Progress of Animal Morphology. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Rise of Comparative Anatomy. | 475 |
| Sect. | 2. | Distinction of the General Types of the Forms of Animals.—Cuvier. | 478 |
| Sect. | 3. | Attempts to establish the Identity of the Types of Animal Forms. | 480 |
| Chapter VIII.—The Doctrine of Final Causes in Physiology. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Assertion of the Principle of Unity of Plan. | 482 |
| Sect. | 2. | Estimate of the Doctrine of Unity of Plan. | 487 |
| Sect. | 3. | Establishment and Application of the Principle of the Conditions of Existence of Animals.—Cuvier. | 492 |
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| THE PALÆTIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. |
| BOOK XVIII. |
| HISTORY OF GEOLOGY. |
| Introduction. | 499 |
| DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY. |
| Chapter I.—Prelude to Systematic Descriptive Geology. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Ancient Notices of Geological Facts. | 505 |
| Sect. | 2. | Early Descriptions and Collections of Fossils. | 506 |
| Sect. | 3. | First Construction of Geological Maps. | 509 |
| Chapter II.—Formation of Systematic Descriptive Geology. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Discovery of the Order and Stratification of the Materials of the Earth. | 511 |
| Sect. | 2. | Systematic Form given to Descriptive Geology.—Werner. | 513 |
| Sect. | 3. | Application of Organic Remains as a Geological Character.—Smith. | 515 |
| Sect. | 4. | Advances in Palæontology.—Cuvier. | 517 |
| Sect. | 5. | Intellectual Characters of the Founders of Systematic Descriptive Geology. | 520 |
| Chapter III.—Sequel to the Formation of Systematic Descriptive Geology. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Reception and Diffusion of Systematic Geology. | 523 |
| Sect. | 2. | Application of Systematic Geology.—Geological Surveys and Maps. | 526 |
| Sect. | 3. | Geological Nomenclature. | 527 |
| Sect. | 4. | Geological Synonymy, or Determination of Geological Equivalents. | 531 |
| Chapter IV.—Attempts to discover General Laws in Geology. | |
| Sect. | 1. | General Geological Phenomena. | 537 |
| Sect. | 2. | Transition to Geological Dynamics. | 541 |
| GEOLOGICAL DYNAMICS. |
| Chapter V.—Inorganic Geological Dynamics. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Necessity and Object of a Science of Geological Dynamics. | 542 |
| Sect. | 2. | Aqueous Causes of Change. | 545 |
| Sect. | 3. | Igneous Causes of Change.—Motions of the Earth’s Surface. | 549 |
| Sect. | 4. | The Doctrine of Central Heat. | 554 |
| Sect. | 5. | Problems respecting Elevations and Crystalline Forces. | 556 |
| Sect. | 6. | Theories of Changes of Climate. | 559 |
| Chapter VI.—Progress of the Geological Dynamics of Organized Beings. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Objects of this Science. | 561 |
| Sect. | 2. | Geography of Plants and Animals. | 562 |
| Sect. | 3. | Questions of the Transmutation of Species. | 563 |
| Sect. | 4. | Hypothesis of Progressive Tendencies. | 565 |
| Sect. | 5. | Question of Creation as related to Science. | 568 |
| Sect. | 6. | The Hypothesis of the Regular Creation and Extinction of Species. | 573 |
| 1. Creation of Species. | 573 |
| 2. Extinction of Species. | 576 |
| Sect. | 7. | The Imbedding of Organic Remains. | 577 |
| PHYSICAL GEOLOGY. |
| Chapter VII.—Progress of Physical Geology. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Object and Distinctions of Physical Geology. | 579 |
| Sect. | 2. | Of Fanciful Geological Opinions. | 580 |
| Sect. | 3. | Of Premature Geological Theories. | 584 |
| Chapter VIII.—The Two Antagonist Doctrines of Geology. | |
| Sect. | 1. | Of the Doctrine of Geological Catastrophes. | 586 |
| Sect. | 2. | Of the Doctrine of Geological Uniformity. | 588 |
| ADDITIONS TO THE THIRD EDITION. |
| Book VIII.—Acoustics. |
| Sound. |
| The Velocity of Sound in Water. | 599 |
| Book IX.—Optics. |
| Photography. | 601 |
| Fluorescence. | 601 |
| Undulatory Theory. |
| Direction of the Transverse Vibrations in Polarization. | 603 |
| Final Disproof of the Emission Theory. | 604 |
| Book X.—Thermotics.—Atmology. |
| The Relation of Vapor and Air. |
| Force of Steam. | 606 |
| Temperature of the Atmosphere. | 607 |
| Theories of Heat. |
| The Dynamical Theory of Heat. | 608 |
| Book XI.—Electricity. |
| General Remarks. | 610 |
| Dr. Faraday’s Views of Statical Electrical Induction. | 611 |
| Book XII.—Magnetism. |
| Recent Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism. | 613 |
| Correction of Ships’ Compasses. | 616 |
| Book XIII.—Voltaic Electricity. |
| Magneto-Electric Induction. |
| Diamagnetlc Polarity. | 620 |
| Magneto-optic Effects and Magnecrystallic Polarity. | 621 |
| Magneto-electric Machines. | 623 |
| Applications of Electrodynamic Discoveries. | 623 |
| Book XIV.—Chemistry. |
| The Electro-chemical Theory. |
| The Number of Elementary Substances. | 625 |
| Book XV.—Mineralogy. |
| Crystallography. | 627 |
| Optical Properties of Minerals. | 629 |
| Classification of Minerals. | 630 |
| Book XVI.—Classificatory Sciences. |
| Recent Views of Botany. | 631 |
| Recent Views of Zoology. | 634 |
| Book XVII.—Physiological and Comparative Anatomy. |
| Vegetable Morphology. | 636 |
| Animal Morphology | 638 |
| Final Causes. | 642 |
| Book XVIII. |
| Geology. | 646 |