Chapter XVIII Sinai in the Nineteenth Century
The close of the eighteenth century witnessed events in Egypt which directly affected the conditions of life in Sinai; they further reduced the man of the desert in his resources.
Since the conquest of Egypt by the Turks in 1517 the country was administered by a pasha who was appointed by the Sultan at Constantinople. But the order of the Sultan to Ali Bey to join in a war against Russia in 1769 met with a direct refusal; the Egyptian saw his chance of proclaiming his independence. The revolt of the pasha of Egypt gave Bonaparte an ostensible reason for occupying Alexandria in 1796. Bonaparte’s imagination was fired by the thought of incorporating Egypt, the land of antiquity, in his world dominion. As part of this wider scheme he addressed a letter as général en chef to the monks of Sinai in 1798, in which he took them under his protection, “to the end,” as he said, “that they should hand on to future races the tradition of his conquest, as he was filled with respect for Moses and the Jews, and because the monks were learned men living in the barbarity of the desert.” He further decreed that henceforth the Arab Bedawyn had no claim whatever on the monks, that they should be left to devote themselves unmolested to the claims of their religion, that they should be exempt from paying tribute or tax on imports or exports on the produce of their property in Schio (i.e. Chios) and Cyprus, that they should freely enjoy their rights in Syria and in Cairo, and that their ruler should be independent of the patriarch.303
At the order of Bonaparte the gentlemen Coutelle and Rosières were sent on a tour of inspection to collect material for the work which he planned. On this tour they came to the convent of Sinai in 1800, where they found six monks and twenty-two lay brothers in residence. The east wall of the convent, built by Justinian, had collapsed. By order of General Kléber at Cairo, the monk Hallil, with forty-two masons and a hundred and fifty camels, were dispatched from Cairo to do the necessary repair. The camels were furnished by the Towarah.304
In the meantime Nelson, scouring the seas in search of the French fleet, came upon it near the coast of Egypt, and attacked and scattered it at the Battle of the Nile (Oct., 1798). The Turks, aware that Bonaparte’s descent on Egypt was prompted by his desire for self-aggrandisement, felt called upon to declare war on the French in Egypt (1799). Hereupon Bonaparte, with nearly the whole of his army, marched along the desert road to Gaza and took Jaffa by assault, but a few months later he was in full retreat. A Turkish army soon afterwards reached Aboukir and joined forces with the British fleet, but Bonaparte inflicted a crushing defeat on them. He then left Egypt leaving his army in charge of General Kléber. But a further expedition was launched by the Turk, one detachment of troops was landed at Damietta, another under Yussuf Pasha approached by the El Arish road. They were defeated by the French, but General Kléber soon afterwards was assassinated (June, 1808). The English now effected a landing at Aboukir (March, 1801), and the French, after some struggles, evacuated the country.
In Egypt itself confusion reigned. The Mameluks were regaining their influence, when Mehemed Ali († 1849), the leader of an Albanian corps, secured the adherence of the sheykhs and claimed the Pashalik with the support of the French. An expedition made by the British to oppose him in 1807 miscarried. In 1811 he caused a massacre of the Mameluks and extended his influence by carrying war into Arabia and invading Syria. The interference of the English reduced, but did not break, his power. In 1841 he secured the hereditary sovereignty of Egypt.
The period of upheaval naturally reacted on the desert and rendered travelling unsafe. Seetzen visited the convent under Russian orders and found the road dangerous. There were twenty-five monks in the convent, who longed for the end of the Turkish government and the establishment of European influence in Cairo.305 Seetzen was murdered in Syria on a later journey. Again the traveller Boutin was in Serabit in 1811, where he scrawled his name on a stone in the temple where Rüppell found it. Boutin also was murdered in Syria. Burckhardt travelled in the disguise of a Bedawyn and repeatedly visited Sinai, and the convent (1816, 1822). Both Rüppell and Burckhardt travelled in the interest of geography.
With the return of more settled conditions travellers became more numerous. Lord Prudhoe and Major Felix (1827) were among those who visited the ruins of Serabit. The account of their journey was lost, but Lord Prudhoe, after inspecting the temple ruins, was the first and, as far as I am aware, the only traveller to whom it occurred that this might be the sanctuary that was visited by the Israelites. The fact was recorded by Edward Robinson who came into Sinai in the interest of Biblical research in 1838 and 1852 (i. 79) and who was himself immensely impressed by the ruins at Serabit. Other travellers who made a prolonged stay were Laborde and Linant (1828), to whom we owe the first detailed and illustrated account of the convent church, its architecture, its great mosaics and its numerous side chapels; Tischendorf, who secured the famous MS. for Petrograd, as mentioned above; Bartlett, whose rapid visit in 1839 established interesting geological facts, more especially with regard to the lie of the land between Sinai and Syria; and Lepsius, who came into Sinai in 1845 for the express purpose of copying the hieroglyph inscriptions at Maghara and Serabit, which he incorporated in his Denkmäler (1860).
Under the rule of Mehemed Ali safety was restored to the hadj route across Sinai by the rebuilding of the forts at Adjrud (near Suez), Nakhl and Akaba. The settlement of a garrison brought regularity of transport which reacted favourably on the Bedawyn who undertook it. Mehemed Ali, also, was favourably disposed towards the convent. His nephew, Abbas Pasha, who succeeded him in 1849, visited Sinai in 1853, and formed the plan of building himself a summer residence on Mount Horeb. A road was therefore planned leading up from Tur on the coast, which crossed the desert and then led through the relatively luxurious valley of Hebron, with its many streams and the tamarisk grove of Solaf. It was partly completed in 1854, when the Pasha was assassinated. His successor Said Pasha (1854-63), was in friendly relations with Ferdinand Lesseps, whom he zealously supported in the scheme for constructing a canal through the Isthmus of Suez. The enterprise was financed by French and Turkish subscriptions, and was at the outset worked by means of forced labour, later with the help of modern engineering appliances. The canal was completed under Ishmael Pasha (1863-79) in 1869, and the British Government became a large shareholder. Ishmael Pasha was an Oriental despot who depleted the treasury and robbed the people, but who modernised Egypt by building schools, laying down railways, and setting up telegraph communications. In return for a large annual tribute he was raised to the rank of Khedive, or viceroy, of Egypt by the Sultan in 1867. But the financial difficulties, in which he became involved, were such that France and England brought pressure to bear on him and finally deposed him. He was succeeded by his son Tewfik Pasha (1879-92).
Among the visitors to the peninsula in 1845 was Major Macdonald, who came to inspect the turquoise that was left, and who settled near the mines at Maghara in 1855, where he remained ten years. His mining was done with the help of Bedawyn labour. He took considerable interest in the great inscriptions, and it was not he, but a French engineer, who took up the work after he left, who destroyed by blasting a large number of valuable rock inscriptions, including those of King Khufu and of the Pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty. The general interest taken in the peninsula led to the sending out an expedition under General Wilson in 1868, who engaged in a survey of Sinai, i.e. the mountains of the south, under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund. The work was published in 1871 and contains text, maps and a number of photographic views. Among those working on the Survey was the Rev. F. W. Holland, who had previously stayed in Sinai in 1861 and 1867; and the distinguished Arabic scholar, Prof. E. H. Palmer, who made the acquaintance of Sir Richard Burton on this occasion, and who was brought into prolonged contact with the Bedawyn. Prof. Palmer published in 1871 a special account that deals with the story of the Israelites in Sinai under the title The Desert of Exodus. Another visitor to the peninsula was the Egyptologist, Prof. Ebers, who published his work Durch Gosen zum Sinai in 1872. The interest in geography now caused travellers to journey along different routes and to explore different parts of the peninsula, but, in spite of the work accomplished then or undertaken since, the central part of the peninsula is still insufficiently known.
From these writers we gain a further insight into the state of things at the convent, and the attitude of the Bedawyn.
The number of monks at the convent remained much the same. Seetzen found twenty-five monks there and a “guardian” who acted for the absentee bishop (i. 73); Edward Robinson found twenty monks in residence (i. 131); Lepsius in 1845 found twenty-five; Ebers in 1871 found twenty-eight. In 1890 there were between twenty and thirty.
Of the property that is at present owned by the monks I fail to find a complete list. At different periods mention is made of priories in Alexandria, Jerusalem, Tripoli, Gaza, Constantinople, Crete and Cyprus, besides the house owned at Cairo.306 Wolff, in 1839, mentioned property held by the monks at Constantinople, Cyprus, Belgrad, Bukarest, Jassy, Athens, India and Calcutta;307 Robinson mentioned houses at Bengal, Golconda, Crete and Cyprus (p. 549). According to Burckhardt the monks received their supplies from Gaza and Cairo.
After an interregnum of eight years Constantius II ruled as archbishop from 1804 to 1859, and was succeeded by Cyrillus III (1859-67). The next archbishop, Callistratus (1867-85), was the first prelate who returned to the convent in 1872, but his installation was attended by difficulties. His successor, Porphyrius, fell out with the patriarch of Alexandria, who caused him to be expelled from Cairo. He was in residence at the convent in the winter of 1905-6.
Modern accounts give a further insight into the temper of the men of the desert.
The pilgrims of the Middle Ages generally dreaded the Bedawyn who were apt to swoop down on them, clamouring for dues, as they passed from the territory of one tribe into that of another, but we hear of few excesses committed by them. Burckhardt, Prof. Palmer and Sir Richard Burton gave an account of the different tribes.
The Bedawyn of southern Sinai are collectively known as Towarah from Towa, Arabic for mountain, as distinct from the Tiyaha, or Bedawyn of the Plain and the tribes who hold the northern districts.
Among the Towarah Prof. Palmer included (1) the Sawaliheh, who are divided into three clans or families, of which each has its sheykh, so that there are three sheykhs to each tribe. In 1870 the sheykhs of the Sawaliheh were Fatir, Kadir Ibn Simhan and Abu Farh, of whom Fatir was agyd or commander-in-chief of all the military operations undertaken by the Towarah generally. Burton spoke of the Salihi (i.e. Sawaliheh or Benu Saleh) as the principal tribe of the Sinaitic Bedawyn.
The next tribe, included among the Towarah, were (2) the Auled Said, who include several families. The sheykhs in 1870 were Hasan Ibn ’Amir and Embarek ed Dheiri.308
The next tribe mentioned were (3) the Garrasheh, who are principally found in the neighbourhood of Wadi Feiran. Their chief sheykh, Ibn Nasir, was made responsible to the Egyptian government for the good conduct of the Towarah. He had died when the expedition returned to England. Husein Abu Ridhwan was the only remaining sheykh in 1870, Mansur Ibn Gormah also having recently died.
Another tribe were (4) the Aleyat (or Aliki), whose district was the neighbourhood of the (western) Wadi Nasb. Their sheykhs were Suleiman Ibn Emdakkhal, Juma Abu Shawish, and Amdan Abu Ukri. This tribe was described as not numerous by Prof. Palmer.
There were further, (5) the Emzeineh, (Muzaineh) the descendants of an illustrious tribe who are regarded by the Towarah as comparative strangers, though not excluded from the right of intermarriage. They roam over the eastern coast of the peninsula and are said to have come into Sinai from the Hedjaz in comparatively recent times. According to Sir Richard Burton five persons, ancestors of the Muzaineh, were forced by a blood feud to fly from their native country and landed at Sherm, where they were received by the Aleyat. With these they jointly own the palm trees at Dahab, and the rights of transporting the people landing at Dahab and Sherm. “Anyone who knows the Bedawyn,” wrote Sir Richard, “can see that the Muzaineh are pure blood. Their brows are broad, their faces narrow, their features regular, and their eyes of moderate size, whereas the other Towarah clans are as palpably Egyptian. They are of an impure race, Egypto-Arabs, whereas their neighbour, the Hedjazi, is the pure Syrian or Mesopotamian.”
Besides these tribes Prof. Palmer named (6) the Auled Shahin as the branch of the Towarah, who occupy the country immediately around Tur and the mountain which borders on the plain of El Kaa; they are, properly speaking, a branch of the Aleyat.
There are also, (7) the Gebeliyeh, the so-called serfs of the convent, who are held to be the lineal descendants of the four hundred Wallachian and Egyptian slaves whom the emperor settled in the peninsula. Their district comprises the Wadi esh Sheikh and the immediate neighbourhood of the convent. Their chief sheykhs in 1870 were Awwad Ibn Atiyeh, Eid Ibn Suad and Suleiman Ibn Ghanaim.
Of these tribes the Saidi and the Aleyat are the recognised ghufara, or protectors of the convent. The MS. account of 1710 calls them Waled Sahin, three tribes, the sons of Saleh, i.e. the Selim, the Saidi and the Haliq (Aleyat). These met at the annual festival at the tomb of Nebi Saleh.
The fluctuations of the tribes are insufficiently known. In Burckhardt’s days Harun Ibn Amer, sheykh of the Saidi, was accounted one of the most powerful sheykhs of the Towarah (p. 594).
Of the Towarah generally, Sir R. Burton wrote that in the reign of Mehemed Ali no governor of Suez dared to flog or lay hands on a Turi, whatever offence he might have committed in the town of Suez. Later the wild man’s sword was taken from him before he was allowed to enter the gates. In his estimation “the most good-humoured and sociable of men, they delight in a jest and may readily be managed by kindness and courtesy. Yet they are passionate, nice on the point of honour, revengeful and easily offended when their peculiar prejudices are misunderstood. I have always found them pleasant companions, and deserving of respect, for their hearts are good and their courage is beyond a doubt” (p. 102).
In distinction to the Towarah or men of the mountain, the Bedawyn further north are known as Tiyaha, or men of the plain, who go south as far as Nakhl. They have for their neighbours the Terrebin, a powerful tribe, whose territory extends from about forty miles south-east of Suez on the Sinai road as far as Gaza in the north. There are also the Heiwatt occupying the land between Akaba and Nakhl, who have a bad reputation for raiding, and their neighbours the Anazeh, whose pasture grounds extend from about Medina in Arabia to Palmyra in Syria, including the Arabah. Another wealthy tribe are the Howeitat who can raise as many as twelve hundred camels.
The difficulty of dealing with the Bedawyn, was shown by the events that attended the rising of Arabi in Egypt, in 1880. When Tewfik became Khedive in 1879 dissatisfaction reigned. A military revolution broke out in Cairo, and Arabi Bey, a fellah officer, arose determined to diminish European influence. When rioting began at Alexandria the Khedive sought the protection of the British Fleet, and Sir Garnet Wolseley occupied the Suez Canal, whereupon Cairo surrendered. But the dread of Arabi’s influence among the men of the desert led the British Government to request Prof. Palmer to bring his influence to bear on the Bedawyn of Et Tîh. His work in the Ordnance Survey had brought him into friendly relations with many of the sheykhs, and he was instructed to prevent them from joining the Egyptian rebels. With a firmân signed by Tewfik, Prof. Palmer left Jaffa as Abdallah Effendi, and crossed the peninsula to Suez, being conducted by Hamdan, the head man of the Tiyaha, and on his way met the great sheykh of the Heiwatt. His plan was to raise 10,000 of the Tiyaha and Terabin to fight Arabi. From Suez he therefore departed carrying the sum of £3000 in gold in order to buy camels, and arranged for a great meeting of the sheykhs. It was in vain that Sheykh Ode Ismaileh of the Aleyat, and Umdakhl, a minor sheykh, advised him not to go. He and his three companions were lured into an ambush in the Wadi Sudr, and were murdered, August, 1882.309
Following upon the mission of Prof. Palmer to Sinai was the expedition to the Sudan for which General Gordon volunteered. He was killed in 1885, whereupon General Kitchener set out to reconquer the Sudan and occupied Khartoum. In 1892 Tewfik in Egypt was succeeded by Hussein Kamel. A misunderstanding with Turkey in connection with the Sinaitic frontier caused a passing difficulty in the year 1906-7. The Turco-Egyptian frontier was drawn from Rafa, now in Egypt, to the Gulf of Akaba, Akaba itself being included in the domain over which Turkey claimed supremacy. At this it stood at the outbreak of the Great War.
The population of the whole of the peninsula at the time was estimated as below 40,000 persons, including the settled inhabitants of El Arish, the Gebeliyeh (400-500), and the rest of the Bedawyn. From a military point of view these were looked upon as of small importance, except as possible secret agents and scouts, and no effort was apparently made to organise them. Although Sinai was politically an Egyptian dependency, with the frontier line between Rafa and Akaba, the Suez Canal was chosen as the means of defending Egypt, and bridgeheads were constructed along it, chief of which was the one at Kantara. The peninsula was therefore open to the Turks, who advanced across it along three routes, i.e. along the coast, along the pilgrim road from Akaba by way of Nakhl, and by a route half-way between the pilgrim route and the Mediterranean. Nakhl became a Turkish military centre. The attacks made at different points along the canal were defeated. The Turk, from the first, engaged the help of the Bedawyn of the eastern desert, but he failed to raise much enthusiasm among them. Only the Terabin, the Ayayme, and some of the sub-tribes of the Howeitat supplied irregular lines, the Ruala and the Anazeh promised to defend Syria, other tribes failed altogether. When a raiding party of Turks advanced from Nakhl on Tur, they were joined by some Bedawyn from Midian and Sinai, who were tempted by the promise of loot. On the way, they requisitioned food at the convent, but they found Egyptian troops in occupation of Tur and were repulsed.
The advance along the shore of the Mediterranean, and expeditions from the bridgeheads and secured posts, engaged the Allied forces in 1916. Ayun Musa was fortified and connected with Suez by means of a light railway, and a railway was constructed along the Mediterranean. In the course of this progress the walls and water cisterns on which the enemy depended were naturally destroyed, and one does not wonder to find the Bedawyn acting in concert with the Turk in their defence. It was not till January, 1917, that Rafa was captured, and the Turk swept out of northern Sinai. Along the eastern frontier the Arabs were prepared to side with the Allies. As early as 1916 Prince Hussein of Mecca organised his forces to resist the Turk, but his progress was indifferent, when he was sought out by Capt. Lawrence, who urged him to advance and persuaded Auda Ibn Tayyi, the great sheykh of the Howeitat, to act in concert with him. The result was a camel charge on the fort of Akaba, which wiped out the Turkish battalion stationed there, and freed the Arab and the Allies from a centre of enemy plotting. By their action the Arabs made a further step in realising themselves as a nation.310
In the light of these recent events, one is set wondering how they will affect the chances of well-being of the men of the Sinai desert, and what future may be in store for the convent.
Footnotes
1 Wilson and Palmer: Ordnance Survey, 1870-71; Hull, Ed.: Mount Seir, Sinai and Western Palestine, 1885, with geological map; Weill, R.: La presqu’île de Sinai, 1908.
2 Lepsius: Reise nach Sinai, 1846, p. 19 ff.
3 Bartlett, W. H.: Forty Days in the Desert, 1849, p. 88.
4 Hume, W. F.: Topography and Geology of the South-eastern Portion of Sinai, 1906.
5 Ordnance Survey, i. 226.
6 In this and other passages of the Bible, the word that stands as coal should be understood as charcoal.
7 Palmer, H. S.: Sinai from the Fourth Dynasty, revised by Prof. Sayce, 1892, p. 47.
8 Birch, S.: Records of the Past. New Series. Edit. Sayce, I. 41.
9 Ibid., II, 75, 83.
10 Birch, S.: Records of the Past, XI. 148.
11 Jastrow, M.: The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, 1898, p. 76.
12 Al Biruni (Muhammad Ibn Ahmad): Chronology of Ancient Nations, transl. Sachau, 1879, p. 187.
13 Cited Eusebius, Evang. Præp., bk. ix. c. 18, c. 23.
14 Barton, G. A.: A Sketch of Semitic Origins, 1902, p. 198.
15 Birch, Rec. Past, N.S., I. 145.
16 Such tablets are in view in the British Museum.
17 Petrie, W. M. Fl.: Hierakonpolis, I. 1900, p. 129.
18 Petrie, W. M. Fl.: Abydos, I. 1902, p. 25.
19 On the dating of the dynasties of the Egyptian kings, see p. v.
20 Cf. Weill, R.: La presqu’île de Sinai, 1908, p. 302.
21 Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 72 ff.
22 Smith, W. Robertson: The Religion of the Semites, Ed. 1901, p. 197.
23 Ibid., p. 490.
24 Hastings: Dictionary of the Bible, art. “High Places.”
25 Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 99.
26 Hastings: Dictionary of the Bible, art. “Gilgal.”
27 Gardiner, Alan: Journal of Egyptian Archæol., 1916, vol. 3, p. 1.
28 Smith, W. Robertson: Lectures and Essays, 1912, p. 554.
29 Wellhausen: Reste Arabischen Heidenthums, 1897, pp. 30, 39.
30 Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 133.
31 Ibid., p. 134.
32 Hær. 79 in Migne: Patr. Græc., xlii, 742.
33 Breasted, J. H.: Ancient Records of Egypt, i. 722.
34 Petrie: Res. Sinai, fig. 98.
35 Petrie: Egyptian Tales, I. 1895, p. 116.
36 Brugsch, H.: Religion u. Mythologie der alten Egypter, 1888, p. 568.
37 Wilkinson: Ancient Egypt, ed. 1878, vol. 3, 234-6.
38 Murray: Palestine and Syria, 1903, p. 259.
39 Birch: Rec. Past, ii, p. 111.
40 Bliss, F. G., and Macalister, R.: Excavations in Palestine, 1902.
41 Hughes, Th.: Dictionary of Islam, 1845, art. “Masjid.”
42 Petrie, W. M. Flinders: Researches in Sinai, 1906.
43 Breasted, J. H.: A History of Egypt, 1909, p. 597.
44 Breasted: A History, fig. 26, p. 42.
45 Petrie: Res. Sinai, fig. 49.
46 Breasted: Rec., i. 731.
47 Petrie: Egyptian Tales, I. p. 18.
48 Weill, R.: Recueil des Inscriptions, 1904, 120 ff.
49 Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 52.
50 Ibid., p. 123.
51 Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 124.
52 Breasted: Rec., i. 713, 717-8.
53 Breasted: Rec., i. 735-6.
54 Ibid., pp. 725-7.
55 Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 66.
56 Breasted: Rec., i. 728; Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 156.
57 Breasted: Rec., i. 716.
58 Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 27.
59 Smith, W. Robertson: Lectures, p. 471.
60 Petrie: Hist., ii. 105.
61 Ibid., ii. 22.
62 Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 118.
63 Petrie: Egyptian Tales, i. 97-127.
64 Petrie: Hist., ii. 101; iii. 3.
65 Breasted: Rec., iv. 28.
66 Burckhardt: Travels in Syria, ed. 1822, p. 544.
67 Birch: Rec. Past, vii. 26.
68 Masudi: Prairies d’Or, c. 4, trad. Société Asiatique, vol. i. p. 98.
69 Makrizi: Description de l’Egypte, 1900, ii. 27, p. 543.
70 Ebers: Durch Gosen zum Sinai, 1872, p. 288.
71 Lepsius: Denkmäler, ii. 150, a. 12.
72 Keith Johnson: General Atlas.
73 Hastings: Dict. Bible, art. “Esau.”
74 Masudi: Prairies, c. 3, vol. i. p. 77.
75 Smith, W. Robertson: Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, 1885, p. 260.
76 Masudi: Prairies, c. 37, vol. 3, p. 78.
77 Caussin de Perceval, A. P.: Essai sur l’historie des Arabes avant l’Islam, 1847, i. 13.
78 Makrizi: Descrip., ii. 21, p. 523.
79 Sprenger: Alte Geographie Arabiens, 1875, no. 207, p. 144.
80 Makrizi: Descrip., ii. 27; De la ville d’Eilah, p. 530.
81 Doughty: Travels, ed. 1888, i. p. 81, etc.
82 Caussin: Essai, i. 26.
83 Masudi: Prairies, c. 38, vol. 3, p. 90.
84 Delitzsch: Wo lag das Paradies, 1881, p. 304.
85 Sprenger: no. 314, p. 192.
86 Diod. Siculus: Bibliotheca, iii. 3, trans. 1814, p. 185.
87 Caussin: Essai, i. 27.
88 Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 127.
89 Ibid.
90 Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 151.
91 Breasted: Rec., iv. 404-9.
92 Hastings: Dict. Bib., art. “Hexateuch.”
93 Chron. Liber III. Migne: Patr. Græc., xix. 374.
94 Hær., 78 in Migne: Patr. Græc., xlii. 745.
95 Barhebræus: Chronicon, 1789, p. 14.
96 Cited Eusebius: Evang. Præp., bk. ix. 27.
97 Chronicon Paschale in Migne: Patr. Græc., xcii. 200.
98 Weil, G.: Biblical Legends of the Moslim, 1846, p. 100.
99 Eusebius: Evang. Præp., bk. ix. c. 27.
100 Barhebræus: Chron., p. 79.
101 Doughty: Travels, p. 8.
102 Petrie: Res. Sinai, p. 211.
103 Encyclopædia Brit., art. “Sinai.”
104 Hughes: Dict. of Islam, art. “Azan.”
105 “Ramadan, the time when the heat commenced and the soil was burning hot.” Al Biruni (c. a.d. 1000), c. 19, 1879, p. 321.
106 Nielssen, D.: Altarabische Mondreligion, 1904, p. 276.
107 Robinson, E.: Biblical Researches in Palestine, ed. 1867, vol. i. p. 157.
108 Comp. Hastings: Dict., art. “Dizahab.”
109 Vita, c. 25 in Migne: Patr. Lat., xxiii. p. 39.
110 Robinson: ii. 175.
111 Eusebius: Onomastikon, ed. Lagarde, 1887, p. 291.
112 Makrizi: Desc., ii. 24, p. 530, “De la ville d’Eilah.”
113 Makrizi: Desc., ii. 25, p. 540.
114 Burton, Sir R.: The Golden Mines of Midian, 1878.
115 Eutychius: Annales in Migne: Patr. Græc., cxi. 930.
116 Masudi: Prairies, c. 47, vol. iii. p. 305.
117 Breasted: Rec., iv. 956.
118 Diodorus Sic.: iii. 3, transl. 1814, I. p. 183.
119 Strabo, xvi. 4, 18; 776.
120 Josephus: Antiq., i. 12, 4.
121 Birch: Rec. Past., N. S., v. 120; vi. 85.
122 Birch: Rec. Past., N. S., v. 120; vi. 85.
123 Birch: Rec. Past., i. 26, 93, etc.
124 Makrizi: History of the Copts, transl. Wüstenfeld, 1845, p. 1.
125 Diod. Sic.: xix. 6, transl. 1814, I. p. 398.
126 Clédat, J.: Fouilles in Memoires, xii. 1913, p. 145-168, Institut français d’Archéologie orientale.
127 Strabo: xvi. 4, 22; 780.
128 Birch: Rec. Past, i. 98.
129 Cosmas Ind.: Christian Topography, transl. McCrindle, 1897, p. 159.
130 Cf. Weill: La Presqu’île, p. 288.
131 Tischendorf: Voyage en terre sainte, 1868, p. 33.
132 Euting, J.: Nabataeische Inschriften aus Arabien, 1885.
133 Euting, J.: Sinaitische Inschriften, 1891.
134 Diod. Sic.: I. 5, transl. 1814, I. 64.
135 Strabo: xvi. 4, 23; 780
136 Irby and Mangles: Travels in Egypt, etc., ed. 1844, p. 54.
137 Brugsch: Dict. Geog., 1879, p. 52, 1105.
138 Sprenger: Alte. Geog., nr. 326, p. 199.
139 Eucherius: Epist., ed. Geyer, Itiner. Hier., 1908, p. 122.
140 Sozomenus: Hist., vi. 38.
141 Dionysius: Ep. ad Fabium. Migne: Patr. Græc., x. 1306.
142 Nectarius: Epitome of Holy History, 1805, p. 75.
143 Baedeker: Lower Egypt, 1895, p. 270.
144 Paphnutius: Vita St. Onophrii, Migne: Patr. Græc., lxxiii. 211-22.
145 De Vita Patrum, vi. 11, Migne: Patr. Lat., lxxiii. 1009.
146 Severus: Dialogue, i. 17, Migne: Patr. Lat., xx. 199.
147 Sozomenus: Hist., vi. 32.
148 Le Nain de Tillemont: Memoires pour servir à l’histoire eccles., x. p. 448-451.
149 Nov. 5. Migne: Patr. Græc., cxvii. 143.
150 Vita S. Galactionis, Migne: Patr. Græc., cxvi. 94.
151 Pococke, Bishop: A Description of the East, 1743, i. 147.
152 Theodoret: Religiosa Historia, Migne: Patr. Græc., lxxxii. 1315.
153 Antoninus Martyr: Itinerarium, c. 40, ed. Greyer, p. 186.
154 Nectarius: Epit., p. 95.
155 Burckhardt: p. 544.
156 Lequien: Oriens Christianus, 1740, iii. 759.
157 Epiphanius: Hær., 73, 26. Migne: Patr. Græc., xlii. 454.
158 Lequien: Or. Chr., ii. 545.
159 Sozomenus: Hist., vi. 31.
160 Nectarius: Epit., p. 73-93; Smith-Lewis, Agnes: The Forty Martyrs of Sinai in Horæ Semit., no. 9, 1912.
161 Weill located this in the Wadi Eth Themed, the upper part of the Wadi Hebran. 1908, p. 198.
162 Socrates: Hist., iv. 36.
163 Itinerary, transl. Pal. Pilg. Soc., vol. 3, p. 52, 1891.
164 Acta SS. Boll., Feb. 7, ii. p. 45.
165 Nilus: Narrationes, Migne: Patr. Græc., lxxix. pp. 590-693.
166 Weill located Salael in the present Wadi Sigilliyeh, p. 195.
167 Perigraphe of Holy Mount Sinai (first issued by the archimandrite Jeremiah in 1768), ed. 1817, p. 173.
168 Labbé: Concilia, ed. Mansi, v. 615-17.
169 Isidorus: Epistol. liber, v. 358, 448, etc., in Migne: Patr. Græc., lxxviii.
170 Lequien: Or. Christ., ii. 543.
171 Labbé: Conc., iv. 1477.
172 Labbé: Conc., vi. 567.
173 Ibid., vii. 483.
174 Lequien: Or. Christ., iii. 751.
175 Joannes Moschus: Pratum Spirituale, no. 117, in Migne: Patr. Græc., lxxxvii. pars. 3.
176 Burckhardt: p. 546.
177 Anastasius: Récits inédits, F. Nau, 1902.
178 Joh. Climacus: Scali Paradisa, no. 7 in Migne: Patr. Græc., lxxxviii. 814.
179 Perigraphe, p. 164.
180 Férotin: La veritable auteur de la Pereginatio Silviæ, 1903.
181 Valerius: De B. Etheria in Migne: Patr. Lat., lxxxvii. 422.
182 Basileus: De Vita et Mir. S. Teclæ. Migne: Patr. Græc., lxxxv. 618.
183 Petrus Diaconus: Liber de locis sanctis, p. 115 in Geyer: Itinera Hieros., 1898.
184 Orosius: Hist., i. 10, Migne: Patr. Lat., xxxi. p. 717.
185 Cosmas Ind.: v. p. 193.
186 “Moses in Phacusis.” Lequien: Or. Hist., ii. 546.
187 Lequien: Or. Christ., iii. 759.
188 Labbé: Conc., viii. pp. 884, 889.
189 Procopius: De Ædific., v. 8, transl. Pal. Pilg. Soc., ii. 1897, 147.
190 Eutychius: Annales, 1071.
191 Makrizi: History of the Copts, p. 116.
192 Cheikho: Les archévèques du Sinai, in Mélanges de la faculté orientale de St. Joseph, ii. 1907, p. 408, ff.
193 Antoninus Martyr, c. 38. According to another text printed by Geyer: “Quando etiam venit tempus festivitatis ipsorum recurrente luna, antequam egrediatur luna, ad diem festum ipsorum incipit colorem mutare marmor ilia” (ed. 1898, p. 184, 213).
194 Ord. Survey, i. 67.
195 Cheikho: p. 411.
196 Tischendorf: Voyage, 1868, p. 55.
197 Ord. Survey, i. 209.
198 Gregor von Gaming: Ephemeris peregrinationis, in Pez: Thesaurus Anecdot., ii. part 3, p. 498.
199 Tobler: Golgotha, ed. 1849, p. 139.
200 Nectarius: Epit., p. 159. Another reading is “Stephanos, son of Martyrios, builder and architect, from Aila.”
201 Laborde et Linant: Voyage de l’Arabie Pétrée, 1830.
202 Nectarius: Epit., p. 159.
203 Robinson, E.: Researches, vol. i. 99.
204 Gregorius: Epist. Liber in Migne: Patr. Lat., lxxvii. xi. 1, p. 1118; xi. 2, p. 1119; ii. 23, p. 562.
205 Gregorius: Epist., v. 49, p. 719.
206 Gardthausen, Victor: Catalog. Cod. Græc. Sin., 1886.
207 Smith-Lewis, Agnes: Sinaitic Studies, nr. 1, nr. 3.
208 Moschus: Pratum, no. 123-4, 127.
209 Evagrius: Hist. Eccles. Migne: Patr. Græc., lxxxvi. 2, p. 2803.
210 Eutychius: Annales, p. 1082.
211 Labbé: Conc., x. 1071.
212 Makrizi: Desc., ii. 25, trad. 1900, De la ville d’Eilah, p. 532.
213 Description of Syria, transl. Pal. Pilg. Soc., 1892, vol. 3, p. 64.
214 Burckhardt: p. 546.
215 Pococke: i. p. 258.
216 Makrizi: Descrip., 1895, i. 25, p. 209.
217 Eutychius: Annales, p. 1072.
218 Renaudot, E. S.: Hist. Patriarch. Alex., 1713, p. 841.
219 De Frotomundo, in Mabillon: Acta Ord. St. Benedicti., vol. ii, 219.
220 Pococke: i. 146.
221 Commemoratorium, a MS. of the 9th or 10th century, edit. Tobler: Descriptiones Terræ Sanctæ, 1874, p. 139.
222 Perigraphe, p. 152.
223 Labbé: Conc., vol. xvi. p. 194.
224 Lequien: Or. Chris., iii. 754.
225 Glaber: Hist. Lib. Quinque, in Collection pour servir à l’histoire, 1886.
226 Vita Pauli Jun., in Analecta Boll., xi. 1892, p. 1-74, 136-182.
227 Robinson: i. p. 132; Ord. Surv., i. 60.
228 Nov. 25. Migne: Patr. Græc., cxvii. 179.
229 Martyrium St. Catherinæ in Migne: Patr. Græc., cxvi. 275-302.
230 Hist. Eccles., viii. 34.
231 Giustiniani, Bern.: Hist. cronol. dei ordini militari, ed. 1672, i, p. 188.
232 Vita St. Symeon is in Acta SS. Boll. June 1, pp. 89-95.
233 Translatio et Miracula St. Kath. in Analecta Bolland., 1902, vol. 22, pp. 423-39.
234 Chronicon, ii. 26 in Migne: Patr. Lat., cliv. 25.
235 Canisius, H.: Thesaurus Mon. Eccles., iv. 1725, p. 345.
236 Translatio, p. 423, footnote.
237 Hardwick: Historical Enquiry, etc., 1849.
238 Knust: Geschichte der Legenden der heil. Katharina von Alex., 1890.
239 Mukaddisi: 3, 65.
240 Ademarus: Chronicle, 3, 47, ed. 1897, p. 170.
241 Makrizi: Descrip., ii. 24.
242 Vita in Acta SS. Boll., Aug. 30, p. 627.
243 Nectarius: Epitome, p. 211; Perigraphe, p. 153.
244 Abu Saleh: Churches, etc., trans. Butler, 1895, p. 167.
245 Benjamin of Tudela: Itinerary, trans. Adler, 1907, p. 77.
246 Fretellus: Jerusalem, etc., Pal. Pilg. Soc., 1892, vol. 5, p. 16.
247 Albert of Aix: Hist., xii. 21 in Migne: Patr. Lat., clxvi. p. 707.
248 William of Tyre, Hist., xxi. 3 in Migne: Patr. Lat., cci. p. 781.
249 Lequien: iii. 727, mentioned that “Dorotheos, bishop of Petra,” was present at the Council of Bethlehem in 1672.
250 Jacques of Vitry: Histoire des Croisades, transl. Guizot, iii. 197.
251 Tafur, P.: (1435-39): Andances et Viajes, ed. 1874, p. 94.
252 Muralt: Essai de Chron. Byz., p. 312.
253 Gregoriades: Holy Mount Sina, p. 98.
254 Mann, H. K.: Lives of the Popes, vol. 2, p. 293.
255 Assemanni: Bibl. Orientalis, ii, p. 511.
256 Honorius, Pope: Regesta, 1888, i. 123; ii, 178, 391, 394, 396.
257 Chabot: A propos du convent in Revue de l’Orient. Chrétien., vol. v., 1900, p. 495.
258 Nectarius: Epit., p. 211; Cheikho: p. 418.
259 Thietmar, Magister: Peregrinatio, ed. Laurent, 1857.
260 Gardthausen: nos. 94, 657, 662, 670.
261 Nectarius: Epit., p. 212.
262 Maderus: Antiquitates Brunvicenses, 1661, p. 267.
263 Bulls in Archives de l’Orient Latin, 1881, i. 274, 283.
264 Antoninus of Cremona (c. 1331): Itinerarium in Zeitschrift des deutsch. Palestin. Vereins, vol. xiii. year 1890; Jacopo of Verona (c. 1335): Liber Peregrinationis, ed. 1895, in Revue de l’Orient Latin, iii. p. 163-302; Wilhelm de Baldensel (c. 1336): Hodoeporicon, ed. 1725, in Canisius: Thesaurus, vol. iv.; Ludolf of Sudheim or Rudolf de Suchen (c. 1336-41): Reise, ed. 1609, in Feyerabend: Reissbuch, 1610, p. 803, ff.; Sir John Maundeville (c. 1340): Travels, ed. Halliwell, 1866; Rudolf von Fraymansperg (c. 1346), ed. 1725 in Canisius: Thesaurus, vol. iv. pp. 358-60.
265 Sigoli, Simone (1384): Viaggio al Monte Sinai, ed. Piroti, 1831; Frescobaldo, Lionardo (1384): Viaggio, ed. 1818; (Gucci: Viaggio in Gargiolli: Viaggi in terra santa, 1862;) Martone, Nic. (1393): Liber Pereg. ad loca sancta in Revue de l’Orient Latin, iii. 1895; Briggs (1392) in Archives de l’Orient Latin, 1884; Anglure, Ogier d’ (c. 1395): Le saint voyage, ed. Bonardot et Legnon: Soc. des anciens textes français, 1878.
266 Heyd, W. von: Gesch. des Levanthandels, 1879, vol. 2, 466.
267 Weill: Presqu’île, p. 93.
268 Ed. 1893, p. 247.
269 Piloti: Tractatus, in Monuments pour servir à l’histoire; Brussels, vol. iv. p. 357.
270 Harff, A. von: Pilgerfahrt, ed. 1860, p. 133.
271 The meaning of this word may be Lenten pardons.
272 In Purchas: His Pilgrims, reprint, vii. 566.
273 Lammens: Mélanges in Revue de l’Orient Chrétien, vii., 1902, p. 503, ff.
274 Lequien: Or. Chr., iii. 515.
275 Gregoriades: p. 95.
276 Ibid., pp. 101-107.
277 Röhricht: Deutsche Pilgerreisen, 1880, p. 104.
278 Adornes, Anselme (1470): Voyage au Mt. Sinai, 1893, in Annales de la Société d’Emulation, Ser. v. tom. 4; Tucher, Hans (1479): Beschreibung der Reise in Feyerabend: Reissbuch, 1609, p. 652-99; Rieter: Reissbuch, 1884; Bernhard v. Breydenbach (1483): Pilgerfahrt in Feyerabend: Reissbuch, pp. 91-229. ed. with Rewich’s woodcuts, 1486; Felix Fabri (1483): Wanderings, i., ii., transl. Pal. Pilg. Soc., vols. 7-10; Jan van Aerts (1484), cf. Neefs: Revue Catholique, vol. ix. 1873, p. 566; Joos van Ghistelle: Tvoyage, ed. 1572; Joannes de Hese (1489): Reise in appendix to Oppert: Presbyter Johannes, 1864; Ritter von Harff (1496-99): Pilgerfahrt, ed. 1860; Martin Baumgarten (1507): Peregrinatio, 1594; Gregor von Gaming (1507): Ephemeris Peregrinationis, in Pez: Thesaurus, 1721, ii.
279 Francesco Alvarez: Voyage in Ramusio: Primo volume delle Navigazioni, 1588, p. 236.
280 Ed. 1824, Roxburgh Club.
281 Röhricht: p. 311
282 Baedeker: 1895, p. 276.
283 Barbosa: Letter in Ramusio: Delle Nav., 1888, p. 291.
284 Heyd: Levanthandel, ii. 540.
285 Ed. Purchas: His Pilgrims, reprint 1905, vii. 236-310.
286 Belon: Observations de certaines singularités, 1554, p. 126.
287 Nectarius: Epit., p. 212.
288 Perigraphe, p. 153.
289 Voyage, ed. 1889 in Khitowo: Itinéraires russes en Orient, p. 288.
290 Perigraphe, pp. 156-160.
291 Lammens: Mélanges, p. 503.
292 Lequien: Or. Chr., iii. 517.
293 Cf. Dobschütz: Sammelhandschrift in Byz. Zeitschrift, vol. 15, 1906, pp. 247-51.
294 Le saint voyage, 1619, p. 564.
295 Neitzschitz: Siebenjahr Wanderung, ed. 1674, p. 544.
296 Monconys: Journal de Voyage, ed. 1665, p. 164.
297 Thévenot, Jean de: Voyages, 1689, vol. v. p. 532.
298 Monconys: Journal, p. 203.
299 Lacroix: Le Turchie Chrétienne, 1695.
300 Gubernatis (Dom. de) Orbis Seraphicus: Historia de Tribus Ordin., 1888, ii. 293, 310.
301 Poncet, C. J.: Journey in Pinkerton: Voyages, vol. 15, 1814, p. 105.
302 Robinson: i. p. 130.
303 Renaudin, Dom: Le monastère de Ste. Catherine in Revue de l’Orient Chrétien, 1900, p. 319-21.
304 Ord. Survey, i. 200.
305 Seetzen: Reisen, 1807, vol. 3, on Sinai.
306 Gregoriades: pp. 88-117.
307 Cited Weill: Presqu’île, pp. 250, footnote.
308 Palmer, Prof. in Ord. Survey, I, p. 456, ff.; Burton: Pilgrimage (1855), ed. 1879, p. 100, ff.; Burckhardt: Notes on the Bedouin, 1830.
309 Besant, W.: Edward Henry Palmer, 1883.
310 Times History of the War, parts 48, 128.