2486a. Ink for Zinc Garden Labels
Verdigris, one ounce; sal-ammoniac, one ounce; lampblack, half an ounce; water, half a pint. Mix in an earthenware mortar, without using a metal spatula.
Directions.—To be shaken before use, and used with a clean quill pen, on bright zinc.
Note.— Another kind of ink for zinc is also used, made of chloride of platinum, five grains, dissolved in one ounce of distilled or rain water; but the first, which is much less expensive, answers perfectly, if used as directed, on clean bright zinc.
2486b. Manifold Writing1
The demand for a rapid and simple method of multiplying letters, circulars, &c., has led in recent years to the invention of several ingenious processes. So few copies are obtainable by the ordinary reporters’ system of sheets of tissue paper, or “flimsy,” interleaved with sheets of prepared black paper, that various kinds of “graphs” have been produced, by which upwards of a hundred, and in some cases many more, copies may be produced from one writing.
The “graph” process usually consists of transferring a writing made in an aniline dye on to a gelatine surface, from which, by the application of successive sheets of paper, subjected to a smoothing pressure by the hand, a number of copies may be obtained, in a manner very similar to the ordinary lithographic process. All those which may be classed as “gelatine transfer” processes are, however, open to the objection that, after a certain number of copies, the colour grows very faint.
Some other methods of manifold writing, such es the Edison, the Trypograph, the Cyclostyle, &c. (by which 1,000 copies can be taken from one writing), do not possess this fault, being based on a principle of a fine stencil on prepared paper, and squeezing ink through the minute perforations on to a sheet of paper fixed underneath. The writing in these stencil systems, however, has a “dotty” and broken appearance, displeasing to many eyes—the Cyclostyle being, perhaps, least faulty in this respect. For those who would like to make a gelatine “graph,” we append the following recipe:
Six parts by weight of pure glycerine, four parts by weight of water, two parts of barium sulphate, and one part of sugar. Mix them, and let them soak for twenty-four hours; then melt at a gentle heat, stir until thoroughly mixed, and pour the composition into a tray. Any chemist will supply an aniline dye for the ink.
Footnote 1: Both these sections were numbered 2486 in the original text.
return to footnote mark
Every Pea Helps to Fill the Peck.
The term “cement” includes all those substances employed for the purpose of causing the adhesion of two or more bodies, whether originally separate, or divided by an accidental fracture. As the various substances that may require cementing differ very much in texture, &c., a number of cements possessed of very different properties are required, because a cement that answers admirably under one set of circumstances may be perfectly useless in others. The general principles upon which the success or failure of cementing usually depends are:
The different parts of a solid are held together by an attraction between their several particles, which is termed the attraction of cohesion. This attraction acts only when the particles are in the closest possible contact: even air must not be between them. If, after breaking any substance, we could bring the particles into as close a contact as before, and perfectly exclude the air, they would re-unite, and be as strongly connected as ever. But in general this is impossible: small particles of grit and dust get between them; the film of interposed air cannot be removed; and thus, however firmly we press the edges of a broken cup together, it remains cracked china still.
The cohesion between the particles of the cement is very much less than the adhesion of the cement to other bodies; and if torn apart, the connected joint gives way, not by the loosening of the adhesion, but by the layer of cement splitting down the centre. Hence the important rule that the less cement in a joint the stronger it is. To unite broken substances with a thick cement is disadvantageous, the object being to bring the surfaces as closely together as possible. The general principles that ought always to be borne in mind having been mentioned, the manufacture and uses of some of the more useful cements may be described.
The very useful preparation sold under this title is merely a thin cake of soluble glue, which, when moistened with the tongue, furnishes a ready means of uniting papers, &c. It is made by dissolving one pound of fine glue or gelatine in water, and adding half a pound of brown sugar, boiling the whole until it is sufficiently thick to become solid on cooling; it is then poured into moulds, or on a slab slightly greased, and cut into the required shape when cool. (See Liquid Glue, No. 2491.)
Economy is the Household Mint.
Paste is usually made by rubbing up flour with cold water, and boiling; if a little alum is mixed before boiling it is much improved, being less clammy, working more freely in the brush, and thinner, a less quantity is required, and it is therefore stronger. If required in large quantity, as for papering rooms, it may be made by mixing one quartern of flour, one quarter pound of alum, and a little warm water; when mixed, the requisite quantity of boiling water should be poured on whilst the mixture is being stirred. Paste is only adapted to cementing paper; when used it should spread on one side of the paper, which should then be folded with the pasted side inwards, and allowed to remain a few minutes before being opened and used; this swells the paper, and permits its being mere smoothly and securely attached. If kept for a few days, paste becomes mouldy, and after a short time putrid; this inconveince may be obviated by the use of:
Permanent Paste, made by adding to each half-pint of flour paste without alum, fifteen grains of corrosive sublimate, previously rubbed to powder in a mortar, the whole to be well mixed; this, if prevented from drying, by being kept in a covered pot, remains good any length of time, and is therefore convenient; but unfortunately it is extremely poisonous, though its excessively nauseous taste would prevent its being swallowed accidentally. It possesses the great advantage of not being liable to the attacks of insects.
The liquid glue of the shops is made by dissolving shellac in water, by boiling it along with borax, which possesses the peculiar property of causing the solution of the resinous lac. This preparation is convenient from its cheapness and freedom from smell; but it gives way if exposed to long-continued damp, which that made with naphtha resists.
Of the use of common glue very little need be said; it should always be prepared in a gluepot or double vessel, to prevent its being burned, which injures it very materially. The chief objection to the use of this contrivance is, that it renders it impossible to heat the glue in the inner vessel to the boiling point; this, however, can be obviated by employing in the outer vessel some liquid which boils at a higher temperature than pure water, such as a saturated solution of salt (made by adding one-third as much salt as water). This boils at 224° Fahr., 12° above the heat of boiling water, and enables the glue in the inner vessel to be heated to a much higher temperature than when pure water is employed. If a saturated solution of nitre is used, the temperature rises still higher.
Soak isinglass in water till it is soft; then dissolve it in the smallest possible quantity of proof spirit, by the aid of a gentle heat; in two ounces of this mixture dissolve ten grains of ammoniacum, and whilst still liquid add half a drachm of mastic, dissolved in three drachms of rectified spirit; stir well together, and put into small bottles for sale.
Directions for Use.— Liquefy the cement by plunging the bottle in hot water, and use it directly. The cement improves the oftener the bottle is thus warmed; it resists the action of water and moisture perfectly.
An excellent cement may be made from rice flour, which is at present used for that purpose in China and Japan. It is only necessary to mix the rice flour intimately with cold water, and gently simmer it over a fire, when it readily forms a delicate and durable cement, not only answering all the purposes of common paste, but admirably adapted for joining together paper, cards, &c., in forming the various beautiful and tasteful ornaments which afford much employment and amusement to the ladies. When made of the consistence of plaster-clay, models, busts, bas-relievos, &c., may be formed of it; and the articles, when dry, are susceptible of high polish, and are very durable.
The white of an egg, well beaten with quicklime, and a small quantity of very old cheese, forms an excellent substitute for cement, when wanted in a hurry, either for broken china or old ornamental glassware.
2496. Cement for Broken China, Glass, &c.
This cement being nearly colourless, possesses advantages which liquid glue and other cements do not.—Dissolve half an ounce of gum acacia, in a wineglass of boiling water; add plaster of Paris sufficient to form a thick paste, and apply it with a brush, to the parts required to be cemented together.
At Night Nature is in Mourning for the Loss of the Sun.
Lime and Egg Cement is frequently made by moistening the edges to be united with white of egg, dusting on some lime from a piece of muslin, and bringing the edges into contact. A much better mode is to slake some freshly-burned lime with a small quantity of boiling water; this occasions it to fall into a very fine dry powder, if excess of water has not been added. The white of egg used should be intimately and thoroughly mixed, by beating with an equal bulk of water, and the slaked lime added to the mixture, so as to form a thin paste, which should be used speedily, as it soon sets. This is a valuable cement, possessed of great strength, and capable of withstanding boiling water. Cements made with lime and blood, scraped cheese, or curd, may be regarded as inferior varieties of it.
Cracked vessels of earthenware and glass may often be usefully, though not ornamentally, repaired by white lead spread on strips of calico, and secured with bands of twine.
In point of strength, all ordinary cements yield the palm to Jeffery’s Patent Marine Glue, a compound of India-rubber, shellac, and coal-tar naphtha. Small quantities can be purchased at most of the tool warehouses, at cheaper rates than it can be made. The colour of this glue, however, prevents its being much used.
An exceedingly strong, and at the same time a transparent and colourless cement is made by Messrs. Kay Brothers, of Stockport, and is sold by most fancy stationers and chemists under the name of Coaguline. It is easily and quickly applied, and will be found extremely serviceable in repairing glass, china, and stone articles. It is inexpensive.
Red Cement which is employed by instrument makers for cementing glass to metals, and which is very cheap, and exceedingly useful for a variety of purposes, is made by melting five parts of black rosin, one part of yellow wax, and then stirring in gradually one part of red ochre or Venetian red, in fine powder, and previously well dried. This cement requires to be melted before use, and it adheres better if the objects to which it is applied are warmed.
A soft cement, of a somewhat similar character to that just described, is useful for covering the corks of preserved fruit, and other bottles. It is made by melting yellow wax with an equal quantity of rosin, or of common turpentine (not oil of turpentine, but the resin), using the latter for a very soft cement, and stirring in, as before, some dried Venetian red.
This is employed for making a superior coating to inside walls, but must not be confounded with the resin mastic. It is made by mixing twenty parts of well-washed and sifted sharp sand with two parts of litharge and one of freshly burned and slaked quicklime, in fine dry powder. This is made into a putty, by mixing with linseed oil. It sets in a few hours, having the appearance of light stone; and we mention it, as it may be frequently employed with advantage in repairing broken stone-work (as steps), by filling up the missing parts. The employment of Roman cement, plaster, &c., for masonry work, hardly comes within the limits of Domestic Manipulation.
2504. Cement for Leather and Cloth
An adhesive material for uniting the parts of boots and shoes, and for the seams of articles of clothing, may be made thus:—Take one pound of gutta-percha, four ounces of India rubber, two ounces of pitch, one ounce of shellac, two ounces of oil. The ingredients are to be melted together, and used hot.
Go to Bed with the Lamb and Rise with the Lark.
Take any quantity of linseed oil, say half a pint; put it into an old pot, or any vessel that will stand the fire without breaking—the vessel must not be more than one-third full; put it on a slow fire, stir it occasionally until it thickens as much as required; this will be known by cooling the stick in water, and trying it with the fingers. It is best to make it rather harder than for use. Then pour it into cold water. It can be brought back to the consistency required with a little Archangel tar.
This is an elegant and easy domestic art. Take yellow withered leaves, dissolve gum, black paint, copal varnish, &c. Any articles, such as an old tea-caddy, flower-pots, fire-screens, screens of all descriptions, work-boxes, &c., may be ornamented with these simple materials. Select perfect leaves, dry and press them between the leaves of books; rub the surface of the article to be ornamented with fine sand paper, then give it a coat of fine black paint, which should be procured mixed at a colour shop.
When dry rub smooth with pumice-stone, and give two other coats. Dry. Arrange leaves in any manner and variety, according to taste. Gum the leaves on the under side, and press them upon their places. Then dissolve some isinglass in hot water, and brush it over the work. Dry. Give three coats of copal varnish, allowing ample time for each coat to dry. Articles thus ornamented last for years, and are very pleasing.
An excellent imitation of carved oak, suitable for frames, boxes, vases, and ornaments in endless variety, may be made of a description of leather called basil. The art consists in simply cutting out this material in imitation of natural objects, and in impressing upon it by simple tools, either with or without the aid of heat, such marks and characteristics as are necessary to the imitation. The rules given with regard to the imitation of leaves and flowers apply to ornamental leather work. Begin with a simple object, and proceed by degrees to those that are more complicated.
Cut out an ivy or an oak leaf, and impress the veins upon it; then arrange these in groups, and affix them to frames, or otherwise. The tools required are ivory or steel points of various sizes, punches, and tin shapes, such as are used for confectionery. The points may be made out of the handles of old tooth-brushes. Before cutting out the leaves the leather should be well soaked in water, until it is quite pliable. When dry, it will retain the artistic shape. Leaves and stems are fastened together by means of liquid glue, and varnished with any of the drying varnishes, or with sealing-wax dissolved to a suitable consistency in spirits of wine. Wire, cork, gutta-percha, bits of stems of trees, &c., may severally be used to aid in the formation of groups of buds, flowers, seed-vessels, &c.
Mix some lamp-black with sweet oil. With a piece of flannel cover sheets of writing-paper with the mixture; dab the paper dry with a bit of fine linen. When using, put the black side on another sheet of paper, and fasten the corners together with small pins. Lay on the back of the black paper the pattern to be drawn, and go over it with the point of a steel drawing pencil: the black will then leave the impression of the pattern on the undersheet, on which you may draw it with ink.
2509. Patterns on Cloth or Muslin
Patterns on cloth or muslin are drawn with a pen dipped in stone blue, a bit of sugar and a little water; wet to the consistence wanted.
2510. Feather Flowers: Materials
Procure the best white swan or goose feathers; have them plucked off the fowl with care not to break the web; free them from down, except a small quantity on the shaft of the feather. Get also a little fine wire, different sizes; a few skeins of fine floss silks, some good cotton wool or wadding, a reel of No. 4 Moravian cotton, a skein of Indian silk, some starch and gum for pastes, and a pair of small sharp scissors, a few sheets of coloured silk paper, and some water colours.
Eating and Drinking Shouldn’t Keep Us from Thinking.
2511. Patterns for Petals
Having procured two good specimens of the flower you wish to imitate, carefully pull off the petals of one, and, with a piece of tissue paper, cut out the shape of each, taking care to leave the shaft of the feather at least half an inch longer than the petal of the flower. Carefully bend the feather with the thumb and finger to the proper shape; mind not to break the web.
2512. Stem and Heart of a Flower
Take a piece of wire six inches long; across the top lay a small piece of cotton wool, turn the wire over it, and wind it round until it is the size of the heart or centre of the flower you are going to imitate. If a single flower, cover it with paste or velvet of the proper colour, and round it must be arranged the stamens; these are made of fine Indian silk, or feathers may be used for this purpose. After the petals have been attached, the silk or feather is dipped into gum, and then into the farina. Place the petals round, one at time, and wind them on with Moravian cotton, No. 4. Arrange them as nearly like the flower you have for a copy as possible. Cut the stems of the feathers even, and then make the calyx of feathers, cut like the pattern or natural flower. For the small flowers the calyx is made with paste. Cover the stems with paper or silk the same as the flowers; the paper must be cut in narrow strips, about a quarter of an inch wide.
2513. Pastes of Calyx, Hearts, and Buds of Flowers
Take common white starch and mix it with gum water until it is the substance of thick treacle; colour it with the dyes used for the feathers, and keep it from the air.
2514. To make the Farina
Use common ground rice, mixed into a stiff paste with any dye; dry it before the fire, and when quite hard, pound it to a fine powder. The buds, berries, and hearts of some double flowers are made with cotton wool, wound around wire, moulded to the shape with thumb and finger. Smooth it over with gum water, and when dry, cover the buds, berries, or calyx with the proper coloured pastes; they will require one or two coats, and may be shaded with a little paint, and then gummed and left to dry.
2515. Flowers of Two or More Shades
Flowers of two or more shades are variegated with water colours, mixed with lemon juice, ultramarine and chrome for blue; and to produce other effects, gold may also be used in powder, mixed with lemon juice and gum water.
Into two pennyworth of oil of vitriol mix two pennyworth of the best indigo in powder; let it stand a day or two; when wanted shake it well, and into a quart of boiling water put one tablespoonful of the liquid. Stir it well, put the feathers in, and let them simmer a few minutes.
2517. Yellow
Put a tablespoonful of the best turmeric into a quart of boiling water; when well mixed put in the feathers. More or less of the turmeric will give them different shades, and a very small quantity of soda will give them an orange hue.
2518. Green
Mix the indigo liquid with turmeric, and pour boiling water over it; let the feathers simmer in the dye until they have acquired the shade you want them.
2519. Pink
Three good pink saucers in a quart of boiling water, with a small quantity of cream of tartar. If a deep colour is required, use four saucers. Let the feathers remain in the dye several hours.
2520. Red
In a quart of boiling water dissolve a teaspoonful of cream of tartar; put in one tablespoonful of prepared cochineal, and then a few drops of muriate of tin. This dye is expensive, and scarlet flowers are best made with the plumage of the red ibis, which can generally be had of a bird-fancier or bird-stuffer, who will give directions how it should be applied.
We Seldom Repent of Having Eaten Too Little.
2521. Lilac
About two teaspoonfuls of cudbear into about a quart of boiling water; let it simmer a few minutes before you put in the feathers. A small quantity of cream of tartar turns the colour from lilac to amethyst.
2522. Black; Crimson
See Instructions upon Dyeing, par. 2682, et seq,
2523. Preparation of Feathers for Dyeing
The feathers must be put into hot water, and allowed to drain before they are put into the dyes. After they are taken out of the dye, rinse them two or three times in clear cold water (except the red, which must only be done once), then lay them on a tray, over which a cloth has been spread, before a good fire; when they begin to dry and unfold, draw each feather gently between your thumb and finger, until it regains its proper shape.
These are made of green feathers, cut like those of the natural flower, and serrated at the edge with a very small pair of scissors. For the calyx of a moss-rose the down is left on the feather, and is a very good representation of the moss on the natural flower.
There is no art more easily acquired, nor more encouraging in its immediate results, than that of modelling flowers and fruit in wax. The art, however, is attended by this draw-back—that the materials required are somewhat expensive.
2526. Materials for Wax Flowers
The appliances required for commencing the making of waxen flowers will cost from 20s. to 30s., and may be obtained at most fancy repositories in large towns. Persons wishing to commence the art would do well to inquire for particulars, and see specimens of materials; because in this, as in every other pursuit, there are novelties and improvements being introduced, which no book can give an idea of.
2527. Petals and Leaves of Wax Flowers
Petals and leaves of wax flowers are made of sheets of coloured wax, which may be purchased in packets of assorted colours.
2528. Stems
The stems are made of wire of suitable thicknesses, covered with silk, and overlaid with wax; and the leaves are frequently made by thin sheets of wax pressed upon leaves of embossed calico. Leaves of various descriptions are to be obtained of the persons who sell the materials for wax flower making.
2529. Models for Wax Flowers
Ladies will often find among their discarded artificial flowers, leaves and buds that will serve as the base of their wax models.
2530. Natural Models for Wax Flowers
The best guide to the construction of a flower—far better than printed diagrams or patterns—is to take a flower, say a tulip, a rose, or a camellia. If possible, procure two flowers, nearly alike; and carefully pick one of them to pieces; lay the petals down in the order in which they are taken from the flower, and then cut paper patterns from them, and number them from the centre of the flower, that you may know their relative positions.
2531. Putting Petals Together
The perfect flower will guide you in getting the wax petals together, and will enable you to give, not only to each petal but to the contour of the flower, the characteristics which are natural to it. In most cases, they are merely pressed together and held in their places by the adhesiveness of the wax. From the paper patterns the wax petals or other portions of the flowers may be cut. They should be cut singly, and the scissors should be frequently dipped into water, to prevent the wax adhering to the blades.
2532. Utilisation of Scraps of Wax
The scraps of wax that fall from the cutting will be found useful for making seed vessels, and other parts of the flowers.
He who Serves Well Need not be Afraid to Ask his Wages.
2533. Leaves of Flowers
Where the manufactured foundations cannot be obtained, patterns of them should be cut in paper; the venous appearance may be imparted to the wax by pressing the leaf upon it.
2534. Sprigs of Plants
In the construction of sprigs, it is most important to be guided by sprigs of the natural plant, as various kinds of plants have many different characteristics in the grouping of their flowers, leaves and branches.
2535. Selection of Sheets of Wax
When about to copy a flower, take care in the selection of good sheets of wax, and see that their colours are precisely those of the flower you desire to imitate.
2536. Imitation of Tints, Stripes, Spots, &c.
For the tints, stripes, and spots of variegated flowers, you will be supplied with colours among the other materials; and the application of them is precisely upon the principle of water-colour painting.
For the imitating of fruit in wax, very different rules are to be observed. The following directions may, however, be generally followed:
The material of which moulds for waxen fruit should be composed is the best plaster of Paris, such as is used for plaster casts, &c. If this cannot be procured, the inferior plaster, from the oil-shop, may be substituted, if it can be obtained quite fresh. If, however, the plaster is faulty, the results of the modelling will of course be more or less faulty also. It is the property of plaster of Paris to form a chemical union with water, and to form a pasto winch rapidly “sets” or hardens into a substance of the density of firm chalk. The mould must therefore be formed by impression from the object to be imitated, made upon the plaster before it sets.
2538. Causes of Want of Accuracy
The use of an elastic fruit in early experiments leads to a want of accuracy in the first, steps of the operation, which causes very annoying difficulties afterwards; and therefore a solid, inelastic body—an egg boiled hard—is recommended as the first object to be imitated.
2539. Making the Moulds—First Half
Having filled a small pudding basin about three-quarters full of damp sand (the finer the better), lay the egg lengthways in the sand, so that half of it is above, and half below, the level of the sand, which should be perfectly smooth around it. Then prepare the plaster in another basin, which should be half full of water. Sprinkle the plaster in quickly till it comes to the top of the water, and then, having stirred it for a moment with a spoon, pour the whole upon the egg in the other basin.
2540. Making the Moulds—Second Half
While the half mould thus made is hardening thoroughly, carefully remove every particle of plaster from the basin in which it was mixed, and also from the spoon which has been used. This must be done by placing them both in water and wiping them perfectly clean. This is highly important, since a small quantity of plaster which has set will destroy the quality of a second mixing if it is incorporated therewith. In about five minutes the half mould will be fit to remove, which may be done by turning the basin up with the right hand (taking care not to lose the sand), so that the mould falls into the left hand.
The egg should then be gently allowed to fall back on the sand out of the mould; if, however, it adheres, lightly scrape the plaster from the edge of the mould, and then shake it out into the hollow of the hand. If, however, the exact half of the egg has been immersed in the sand, no such difficulty will arise; this shows how important is exactness in the first position of the object from which a tasting is to be taken.
The egg being removed and laid aside, the moulder casting must be “trimmed;” that is, the sand must be brushed from the flat surface of the mould with a nail-brush very slightly, without touching the extreme and sharp edges where the hollow of the mould commences. Then upon the broad edge from which the sand has been brushed, make four equi-distant hollows (with the round end of a table-knife), like the deep impression of a thimble’s-end. These are to guide hereafter in the fixing of the second half of the mould. The egg should now be replaced in the casting, and the edge of the cast, with the holes, thoroughly lubricated with sweet oil, laid on with a feather, or what is better, a large camel-hair brush.
Father and Mother are Kind, but God is Kinder.
2541. Casting Second Half of Mould
Into the small pudding basin from which the sand has been emptied, place with the egg upper-most the half mould, which, if the operation has been managed properly, should fit close at the edges to the side of the vessel; then prepare some more liquid plaster as before, and pour it upon the egg and mould, and while it is hardening, round it with the spoon as with the first half.
2542. Completion of Mould
In due time remove the whole from the basin; the halves will be found readily separable, and the egg being removed, the mould is ready to cast in, after it has been set aside for an hour or two, so as to completely harden. This is the simplest form of mould, and all are made upon the same principle.
The casting of an egg is not merely interesting as the first step in a series of lessons, but as supplying a means of imitating peculiarly charming objects, which the student of natural history tries almost in vain to preserve. We shall proceed, then, with the directions for the casting of an egg in the mould.
2544. Materials required
For the first experiments, common yellow wax may be used as the material, or the ends of half-burnt wax candles. The materials of the hard (not tallow) composition mould candles will also answer.
2545. Large Castings made Hollow
Every large object to be imitated in wax should be cast hollow; and therefore, though the transparent lightness required in the imitation of fruits is not requisite in an artificial egg, the egg may be cast upon the same principle as a piece of fruit, in the following manner.
Firstly. The two pieces of the plaster of Paris mould must be soaked in hot water for ten minutes.
Secondly. The wax should in the meantime be very slowly melted in a small tin saucepan, with a spout to it, care being taken not to allow it to boil, or it will be discoloured. As to the quantity of wax to be melted, the following is a general rule:—If a lump, the size of the object to be imitated, be placed in the saucepan, it should be sufficient for casting twice, at least.
Thirdly. As soon as the wax is melted thoroughly, place the saucepan on the hob of the grate, and taking the parts of the mould from the hot water, remove the moisture from their surfaces by pressing them gently with a handkerchief or soft cloth. It is necessary to use what is called in some of the arts “a very light hand” in this operation, especially in drying moulds of fruits whose aspect possesses characteristic irregularities—such as those on the orange, the lemon, or the cucumber. The mould must not be wiped, but only pressed. If the water has not been hot enough, or if the drying is not performed quickly, the mould will be too cold, and the wax will congeal too rapidly, and settle in ridges and streaks; on the other hand, if the wax has been made too hot, it will adhere to the mould, and refuse to come out entire.
Fourthly. Having laid the two halves of the mould so that there can be no mistake in fitting the one in its exact place quickly on the other, pour from the saucepan into one of the half moulds nearly as much wax as will fill the hollow made by the model (egg), quickly fit the other half on the top of it, squeeze the two pieces tightly together in the hand, and still holding them thus, turn them over in every possible position, so that the wax which is slowly congealing in the internal hollow of the mould may be of equal thickness in all parts. Having continued this process at least two minutes, the hands (still holding and turning the mould) may be immersed in cold water to accelerate the cooling process. The perfect congealment of the wax may be known after a little experience by the absence of the sound of fluid on shaking the mould.
Fifthly. As soon as the mould is completely cooled, the halves may be separated carefully, the upper being lifted straight up from the under, and if the operation has been properly managed, a waxen egg will be turned out of the mould.
Lastly. The egg will only require trimming, that is, removing the ridge which marks the line at which the halves of the mould joined, and polishing out the scratches or inequalities left by the knife with a piece of soft rag, wet with spirits of turpentine or spirits of wine.
It is always desirable to make several castings of the same object, as the moulds are apt to get chipped when laid by in a cupboard; and for this reason, as well as for the sake of practice, we recommend our pupils to make at least a dozen waxen eggs before they proceed to any other object. If they succeed in this completely, they may rest assured that every difficulty which is likely to meet them in any future operation will be easily overcome.
He Doeth Well Who Doeth Good.
2546. Colouring the Wax
While the wax is yet on the hob, and in a fluid state, stir into it a little flake white, in powder, and continue to stir the mixture while it is being poured into the half mould. It will be found that unless the fixing and shaking of the moulds is managed quickly, the colouring matter will settle on the side of the half into which the mixture is poured; a little care in manipulation is therefore again requisite. The colouring of the wax is a matter which comes easily enough by experiment. Oranges, lemons, large gooseberries, small cucumbers, &c.,&c., are excellent objects for practice.
2547. Close Imitation of the Surface
It will be noted by the accurate observer that the shell of the common hen’s egg has a number of minute holes, which destroy the perfect smoothness of its appearance. This peculiarity is imitated in the following simple manner:—In the first place, very slightly prick with a fine needle the surface of your waxen egg, and then, having smeared it with spirits of turpentine, rub the surface all over. So as nearly to obliterate the marks of the needle point.
This is a beautiful, useful, and inexpensive art easily acquired, and producing imitations of the richest and rarest stained glass; and also of making blinds, screens, skylights, Chinese lanterns, &c., in every variety of colour and design.
2549. Imitation of Coloured Glass
In decorating his house an Englishman spends as much money as he can conveniently spare; the elegances and refinements of modern taste demand something more than mere comfort; yet though his walls are hung with pictures, his drawing-rooms filled with bijouterie, how is it that the windows of his hall, his library, his staircase, are neglected? The reason is obvious. The magnificent historical old stained glass might be envied, but could not be brought within the compass of ordinary means.
Recent improvements in printing in colours led the way to this beautiful invention, by which economy is combined with the most perfect results. A peculiar kind of paper is rendered perfectly transparent, upon which designs are printed in glass colours (vitre de couleurs), which will not change with the light. The paper is applied to the glass with a clear white varnish, and when dry, a preparation is finally applied, which increases the transparency, and adds tenfold brilliancy to the effect.
2550. Imitation of Half-Light
There is another design, printed in imitation of the half-light (abat-jour); this is used principally for a ground, covering the whole surface of the glass, within which (the necessary spaces having been previously cut out before it is stuck on the glass) are placed medallion centres of Watteau figures, perfectly transparent, which derive increased brilliancy from the semi-transparency of the surrounding ground. This is by far the cheapest method, though involving extra trouble, as the plain grounds printed in sheets are only a fourth the price of the sheets which contain the medallion Watteau centres or other small designs suitable for the purpose.
2551. Sheets of Designs
The transparent sheets measure 20-1/2 in. by 16-1/2, and are ready for immediate use. The other articles required are some clear white varnish, some liqueur diaphane, brushes, metal palettes, and ivory sticks. These are all the appliances required.
2552. Calculation of Quantities
To ascertain the quantity of designs required, measure your glass carefully, and then calculate how many sheets it will take (the sheets being 20-1/2 in. by 16-1/2 in. as given above). The sheets are arranged so that they can be joined together continuously, or cut to any size or shape.
2553. Practical Instructions
Choose a fine day for the operation, as the glass should be perfectly dry, and unaffected by the humidity of the atmosphere. Of course, if you have a choice, it is more convenient to work on your glass before it is fixed in the frame. If you are working on a piece of unattached glass, lay it on a flat table (a marble slab is preferable), over which you must previously lay a piece of baize or cloth to keep the glass steady.
The glass being thus fixed, clean and polish the side on which you intend to operate (in windows this is the inner side), then with your brush lay on it very equably a good coat of the prepared varnish; let this dry for an hour, more or less, according to the dryness of the atmosphere and the thickness of the coat of varnish; meantime cut and trim your designs carefully to fit the glass (if it is one entire transparent sheet you will find little trouble); then lay them on a piece of paper, face downwards, and damp the back of them with a sponge, applied several times, to equalize the moisture.
In ths operation arrange your time so that your designs may now be finally left to dry for fifteen minutes before application to the glass, the varnish on which has now become tacky or sticky, and in a proper state to receive them. Apply the printed side next to the glass without pressure; endeavour to let your sheet fall perfectly level and smooth on your glass, so that you may avoid leaving creases, which would be fatal.
Take now your palette, lay it flat on the design, and press out all the air-bubbles, commencing in the centre, and working them out at the sides; an ivory stick will be found useful in removing creases: you now leave this to dry, and after twenty-four hours apply a slight coat of the liqueur diaphane, leaving it another day, when, if dry, apply a second coat of the same kind, which must be left several days; finally, apply a coat of varnish over all.
2554. Probable Results
If these directions are carefully followed, your glass will never be affected by time or any variations in the weather; it will defy hail, rain, frost, and dust, and can be washed the same as ordinary stained glass, to which, in some respects, it is even superior.
2555. Application of Diaphanie
It is impossible to enumerate the variety of articles to the manufacture of which Diaphanie may be successfully applied, as it is not confined to glass, but can be done on silk, parchment, paper, linen, &c., after they have been made transparent which may be accomplished in the following manner:
2556. Management of Paper, &c.
Stretch your paper, or whatever it may be, on a frame or drawing board, then apply two successive coats (a day between each) of diaphanous liquor, and after leaving it to dry for several days, cover it with a thin layer of very clear size, and when dry it will be in a fit state to receive the coat of varnish and the designs.
2557. Management of Textile Fabrics
Silk, linen, or other stuffs should be more carefully stretched, and receive a thicker coat of size than paper or parchment; the latter may be strained on a drawing or any other smooth board, by damping the sheet, and after pasting the edges, stretching it down while damp. Silk, linen, and other stuffs require to be carefully stretched on a suitable frame. Whatever you use, take great care to allow time to dry before applying the liqueur diaphane.
2558. Screens, &c., in Diaphanie
All kinds of screens, lamp shades and glasses, lanterns, &c., &c., may be made in this way, as heat will produce no effect upon them. The transparent pictures are successful, because they may be hung on a window frame or removed at will, and the window blinds are superior to anything of that kind yet produced.
Vitremanie is a process of imitating painting on glass similar to Diaphanie, and Potichomanie is a process of like nature by which glass plates, vases, &c., are made to resemble porcelain.
This recently discovered and beautiful art consists in transferring coloured drawings to glass, porcelain, china, wood, silk, furniture, plaster of Paris, alabaster, ivory, paper, paper hangings, windows, tea trays, oil cloth, and all kinds of fancy articles; in short, materials of any kind, shape, or size, provided they possess a smooth surface, can be decorated with Decalcomanie; the immediate result being an exact resemblance to painting by hand. The art itself is simple and ingenious, and while affording agreeable occupation to ladies, it may be made to serve many useful purposes, on account of the numerous objects which will admit of being thus ornamented.
2561. Materials Employed in Decalcomanie
A bottle of transfer varnish for fixing the drawings.
A bottle of light varnish to pass over the drawings when fixed.
A bottle of spirit to clean the brushes, and to remove those pictures which may not be successful.
A piece of beaver cloth about nine inches square.
A paper-knife and roller.
Two or three camel-hair brushes.
A basin of water.
A bottle of opaque varnish.
2562. Instructions
Thoroughly clean and free from grease the article to be decorated; then, having cut off the white paper margin of the drawing, dip one of the brushes into the transfer varnish, and give it a very light coat, being especially careful to cover the whole of the coloured portion, but not to allow it to touch the blank paper; then lay the drawing, face downwards, on the object to be ornamented, taking care to place it at once where it is to remain, as it would be spoilt by moving. If the varnish, on its first application, is too liquid, allow the picture to remain for about ten minutes to set.
Moisten the cloth with water, and lay it gently on the drawing which has been previously laid in its place on the object to be decorated; then rub it over with the paper-knife or roller, so as to cause the print to adhere in every part; this done, remove the cloth, well soak the paper with a camel-hair brush dipped in water, and immediately after lift the paper by one corner, and gently draw it off.
The picture will be left on the object, while the paper will come off perfectly white. Care must be taken that the piece of cloth, without being too wet, is sufficiently so to saturate the paper completely. The drawing must now be washed with a camel-hair brush, in clean water, to remove the surplus varnish, and then left till quite dry. On the following day, cover the picture with a light coat of the fixing varnish, to give brilliancy to the colours.
The Stranger in his Wretchedness...
2563. To Ornament Dark-coloured Objects
To ornament dark-coloured objects, such as the bindings of books, Russia leather, blotting-cases, leathern bags, &c., the picture must be previously covered with a mixture of opaque white varnish, taking care not to pass beyond the outline of the design. On the following day, proceed according to the instructions given in the preceding paragraph.
2564. To ornament Silk, Paper, or Articles which will not bear wetting
Varnish the picture with the transfer varnish, as previously explained, following the outline of the design, then allow it to dry for an hour or two; when quite dry, pass a damp sponge over the entire surface of the sheet, so as to remove the composition which surrounds the picture, and which may spoil the object.
Let the paper dry once more, and varnish the picture again with the transfer varnish; in about ten minutes, place it face downward on the object to be decorated, and rub it with the paper-knife or roller, over the whole of its surface. Finally, moisten the paper with a wet brush, allow it to remain sufficiently long to become moist, then strip the paper off.
To remove a spoilt picture from any object, dip a soft rag in the essence, and rub it over the surface.
2565. To Insure a Successful Result
To insure a successful result, care must be taken to give a very light coating of varnish to the parts to be transferred. When the varnish is first applied it is very liquid, and must remain ten minutes, the best condition for transferring being when the varnish is only just sticky, without being too dry.
2566. The Following Designs will be found the most Elegant and Appropriate
English flowers of every variety: bouquets, tropical birds, flowers and fruits in imitation of aqua-tint; garlands with cupids after Watteau, and garlands with birds; domestic scenes; pears and cherries, apples and plums, white grapes and plums, black grapes and peaches, plums and mulberries, large bouquet of roses; bouquets of moss roses and pansies.; bouquets of small camellias; bouquets of wall-flowers and poppies; bouquets of orange-blossom, medallions, various subjects; birds’-nests; Gothic initials and monograms, fleurs-de-lis; borders various.
Heraldic Decalcomanie is an extended application of this art, the arms and crests of persons or families being emblazoned in their proper colours according to the rules of heraldry, and prepared for Decalcomanie. Armorial bearings, thus embellished, serve admirably to ornament and identify the books of a library and pictures of a gallery, to decorate menus for dinner, the invitations to a soirée, &c. By their brilliant colours they give an elegant effect to the table decorations.
This out-door pastime is of comparatively modern creation, and until quite lately was very much in vogue. It nay be played by persons of all ages and of either sex; but it is especially adapted for ladies and young persons, as it demands but slight personal exertion, while it affords delightful and health-giving sport.
2569. The Ground
The ground is preferably a grass plot of an oblong form; but an ordinary lawn or expanse of even turf will answer the purpose, so long as it is of sufficient extent for the operations of the game.
The implements are balls, mallets, starting and turning pegs, croquet clips or markers, hoops or arches.
2571. Arrangement of the Hoops
As much of the interest of this game depends upon the arrangement of the hoops, it is essential that they should be fixed in the ground on definite principles. In the first place, the starting peg is driven in at one end of the ground, and the turning peg is driven in at the other extremity. From each of these pegs a space of twelve feet intervenes; here a hoop is fixed; another space of ten feet intervenes, when a second hoop is fixed; a space of eight feet then succeeds, and at this point is formed what may be termed the base, on each side of which, at a distance of twenty feet, and succeeding each other at intervals of ten feet, three hoops are driven in. By this arrangement, a square is formed, the starting peg leading into its centre, and the turning peg leading from it. Where the ground is small, the distances may be contracted proportionally. Other arrangements of the hoops may he made at the discretion of the players, but the first-named plan will be found best worthy of adoption, as it affords the most excellent opportunities for the display of address and skill.
2572. The Game
The game consists in striking the balls from the starting peg through the hoops to the peg at the opposite extremity. The balls are then driven back again to the starting peg. The game may be played by any number of persons not exceeding eight. A larger number renders the game tedious. The best number is four. If two only play, each player may take two balls, and when as many as eight play, there should be two sides or sets. Each player takes a mallet, ball, and croquet clip of the same colour or number, the clip being used to indicate the hoop at which, in his turn, he aims. The division into sides, choice of balls, mallets, &c., is determined by the players among themselves.
In this game, as with many other sports when first established, there were differences of opinion on certain points of practice. In 1870, however, at a conference of Croquet players, the following rules were settled and adopted. They are now accepted by all players.
There shall be no restriction to the number, weight, size, shape, or material of the mallets: nor as to the attitude or position of the striker.
The players shall toss for choice of lead and of balls: and a succession of games shall take the lead alternately and keep the same balls.
In commencing, each ball shall be placed at one foot from the first hoop in a direct line between the pegs; and a ball having been struck is at once in play, and croquetable whether it shall have made the first hoop or not.
A stroke is considered to have been taken if a ball is moved perceptibly; but should the player have struck it accidentally, and the umpire be satisfied that the stroke was accidental, the ball is replaced and the stroke taken again.
If the player make a foul stroke he loses his turn and all the points made therein, and the balls remain where they lie, at the option of the adversary. The following are considered foul strokes:
To strike with the mallet another ball instead of or besides one’s own in making the stroke.
To spoon, that is, to push a ball without an audible knock.
To strike a ball twice in the same stroke.
To stop a ball with the foot in taking a loose Croquet.
To allow a ball to touch the mallet in rebounding from the turning peg.
To fail to stir the passive ball in taking Croquet.
If a player, in striking at a ball which lies against a peg or wire, should move it from its position by striking a peg or wire, the ball must be replaced, and the stroke taken again.
A player continues to play so long as he makes a point or hits a ball. A point consists in making a hoop or hitting the turning peg in order.
The ball has made its hoop when, having passed through from the playing side and ceased to roll, it cannot be touched by a straight-edge placed across the wires on the side from which it was played.
A player who hits a ball must take Croquet: that is, must strike his own ball while in contact with the other, so as perceptibly to stir both. In doing this he is not allowed to place his foot on his ball. A player, when his turn comes round, may hit and Croquet each ball in succession, and can do this again after each point made, but between the points can only take Croquet once off each ball.
A playing ball which hits another after making a point is in hand, and the striker can score no point till he has taken Croquet. After hitting another, a ball may be stopped by any player; but should it, in rolling, displace any of the other balls, such balls must remain where they are driven.
When, at the commencement of a turn, two balls are found touching, Croquet must be taken at once, without repeating the hit.
When a player, in his stroke, hits one or more balls, he must take Croquet off the ball that is struck first; but if he has hit two simultaneously, he may choose from which of them he will take it, and in both cases a second hit is required before he can take it from the other ball.
Should the ball in making its hoop strike another that lies beyond the hoop and then pass through it, the hoop and the hit both count; but, should any part of the ball that is hit have been lying beneath the hoop, the Croquet must be taken, but the hoop does not count.
A rover which strikes or is driven by another ball against the winning peg is out of the game, and must be removed from the ground.
A player who pegs out a rover by a first hit cannot take Croquet from it, as the ball is out of the game, and he is not entitled to another stroke.
Should a player play out of his turn, or with a wrong ball, and this be discovered by his antagonist before a second stroke in error has been made, the turn is lost, and all points made after the mistake, and the balls shall remain as they lay at the time the mistake was discovered, or be replaced to the satisfaction of the antagonist. But if he has made a second stroke before the error is discovered, he continues his break, and the next player follows with the ball that is next in rotation to the one with which he has played, and is liable to lose his turn, and all points made therein, if he plays with that which would have been the right ball if no mistake had been made.
Should a player make the wrong hoop by mistake, or Croquet a ball that he is not entitled to Croquet, and the mistake be discovered before he has made a second stroke, he loses his turn, and any point so made in error; but if he has made a second stroke before the discovery, he shall be allowed to continue his break.
In order to prevent the occurrence of the errors noticed in the above rules (Nos. xv. and xvi), a player is bound, upon being appealed to, to declare truly what is his next hoop or point in order, and is entitled to demand of his antagonist what he his played last, and to insist upon his clip being properly placed.
When clips are used they should be moved by the umpire, or with his cognisance, at the end of each turn, and their position shall he conclusive as to the position of the balls in the game.
Should a ball in play be accidentally stopped by the umpire, he places it where he considers that it would have rolled to. Should it be stopped by a player, it will rest with the side opposed to that player to say whether the ball shall remain where it stopped, or be placed by the umpire, or the stroke be taken again.
If a ball lies within a mallet’s length of the boundary, and is not the playing ball, it must at once be put out three feet at right angles from the boundary; but if it is the playing ball, it may, at the discretion of the player, either be put out or played from where it lies.
If it is found that the height of the boundary interferes with the stroke, the player may, at the umpire’s discretion, bring out the ball so far as to allow of the free swing of the mallet, and in taking a Croquet both the balls.
Should a player, in trying to make his hoop, knock a wire out of the ground with his ball or mallet, the stroke shall be taken again.
Any player may set upright a peg or hoop except the one next in order; and that, however loose, awry, or slanting it may be, must not be altered except by the umpire.
No ball may be moved because of its lying in a hole or on bad ground, except by the umpire or with his permission.
Where there is no umpire present, permission to move a ball, or to set up a hoop or peg or other indulgence for which an umpire would have been appealed to, must be asked of the other side.
The decision of the umpire shall in all cases be final. His duties are:
To move the clips, or see that they are properly moved;
to decide on the application of the laws;
to satisfy any player as to the point that is next to be made, or the right ball to play;
to keep the score. But he shall not give his opinion, or notice any error that may be made, unless appealed to by one of the players.
It was also decided that the mallet should be held within twelve inches of its head.
The following were added from the Draft Club Laws of Croquet.
If a ball be driven partly through its hoop from the non-playing side, and remain so that a straight-edge placed in contact with the hoop on the non-playing side touches the ball, the ball cannot run its hoop at its next stroke.
If in taking Croquet the striker’s ball go off the ground, the striker loses the remainder of his turn; but if by the same stroke the striker make a point or a Croquet, he continues his turn.
If, after a Croquet, the striker’s ball, while rolling, be touched by the striker or his partner, the stroke is foul.
2575. Difference between Old and New Laws
The chief difference (says Captain Crawley) between these and previous laws will be found in the method of taking the Croquet. The new laws say that the foot must not be placed on the player’s ball; the generally accepted practice was to take the Croquet by putting your foot on your ball and striking it so as to send the other bill off to a distance; or if the other ball belonged to your partner to merely tap it in the direction desired. The foot practice is still observed by many players; and some think with advantage.
2576. Technical Terms Used in Croquet
Roquet.—To strike another ball with your own.
Croquet.—When two balls are in contact, the player strikes the other away, either with or without putting the foot on your own ball, as may be previously arranged.
A loose Croquet is made by striking your opponent’s ball without putting your foot on your own ball. In taking “two off” it is, however, necessary that the ball should be seen to move.
Wired.—A ball is in contact with a hoop, so as to prevent it going through.
Bridge Ball.—One that has passed the first arch.
Dead Ball.—One in hand after having roqueted another.
To Peg.—To play for either of the pegs in regular order.
The Tour.—The run given to each player till he fails to strike through a hoop.
To Dismiss a ball is to Croquet it to a distance.
Rover.—You become a Rover when you have completed the hoops from point to point, and instead of hitting the starting-peg and retiring, you prefer to strike your ball to any part of the ground, croqueting friends or foes.
The terms side stroke, straight stroke, following ball, over-running a bridge, running a bridge, &c., explain themselves.
An indoor game played on an oblong board usually from six to ten feet long by a foot and a half to three feet in width. The bed of the table is of slate covered with a fine green cloth; and at the upper end, which is rounded, there are nine holes or cups, numbered from 1 to 9, thus:
| 5 | ||||
| 3 | 2 | |||
| 8 | 9 | 7 | ||
| 4 | 6 | |||
| 1 |
Into these holes ivory balls are driven by a leather pointed cue. The player stands at the lower end of the table; and his object is to hole the balls successively into the several cups. Nine balls are used, eight white and one red; or seven white with two coloured balls. The red is placed on a spot just in front of the 1 hole; and the game is played according to the following:
Any number of persons may play, whether singly or on sides.
Each player strings for lead, and he whose ball falls into the highest hole begins.
The winner of the lead plays the nine balls successively up the table from baulk, first striking at the red ball on the spot.
The red ball counts double when holed, and each white ball scores towards game a number corresponding to that marked in the hole (when two coloured balls are used, each counts double).
The red ball must be first struck; and the rest of the balls are played up to the holes, the sum total of all the holes filled being the striker’s score.
Any number of rounds agreed on may be played, and the highest aggregate total by a player or by partners wins the game.
A ball rebounding beyond the baulk line, or forced off the table, is put aside and not re-used in that round.
2579. The French Game (or Sans Egal)
The French Game (or Sans Egal) is played as follows:—The player who wins the lead takes four balls, leaving the other four for his opponent, and placing the black ball on the spot. He plays at it from baulk, and scores all he can. The other player then strikes up one of his balls, and so on alternately; the maker of the highest number of points winning. While the coloured ball is on the table, it must be struck, and when it is holed it counts double, in addition to any other score made by the same stroke. If either player hole his adversary’s ball he forfeits to him the number scored by the stroke. If he fail to strike the black ball he forfeits five points. The rules as to rebounding balls, foul strokes, &c., are the same as in the ordinary game.
Old Canon Game, sometimes played on a table without holes or pockets, consists entirely of canons—two balls struck in succession by the player’s ball. The game, 50 or 100 up, each canon counting two points, is played with three balls only—a white, spot-white, and black (or red) ball. When played on the ordinary bagatelle table, the holes filled after making a canon score to the player. One point is forfeited for missing the white, five points for missing the red; and all points made without a canon. The players go on alternately, the first who scores the stipulated number winning the game.
Mississippi, Trou Madame, Cockamaroo, and other toy-games are sometimes played on the bagatelle table; but they need no description. To play well at any of the games, however, requires great care and nicety. Much depends on the manner of holding and using the cue, and the slight degree of force employed in making the stroke. Some experts are able to fill all the holes at one essay, placing the coloured balls in the 8 and 7 at the first stroke, and then playing direct at the cups or at the cushion, till all the balls are holed. At the French Game a hundred or more canons at a break is by no means unusual.
This well-known game of skill is played on a rectangular table with three ivory balls,—white, spot-white, and red; the object being to drive one or other of them into either of the six pockets, and to strike one ball against the two others. The first stroke is known as a hazard, and the second as a canon. The instrument for striking at the ball, is a long tapering stick called a cue; and the game is scored by hazards, canons, misses, and forfeitures. The ball struck with the cue is known as the player’s ball; the ball played as the object ball. A ball struck into a pocket, is a winning hazard; the player’s ball falling into a pocket after contact with the white or red, is a losing hazard. Three principal games are played on the billiard table—the English game, or Billiards, Pyramids, and Pool.
2583. English Billiards
English Billiards,—the best of all the games,—is usually played 50 or 100 up. The points are thus reckoned—three for each red hazard, two for each white hazard, and two for each canon. A coup—that is running in a pocket, or off the table without striking a ball—is a forfeiture of three points,—a miss gives one point to the adversary. The game commences by stringing for lead and choice of balls. The red ball is placed on the spot at the top of the table, and the first player either strikes at it, or gives a miss. Every time the red ball is pocketed, it is replaced on the spot. He who makes a hazard or canon goes on playing till he fails to score. Then the other goes on, and so they play alternately till one or other completes the required number of points, and wins the game.
Pyramids is a game played by two persons, or by four in sides, two against two. Fifteen balls are placed close together in the form of a triangle or pyramid, with the apex towards the player, thus:
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||||
| 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
| 0 | 0 | |||||||
| 0 |
The centre of the apex ball covers the second or pyramid spot; and the first player strikes at the mass with a white ball from baulk. Pyramids is a game consisting entirely of winning hazards, and he who succeeds in pocketing the greatest number of balls, wins. A single point is scored for each winning hazard, and a forfeiture of a point for each losing hazard; the game being usually played for a stake—so much (say 6d.) a ball, and so much (say 1s. 6d.) for the game.
A game played by two or more persons, consisting of winning hazard only. Each player subscribes a certain stake to form a pool or gross sum, and at starting has three chances or lives. He is then provided with a marked or coloured ball, and the game proceeds thus:
The white ball is placed on the spot, and the red is played on to it from baulk. If the player pocket the white he receives the price of a life from the owner of the ball; but if he fail, the next player (yellow) plays on the red; and so on alternately till all have played, or till a ball is pocketed. When a ball is pocketed, the striker plays at the ball nearest his own, and goes on playing as long as he can score. The first player who loses his three lives can star: that is, he can purchase as many lives as are held by the lowest number remaining in the pool. The order of play is usually red upon white, yellow upon red, green upon yellow, brown upon green, blue upon brown, black upon blue, spot-white upon black, white upon spot-white; and this order is retained so long as all the original players remain in the game. When the number of players is reduced to two, they can, if they possess an equality of lives, as two each, or one each, divide the stake; or they may by agreement play out the game for the entire pool.
Single Pool is a game for two players, the white winning game, originally played with two balls, for a money stake upon each life.
2587. Nearest Ball Pool
Nearest Ball Pool is the same as ordinary pool, except that the player, after taking a life, plays upon the ball nearest to the upper or outer side of the baulk; or, if his ball be in hand, upon the ball nearest the baulk semi-circle.
Black Pool is ordinary pool with the addition of a black ball, which is placed on the centre spot. When, after pocketing the ball proper to be played on, the black is struck into a pocket, each player pays the price of a life to the striker.
Skittle Pool is pool with three balls and twelve little skittles, placed in order round the table. A stake is determined on, and a price paid out of the pool for every skittle knocked over after striking a ball. An amusing game for a party of ladies and gentlemen.
Penny Pot is pool without restriction as to the number of lives, played by any number of players, who pay a penny each to the taker of every life or winning hazard. For the scientific principles of billiards, and the full rules of the several games played on the billiard-table, the reader is referred to the excellent little shilling volume, “Billiards Made Easy,” 1 and the more elaborate treatise by Captain Crawley.
Billiards made Easy. With the scientific Principles of the Spot-stroke, and the Side-stroke, familiarly explained: By Winning Hazard. Illustrated by practical diagrams. With a chapter on Bagatelle: Houlston and Sons.
return to footnote mark
2591. Boss; or the Fifteen Puzzle
Apparently simple, this game is really difficult of solution, Fifteen cubes of wood, severally marked from I to 15, are placed indifferently in a box made to hold sixteen; thus:
The puzzle consists in sliding the cubes from square to square, without lifting them or removing them from the box, until they are placed in their natural order. It is easy enough to move the squares up to 12; but to get the last three into order is often a puzzle indeed. If the figures fall in either of the following positions—13, 15, 14; 14, 13, 15; or 15, 14, 13—the problem is unsolvable; it follows, therefore, that the last row must be either 14, 15, 13; or 15, 13, 14. If you get the cubes into either of these positions, you can easily bring them right; but if you cannot, the only way is to begin the game all over again. Several other ways are suggested. Cavendish (Mr. H. Jones) thinks he solves the puzzle by turning the box half round; but as this is only possible when the figures are on circular pieces of wood, his solution merely cuts the knot, instead of unravelling it.
This is an adaptation of tho old magic square, which amused the philosophers of old. A sketch of it appears in Albert Durer’s painting of Melancholia. Sixteen discs or squares, numbered from 1 to 16, are placed indifferently on the table—or they may be in the fifteen box; and the puzzle is to so arrange them as to make the sum of the figures add up to 34, whether counted up, down, across or angularly. Here is the solution:
This is the simplest; but a more elaborate plan is to so arrange the figures that any form of the blocks will form a square sum of 34. See the annexed solution, which the ingenious in may still further complicate:
This old-fashioned game is played on a solitaire board. Seventeen geese occupy the upper part of the board lines, with the fox in the middle, thus:
The object of the game is to confine the fox in a corner, so that he cannot move. The geese march forward in straight lines, not on the diagonals; and whenever a goose is on the spot next the fox, the latter can take him, as in draughts, by jumping over to the vacant spot beyond. The fox can move backwards, forwards, or sideways on the straight lines; but the geese must go forward, and are not allowed to retreat. Properly played, the geese must win; but when the number of geese is reduced to six, it is impossible for them to confine the fox.
There are several ways of playing the game, by placing the fox and geese in other positions, or by insisting on the fox catching all the geese. In the latter case, the fox chooses his own starting place. The game may also be played with eight geese and a fox.
Another way of playing this game is on an ordinary draughtboard, with four white men for the geese, and a black king for the fox. The geese can only move forward, but the fox moves either way. The object of the geese is to pen up the fox so that he cannot move; the object of the fox is to break through the line of defence. If the game be properly played, the geese must win. Place them on the draughtboard thus:
The secret is to keep the geese in a line. The fox tries to prevent this, and if he can succeed in doubling the geese, or getting one to stand before the other, he is nearly sure to pass through them.
In the old German game the figure of a goose is printed on a large sheet of paper, and divided into 63 squares or divisions. The object of the players,—any number of whom may join in the game—is to make 63 points by successive throws of two dice. A pool is made by equal contributions by the players, the first of whom gaining the required number wins. The players throw alternately and add each individual throw to that already made.
Each player’s position is shown on the goose by a counter, a wafer, or any small article. Any number beyond 63 sends the thrower back as many points as he exceeds 63. Thus if he were 58, and by a 6 and 5 he threw eleven he would go forward 5 squares to 63, and back 6 squares from 63. In addition to this, certain numbers on the goose are barred; and if the player make them he is fined two counters, which are added to the pool. The numbered goose is sold at most toy shops, but a numbered draughtboard will serve as well.
This is a game that may be played by any number of persons in a field or open space. The implements are wooden balls and long-handled cues at the ends of which are spoonlike ovals of iron. In the centre of the Troco ground is fixed a ring of iron, which moves freely on a pivot, the spike of the ring being driven into a piece of wood let into the ground. The wooden ball is lifted from the ground by means of the spoon-ended cue, and thrown towards the ring—the object of the player being to pass the ball through the ring; and he who succeeds in making any given number of points by fairly ringing his ball, or canoning against the other balls, wins the game.
Canons are made by the player striking two balls successively with his own ball fairly delivered from his spoon. Thus (says the most recent writer on the game) a clever player may make a large number of points—five, seven, or more at a stroke: two the first canon, two for a second canon, and three for the ring. This, however, is very seldom accomplished.
Considerable skill is required in throwing the ball, as the ring, turning freely on its pivot, twists round on being struck. To “make the ring,” it is necessary, therefore, that the ball be thrown fairly through its centre. But in order to get nearer to it a judicious player will endeavour to make two or three canons, if the balls lie within a convenient distance and at a proper angle to each other. If the ball be thrown with sufficient force, it will glance off from the ball struck in a line corresponding to its first or original line of projection.
Troco may be played by two or more persons, each of whom is provided with a ball and a cue. When more than two play, sides are chosen, and the side which first makes the requisite number of points wins the game.
The players stand in a circle, in the centre of which is set up the pivot-ring.
Each player starts from any portion of the circle distant not less than four yards from the ring. The first player lifts his ball with the spoon-cue, and throws it towards the ring; each of the others taking his turn alternately—the balls remaining on the ground where they stop rolling.
If the first player fail to “make his ring,” the next goes on, who may either throw at the ring or at the ball in the circle.
Partners may assist each other in getting near the ring; but no player, at starting, may step within four yards of the ring.
Two points are counted for every canon, and three for every fairly-made ring; and successive points are reckoned for any number of rings or canons.
Each player goes on till he fails to canon or ring his ball; when the next plays; and so on, till the required number of points are made.
One point is taken off the player’s score for every foul stroke. Foul strokes are made by touching a ball with hand or person while it is in play; by playing with a wrong ball; by playing out of turn; by overturning the ring; and by making two or more steps while throwing the ball.
Each player, after the start, must go on from the place at which his ball was left after the previous stroke.
All disputed points must be settled by the umpire, whose decision is final.
No ball in-play must be removed from its position except by a stroke from another ball, and every ball is considered to be in-play while it is within the circle, which may be of any dimensions chosen by the players previous to the commencement of the game.
Any player leaving a game before it is finished, loses it.
The game is played fifteen, twenty-one, or any other determined number of points. The balls should be perfectly round and smooth. They are generally made of boxwood or lignum vitæ, and weigh about three to five lbs. each; the balls, cues, &c., are sold by most dealers in croquet implements.
2597. Habits of a Man of Business
A sacred regard to the principles of justice forms the basis of every transaction, and regulates the conduct of the upright man of business. The following statements afford a bird’s-eye view, as it were, of his habits, practice, and mode of procedure:
He is strict in keeping his engagements.
He does nothing carelessly or in a hurry.
He employs nobody to do what he can easily do himself.
He keeps everything in its proper place.
He leaves nothing undone that ought to be done, and which circumstances permit him to do.
He keeps his designs and business from the view of others.
He is prompt and decisive with his customers, and does not over-trade his capital.
He prefers short credits to long ones; and cash to credit at all times, either in buying or selling; and small profits in credit cases with little risk, to the chance of better gains with more hazard.
He is clear and explicit in all his bargains.
He leaves nothing of consequence to memory which he can and ought to commit to writing.
He keeps copies of all his important letters which he sends away, and has every letter, invoice, &c., belonging to his business, titled, classed, and put away.
He never suffers his desk to be confused by many papers lying upon it.
He is always at the head of his business, well knowing that if he leaves it, it will leave him.
He holds it as a maxim that he whose credit is suspected is not one to be trusted.
He is constantly examining his books, and sees through all his affairs as far as care and attention will enable him.
He balances regularly at stated times, and then makes out and transmits all his accounts current to his customers, both at home and abroad.
He avoids as much as possible all sorts of accommodation in money matters, and lawsuits where there is the least hazard.
He is economical in his expenditure, always living within his income.
He keeps a memorandum-book in his pocket, in which he notes every particular relative to appointments, addresses, and petty cash matters.
He is cautious how he becomes security for any person; and is generous when urged by motives of humanity.
Let a man act strictly to these habits—ever remembering that he hath no profits by his pains whom Providence doth not prosper—and success will attend his efforts.
2598. Taking a Shop or Place of Business
If you are about to take a place of business, you will do well to consider the following remarks:
Let us take the case of a person who has no intimate knowledge of any particular trade, but having a very small capital, is about to embark it in the exchange of commodities for cash, in order to obtain an honest livelihood thereby. It is clear, that unless such a person starts with proper precaution and judgment, the capital will be expended without adequate results; rent and taxes will accumulate, the stock will lie dead or become deteriorated, and loss and ruin must follow. For the last absorption acting upon a small capital will soon dry up its source; and we need not picture the trouble that will arise when the mainspring of a tradesman’s success abides by him no more.
The case of the larger capitalist can scarcely be considered an exception to the same rule. For it is probable that the larger capitalist, upon commencing a business, would sink more of his funds in a larger stock—would incur liability to a heavier rent; and the attendant taxes, the wages of assistants and servants would be greater, and, therefore, if the return came not speedily, similar consequences must sooner or later ensue.
Large or small capitalists should, therefore, upon entering on a shopkeeping speculation, consider well the nature of the locality in which they propose to carry on trade, the number of the population, the habits and wants of the people, and the extent to which they are already supplied with the goods which the new adventurer proposes to offer them.
There is a tendency among small capitalists to rush into new neighbourhoods with the expectation of making an early connection. Low rents also serve as an attraction to these localities. General experience, however, tends to show that the early suburban shops seldom succeed. They are generally entered upon at the very earliest moment that the state of the locality will permit—often before the house is finished the shop is tenanted, and goods exposed for sale—even while the streets are unpaved, and while the roads are as rough and uneven as country lanes.
The consequence is, that as the few inhabitants of these localities have frequent communication with adjacent centres of business, they, as a matter of habit or of choice, supply their chief wants thereat; and the newly arrived shopkeeper has to depend principally for support upon the accidental forgetfulness of his neighbour, who omits to bring something from the cheaper and better market; or upon the changes of the weather, which may sometimes favour him by rendering a “trip to town” exceedingly undesirable.
“While the grass is growing the horse is starving;” and thus, while the new district is becoming peopled the funds of the small shopkeeper are gradually eaten up, and he puts up his shutters just at the time when a more cautious speculator steps in to profit by the connection already formed, and to take advantage of the new improved condition of the locality. It seems, therefore, desirable for the small capitalists rather to run the risk of a more expensive rent, in a well-peopled district, than to resort to places of slow and uncertain demand; for the welfare of the small shopkeeper depends entirely upon the frequency with which his limited stock is cleared out and replaced by fresh supplies.
But should the small capitalist still prefer opening in a suburban district, where competition is less severe, and rents and rates less burdensome, there are certain precautions which he will do well to observe. He should particularly guard against opening a shop to supply what may be termed the superfluities of life; for the inhabitants of new suburban districts are those who, like himself, have resorted to a cheap residence for the sake of economy. Or if this be not the case—if they are people of independent means, who prefer the “detached villa” to the town house, squeezed up on both sides, they have the means of riding and driving to town, and will prefer choosing articles of taste and luxury from the best marts, enriched by the finest display.
The suburban shopkeeper should, therefore, confine himself to supplying the necessaries of life. Hungry people dislike to fetch their bread from five miles off; and to bring vegetables from a long distance would evidently be a matter of considerable inconvenience. The baker, the butcher, the greengrocer, the beer retailer, &c., are those who find their trade first established in suburban localities. And not until these are doing well should the tailor, the shoemaker, the hatter, the draper, the hosier, and others, expect to find a return for their capital and reward for their labour.
In larger localities, where competition abounds, the small shopkeeper frequently outstrips his more powerful rival by one element of success, which may be added to any stock without cost, but cannot be withheld without loss. That element is civility. It has already been spoken of elsewhere, but must be enforced here, as aiding the little means of the small shopkeeper to a wonderful degree. A kind and obliging manner carries with it an indescribable charm. It must not be a manner which indicates a mean, grovelling time-serving spirit, but a plain, open, and agreeable demeanour, which seems to desire to oblige for the pleasure of doing so, and not for the sake of squeezing an extra penny out of a customer’s pocket.
The sole reliance of the shopkeeper should be in the integrity of his transactions, and in the civility of his demeanour. He should make it the interest and the pleasure of the customer to come to his shop. If he does this, he will form the very best “connections,” and so long as he continues this system of business, they will never desert him.
He should cheerfully render his best labour and knowledge to serve those who approach his counter, and place confidence in his transactions; make himself alike to rich and poor, but never resort to mean subterfuge and deception to gain approbation and support. He should be frugal in his expenditure, that in deriving profits from trade, he may not trespass unduly upon the interest of others; he should so hold the balance between man and man that he should feel nothing to reprove his conscience when the day comes for him to repose from his labours and live upon the fruits of his industry. Let the public discover such a man, and they will flock around him for their own sakes.
A very useful book, “The Handy Book of Shopkeeping, Shopkeeper’s Guide” 1 (published at one shilling), enlarges upon these subjects in a very able manner, and gives most useful hints to people in every department of trade.
Houlston and Sons, London.
return to footnote mark
The difference between rising every morning at six and eight, in the course of forty years, amounts to 29,200 hours, or three years one hundred and twenty-one days and sixteen hours, which are equal to eight hours a day for exactly ten years So that rising at six will be the same as if ten years of life (a weighty consideration) were added, wherein we may command eight hours every day for the cultivation of our minds and the despatch of business.
The great philosopher, Dr. Franklin, inspired the mouthpiece of his own eloquence, “Poor Richard,” with “many a gem of purest ray serene,” encased in the homely garb of proverbial truisms. On the subject of frugality we cannot do better than take the worthy Mentor for our text, and from it address our remarks. A man may, if he knows not how to save as he gets, “keep his nose all his life to the grindstone, and die not worth a groat at last. A fat kitchen makes a lean will.”
“Many estates are spent in getting,
Since women for tea forsook spinning and knitting,
And men for punch forsook hewing and splitting.”
If you would be wealthy, think of saving as well as of getting. The Indies have not made Spain rich, because her out-goes are greater than her in-comes.
Away with your expensive follies, and you will not have so much cause to complain of hard times, heavy taxes, and chargeable families.
“What maintains one vice would bring up two children.”
You may think, perhaps, that a little tea, or superfluities now and then, diet a little more costly, clothes a little finer, and a little entertainment now and then, can be no great matter; but remember, “Many a little makes a mickle.”
Beware of little expenses: “A small leak will sink a great ship,” as Poor Richard says; and again, “Who dainties love, shall beggars prove;” and moreover, “Fools make feasts and wise men eat them.”
Here you are all got together to this sale of fineries and nick-nacks. You call them goods; but if you do not take care they will prove evils to some of you. You expect they will be sold cheap, and perhaps they may, for less than they cost; but if you have no occasion for them they must be dear to you.
Remember what Poor Richard says, “Buy what thou hast no need of, and ere long thou shalt sell thy necessaries.”
“At a great pennyworth, pause awhile.” He means, perhaps, that the cheapness is apparent only, and not real; or the bargain, by straightening thee in thy business, may do thee more harm than good; for in another place he says, “Many have been ruined by buying good pennyworths.”
“It is foolish to lay out money in the purchase of repentance;” and yet this folly is practised every day at auctions for want of minding the Almanack.
If you would get rich, don’t deal in bill books. Credit is the “Tempter in a new shape.” Buy goods on trust, and you will purchase a thousand articles that cash would never have dreamed of. A shilling in the hand looks larger than ten shillings seen through the perspective of a three months’ bill. Cash is practical, while credit takes horribly to taste and romance. Let cash buy a dinner, and you will have a beef-steak flanked with onions. Send credit to market, and he will return with eight pairs of woodcocks and a peck of mushrooms. Credit believes in diamond pins and champagne suppers. Cash is more easily satisfied. Give him three meals a day, and he doesn’t care much if two of them are made up of roasted potatoes and a little salt. Cash is a good adviser, while credit is a good fellow to be on visiting terms with. If you want double chins and contentment, do business with cash.
2613. Hints upon Money Matters
Have a supply of change in hand—shillings, sixpences, halfpence. This will obviate the various inconveniences of keeping people at the door, sending out at unreasonable times, and running or calling after any inmate in the house, supposed to be better provided with “the needful.” The tradespeople with whom you regularly deal will always give you extra change, when you are making purchases or paying bills; while those to whom you apply for it, on a sudden emergency, may neither be willing nor able to do so. Some housekeepers object to this arrangement, that, “as soon as five-pound notes or sovereigns are changed, they always seem to go, without their understanding how;” but to such persons I would humbly intimate, that this is rather the fault of their not getting understanding, than any inevitable consequence of getting change.
The fact is, that it is the necessity of parting with your money which obliges you to get the larger pieces changed, and not the circumstance of having smaller coin that necessitates your parting with your money, though it certainly facilitates your doing so when the necessity arrives. However, as it is easier to count a few sovereigns than many shillings, and loose money is most objectionable, it is well to put up reserve change in small collective packets, and to replenish the housekeeping purse from these daily or weekly, as may be most convenient.
Death does not Blow a Trumpet.
If Money for daily expenses has to pass through the hands of a servant, it is a time-and-trouble-saving plan to settle with her every night, and to make up her cash in hand to a certain similar sum. This will prevent such puzzling calculations as the following:
“Let me see: I gave you 10s. on Saturday, and 9d. the day before. Was it 9d.? No, it must have been 11d., for I gave you 1s., and you gave me 1d. out for the beggar; then there was 6s. 6d. on Monday, and 8d. you owed me from last money; and then the 1s. 6d. your master gave you for a parcel—you brought him 2d. back, and 3d-1/2. out of the butcher’s bill; no—you had to give 3-1/2d. to the butcher, but you came to me for the 1/2d., and I had no coppers, so we still owe him the 1/2d.; by the way, don’t forget to pay him the next time you go. Then there’s the baker—no, I paid the baker myself, and I think the housemaid paid the butter-man; but you got in the cheese the day before, and I have a sort of recollection that I may possibly owe you for that, all but a few pence you must have had left of mine, that I told you to take from off the chimney-piece. Well, cook, I think that’s nearly all! Now how do your accounts stand?”
This the poor cook, who is a cook, and not a conjuror, finds it no easy matter to discover; all that she is quite certain of is, that her disbursements have somewhat exceeded her receipts, and being an honest woman, though a poor one, she wishes to cheat neither her mistress nor herself; but what with her memory and her want of it, her involved payments, and different receipts; what she owed her mistress, and what her mistress owes her; what she got from her master, and what was partly settled by the housemaid; the balance from the butcher’s bill, and the intricacies of the cheese account, the poor woman is perfectly bewildered.
She counts again and again; recapitulates her mistress’s data and her own; sums upwards, backwards, and forwards, and endeavours to explain the differences between them; then, if she can read and write, she brings her slate to “explain the explanation,” and the united calculations of maid and mistress, which are after all entirely unavailing to produce a more correct account, probably consume more time, and are expressed in more words, than would suffice to fill another volume like the present. Two minutes’ daily reckoning from a regular sum in hand would do the business effectually, and prevent either party from being out of pocket or out of temper. Thus, for instance, the maid has her usual sum of five shillings to account for; she pays during the day, for:
| s. | d. | |
| Bread | 1 | 9 |
| Beer | 0 | 6 |
| Vegetables and fruit | 0 | 10 |
| Milk | 0 | 4 |
| Matches | 0 | 1 |
| Parcel | 1 | 0 |
| Total | 4 | 6 |
This is easily reckoned, even by the unlearned; the mistress enters the items in her day-book, takes the remaining sixpence, and again gives her servant 5s., in convenient change, to be as readily accounted for on the succeeding day.
Home Truths for Home Peace; or, Muddle Defeated.
Time Brings Everything to Those who can Wait.
“Don’t run in debt;”—never mind, never mind
If your clothes are faded and torn:
Mend them up, make them do; it is better by far
Than to have the heart weary and worn.
Who’ll love you the more for the shape of your hat,
Or your ruff, or the tie of your shoe,
The cut of your vest, or your boots, or cravat,
If they know you’re in debt for the new?
There’s no comfort, I tell you, in walking the street
In fine clothes, if you know you’re in debt,
And feel that, perchance, you some tradesman may meet,
Who will sneer—“They’re not paid for yet.”
Good friends, let me beg of you, don’t run in debt;
If the chairs and the sofas are old,
They will fit your back better than any new set,
Unless they are paid for—with gold;
If the house is too small, draw the closer together,
Keep it warm with a hearty good-will;
A big one unpaid for, in all kinds of weather,
Will send to your warm heart a chill.
Don’t run in debt—now, dear girls, take a hint,
if the fashions have changed since last season,
Old Nature is out in the very same tint,
And old Nature, we think, has some reason;
But just say to your friend, that you cannot afford
To spend time to keep up with the fashion;
That your purse is too light and your honour too bright,
To be tarnished with such silly passion.
Men, don’t run in debt—let your friends, if they can.
Have fine houses, and feathers, and flowers:
But, unless they are paid for, be more of a man
Than to envy their sunshiny hours.
If you’ve money to spare, I have nothing to say—
Spend your silver and gold as you please;
But mind you, the man who his bill has to pay
Is the man who is never at ease.
Kind husbands, don’t run into debt any more;
’Twill fill your wives’ cup full of sorrow
To know that a neighbour may call at your door,
With a claim you must settle to-morrow
Oh! take my advice—it is good, it is true!
But, lest you may some of you doubt it,
I’ll whisper a secret now, seeing ’tis you—
I have tried it, and know all about it,
The chain of a debtor is heavy and cold.
Its links all corrosion and rust;
Gild it o’er as you will, it is never of gold,
Then spurn it aside with disgust.
2616. Carving, Ceremonies of the Table, &c.
A dinner-table should be well laid, well lighted, and always afford a little spare room. It is better to invite one friend less in number, than to destroy the comfort of the whole party.
2617. The Laying out of a Table
The laying out of a table must greatly depend upon the nature of the dinner or supper, the taste of the host, the description of the company, and the appliances possessed. It would be useless, therefore, to lay down specific rules. The whiteness of the table-cloth, the clearness of glass, the polish of plate, and the judicious distribution of ornamental groups of fruits and flowers, are matters deserving the utmost attention.
A sideboard will greatly relieve a crowded table, upon which may be placed many things incidental to the successive courses, until they are required.
A bill of fare or Menu at large dinner parties, where there are several courses, should be provided neatly inscribed upon small tablets, and distributed about the table, that the diners may know what there is to come.
Napkins should be folded neatly. The French method, which is very easy, of folding the napkin like a fan, placing it in a glass, and spreading out the upper part, is very pleasing. But the English method of folding is like a slipper, and placing the bread inside its folds is convenient as well as neat.
As the Virtue is in the Tree, Such is the Fruit.
Bread should be cut into thick squares, the last thing after the table is laid. If cut too early it becomes dry. A tray should he provided, in which there should be a further supply of bread, new, stale, and brown. For cheese, pulled bread should be provided.
Carving-knives should be “put in edge” before the dinner commences, for nothing irritates a good carver, or perplexes a bad one, more than a knife which refuses to perform its office; and there is nothing more annoying to the company than to see the carving-knife gliding to and fro over the steel while the dinner is getting cold, and their appetites are being exhausted by delay.
Joints that require carving should be set upon dishes sufficiently large. The space of the table may be economised by setting upon small dishes those things that do not require carving.
The carver should have plenty of room, however closely the diners are compelled to sit together.
The vegetables, if the table is very crowded, may be placed upon the sideboard, and handed round by those who wait upon the guests.
Geese, Turkeys, Poultry, Sucking-pigs, &c., should be carved before being set on table; especially in those cases where the whole or the principal part of such dishes is likely to be consumed.
The carver should supply the plates, and the waiter hand them round, instead of putting the question to each guest as to which part he prefers, and then striving to serve him with it, to the prejudice of others present.
Ladies should be helped before gentlemen.
Waiters should present dishes on the left hand; so that the diner may help himself with his right.
Wine should be taken after the first course; and it will be found more convenient to let the waiter serve it, than to hand the decanters round, or to allow the guests to fill for themselves.
2631. Removal
Waiters should be instructed to remove whatever articles upon the table are thrown into disuse by the progress of the dinner, as soon as they are at liberty.
Finger-glasses, or glass bowls, filled with water, slightly scented or not, as may be preferred, and slightly warm in winter, and iced in summer, should be handed round.
When the dessert is served, the wine should be set upon the table, and the decanters passed round by the company.
Fried fish should be divided into suitable slices, before the fire, as soon as it leaves the frying-pan.
2635. Cod’s Head and Shoulders
The thick part of the back is best. It should be carved in unbroken slices, and each solid slice should be accompanied by a bit of the sound, from under the back-bone, or from the cheek, jaws, tongue, &c., of the head.
Hake, if sent to table, simply boiled, is served as cod. The better way of dressing hake is to cut it transversely to the length into slices about one inch in thickness. These should be fried and sent to table garnished with parsley.
Strike the fish-slice along the back-bone, which runs from head to tail, and then serve square slices from the thick part, accompanying each slice with some of the gelatinous skin of the fins and thin part, which may be raised by laying the fish-slice flat.
Brill is served in the same manner.
John Dory is also served in the same way. This fish has a favourite piece on the cheek.
Plaice and flat-fish generally, are served in the same manner.
Soles, when large, may be served as turbot; but when small they should be sliced across.
Serve a slice of the thick with a smaller slice of the thin part. Keep the flakes of the thick part as unbroken as possible.
Mackerel should be served in pieces cut through the side when they are large. It small, they may be divided through the back-bone, and served in halves. The shoulder part is considered the best.
Haddock and Gurnet are served as directed for mackerel
Whiting are usually fried and curled; they should be cut in halves down the back, and served. The shoulder-part is best.
Eels are usually cut into several pieces, either for stewing or frying. The thick parts are considered best.
Trout, if small, are served whole; if large, they may be divided through the back-bone and served in halves. The same applies to perch and other smaller fresh-water fish.
Pike and Jack should be served in thick unbroken pieces taken from the side or shoulder of the fish accompanied by a piece of the stuffing with which these fish are usually filled.
The roes of mackerel, the sound of cod, the head of carp, the cheek of John Dory, the liver of cod, &c., are severally considered delicacies, though not by all persons.
Cut thin slices parallel with the back-bone; or slice it obliquely from the bone to the edge.
2651. Haunch of Mutton or Venison
Make an incision across the knuckle-end, right into the bone, and set free the gravy. Then cut thin slices the whole length of the haunch. Serve pieces of fat with slices of lean.
The undercut, called the “fillet,” is exceedingly tender, and some carvers will turn the joint and serve the fillet first, reserving the meat on the upper part to be eaten cold. From the upper part, whether hot or cold, the slices should be cut lengthways from top to bottom, so that the fat and lean may be distributed in fair proportions.
Ribs of beef are carved in the same way as the sirloin; but there is no fillet.
First cut away the irregular outside pieces, to obtain a good surface, and then serve thin and broad slices. Serve bits of the udder fat with the lean.
Cut off the outside, and then serve long slices, cut the whole length of the bones.
Make a cross incision on the fore-part of the shoulder, and serve slices from both sides of the incision; then cut slices lengthways along the shoulder-blade. Cut fat slices from the round corner. Another and more economical way, is to cut slices from the under part when first brought to table. The joint then presents a better appearance when cold.
Make an incision across the centre, and serve from the knuckle-side, or the opposite, according to choice. The knuckle-side will be generally found well done, and the opposite side underdone, for those who prefer it.
Cut down between the bones, into chops.
Lay the knife flat, and cut off the shoulder. The proper point for incision will be indicated by the position of the shoulder. A little lemon juice may be squeezed over the divided part, and a little Cayenne pepper, and the shoulder transferred to another dish, for the opposite end of the table. Next separate the brisket, or short bones, by cutting lengthways along the breast. Then serve from either part as desired.
Travel North, or South, or East, or West...
Loin of veal may be cut across through the thick part; or slices may be taken in the direction of the bones. Serve pieces of kidney and fat with each plate.
Fillet of veal is carved as a round of beef. The browned bits of the outside are esteemed, and should be shared among the company, with bits of fat, and of forcemeat from the centre.
Breast of veal should be divided by cutting the brisket, or soft bones, the same as the basket of lamb. When the sweetbread comes to table with the breast, a small piece should be served on each plate.
Sucking-pig should be sent to table in two halves, the head divided, and one half laid at each end of the dish. The shoulders and legs should be taken off by the obvious method of laying the knife under them, and lifting the joint out. They may be served whole, or divided. The ribs are easily divided, and are considered choice.
Tongues are cut across in tolerably thick slices.
Calves’ heads are carved across the cheek, and pieces taken from any part that is come-at-able. The tongue and brain sauce are served separate.
Knuckle of veal is carved by cutting off the outside pieces, and then obtaining good slices, and apportioning the fat to the lean, adding bits of the sinew that lie around the joint.
Leg of pork is carved as a ham, but in thicker slices; when stuffed, the stuffing must be sought for under the skin at the large end.
Loin of pork is carved the same as a loin of mutton.
Spare-rib of pork is carved by separating the chops, which should previously have been jointed. Cut as far as the joint, then return the knife to the point of the bones, and press over, to disclose the joint, which may then be relieved with the point of the knife.
Hams are cut in very thin slices from the knuckle to the blade.
Carve the breast in slices. Then take off the legs and wings.
Fix the fork firmly into the breast, then slip the knife under the legs, and lay it over and dis-joint; detach the wings in the same manner. Do the same on both sides, The smaller bones require a little practice, and it would be well to watch the operations of a good carver. When the merry-thought has been removed (which it may be by slipping the knife through at the point of the breast), and the neck-bones drawn out, the trunk may be turned over, and the knife thrust through the back-bone.
Partridges are best carved by cutting off the breast, and then dividing it. But for more economical carving, the wings may be cut with a small breast slice attached.
Woodcocks may be cut right through the centre, from head to tail. Serve with each portion a piece of the toast upon which they come to table.
Pigeons may be carved as woodcocks, or as partridges.
Snipes may be carved the same as woodcocks.
Cut slices from each side of the breast down, to the ribs; the legs may then be removed, and the thighs divided from the drumsticks, which are generally tough; but the pinions of the wing are very good, and the white part of the wing is preferred by many to the breast. The stuffing is usually put in the breast; but when truffles, mushrooms, or oysters are put into the body, an opening must be made into it by cutting through the apron.
The apron must be cut off in a circular direction, when a glass of port wine, mixed with a teaspoonful of mustard, may be poured into the body or not. Some of the stuffing should then be drawn out, and, the neck of the goose being turned a little towards the carver, the flesh of the breast should be sliced on each side of the bone. The wings may then be taken off, then the legs. The other parts are carved the same as a fowl.
A Man’s Own Hose is Still the Best.
Ducks may be carved, when large, the same as geese; but when young, like chickens. The thigh joints, however, lie much closer into the trunk than those of fowls.
Hares should be placed with their heads to the left of the carver. Slices may be taken down the whole length of the back; the legs, which, next to the back, are considered the best eating, may then be taken off, and the flesh divided from or served upon them, after the small bones have been parted from the thighs. The shoulders, which are not much esteemed, though sometimes liked by sportsmen, may be taken off by passing the knife between the joint and the trunk. When a hare is young, the back is sometimes divided at the joints into three or four parts, after being freed from the ribs and under-skin.
Sufficient general instructions are here given to enable the carver, by observation and practice, to acquit himself well. The art of carving does not consist merely in dissecting the joints sent to table, but in the judicious and economical distribution of them, and the grace and neatness with which this distribution is effected. Every dish should be sent to table properly garnished (where needed), and the carver should preserve the neatness of the arrangement as much as possible.
The filaments from which stuffs of all kinds are fabricated are derived either from the animal or vegetable kingdom. We recognise the former by the property they possess of liberating ammonia on being treated with potash; while the latter afford a liquor having an acid reaction under the same treatment. The animal kingdom furnishes three varieties—silk, wool, and the furs, &c., of various animals; the vegetable kingdom also three—flax, hemp, and cotton: all of which require certain preliminary preparations to render them fit for the dyer, which do not come within our province, our space only admitting of a rapid glance at the production of the various colours.
The various shades produced by colouring matters may be classed in one or other of the following groups:
| 1. | Blue | |
| 2. | Red | Simple |
| 3. | Yellow |
| 4. | Violets | |
| 5. | Orange colours | Binary |
| 6. | Green |
| 7. | Compound colours | Ternary |
| 8. | Black |
Some colours adhere at once to the stuff, and are called substantial colours; while others require that the material to be dyed should undergo some previous preparation in order to render it permanent. The substances used to fix the colouring matters are called mordants, which should possess four qualifications:
They should possess an equal affinity for the fibre of the material and the colouring matter.
They should be incapable of injuring or destroying either by prolonged action.
They should form, with the colour, a compound capable of resisting the action of air and water.
They should be capable of readily conforming to the various operations of the dyer.
For the reasons just given, the acetate or tartrate of iron is preferable to the sulphate; and the acetate or tartrate of alumina to alum. For reds, yellows, green, and pinks, aluminous mordants are to be used. For blacks, browns, puces, and violets, the acetate or tartrate of iron must be employed. For scarlets, use a tin mordant, made by dissolving in strong nitric acid one-eighth of its weight of sal-ammoniac, then adding by degrees one-eighth of its weight of tin, and diluting the solution with one-fourth of its weight of water.
Cunning Men’s Cloaks Sometimes Fall.
2685. Calico, Linen, and Muslin (Blue)
Blue.—Wash well to remove dressing, and dry; then dip in a strong solution of sulphate of indigo—partly saturated with potash—and hang up. Dry a piece to see if the colour is deep enough; if not dip again.
Saxon Blue.—Boil the article in alum, and then dip in a strong solution of chemical blue.
2686. Calico, Linen, and Muslin (Buff)
Buff.—Boil an ounce of anatto in three quarts of water, add two ounces of potash, stir well, and put in the calico while boiling, and stir well for five minutes; remove and plunge into cold pump water, hang up the articles without wringing, and when almost dry, fold.
2687. Calico, Linen, and Muslin (Pink)
Pink.—Immerse in the acetate of alumina mordant, and then in the colouring of a pink saucer.
2688. Calico, Linen, and Muslin (Green)
Green.—Boil the article in an alum mordant, and then in a solution of indigo mixed with any of the yellow dyes until the proper colour is obtained.
2689. Calico, Linen, and Muslin (Yellow)
Yellow.
Cut potato tops when in flower, and express the juice; steep articles in this for forty-eight hours.
Dip in a strong solution of weld after boiling in an aluminous mordant. Turmeric, fustic, anatto, &c., will answer the same as weld.
Impregnate the material with the acetate of iron mordant, and then boil in a decoction of madder and logwood.
Boil the cloth in a weak solution of pearlash—an ounce to a gallon of water,—wash, dry, and then steep in a decoction of bruised nutgalls. After drying it is to be steeped twice in dry alum water, then dried, and boiled in a decoction made of three quarters of a pound of madder to every pound of the article. It should then be taken out and dried, and steeped in a second bath in the same manner. When dyed, the articles should be washed in warm soap and water, to remove a dun-coloured matter given out by the madder.
2692. Cloth (Scarlet)
Three quarters of a pint of a tin mordant, made by dissolving three pounds of tin in sixty pounds of hydrochloric acid, is added to every pound of lac dye, and digested for six hours. To dye twenty-five pounds of cloth, a tin boiler of seventy-five gallons capacity should be filled nearly full with water, and a fire kindled under it. When the heat is 150° Fahr., half a handful of bran and two ounces of tin mordant are to be thrown into it. The froth which arises is skimmed off, the liquor is made to boil, and two pounds and three quarters of lac dye, previously mixed with a pound and three quarters of the solvent, and fourteen ounces of the tin solvent, are added.
Immediately afterwards two pounds and three quarters of tartar, and a pound of ground sumach, both tied up in a linen bag, are to be added, and suspended in the bath for five minutes. The fire being withdrawn, five gallons of cold water and two pints and three quarters of tin mordant being poured into the bath, the cloth is immersed in it. The fire is then replaced, and the liquid made to boil rapidly for an hour, when the cloth is removed and washed in pure water.
Use No. ii. for calico. Quercitron and weld produce a solid yellow; fustic a very brilliant tint; while turmeric yields a less solid yellow.
Use the same as for cloth.
2695. Feathers (Blue)
Every shade may be given by indigo—or dip in silk dye.
2696. Feathers (Crimson)
Dip in acetate of alumina mordant, then in a boiling-hot decoction of Brazil-wood—and, last of all, pass through a bath of cudbear.
2697. Feathers (Pink, or Rose-colour)
Pink, or rose-colour, is given by safflower and lemon juice.
2698. Feathers (Deep Red)
Proceed as for crimson, omitting the cudbear bath.
The Fat Man Knoweth not what the Lean Think.
Mordant with acetate of alumina, and dip in a bath of turmeric or weld.
As the object in view is simply to dye the hair without tingeing the skin, the following will be found the best:—Take equal parts of litharge and lime; mix well, and form into a paste with water, if a black is desired; with milk if brown. Clean the head with a small tooth comb, and then well wash the hair with soda and water to free it from grease; then lay on the paste pretty thick, and cover the head with oilskin or a cabbage-leaf, after which go to bed. Next morning the powder should be carefully brushed away, and the hair oiled.
Use No. iv. black stain (see par. 1430), and polish with oil.
Steep saffron in boiling-hot soft water for about twelve hours; sew up the tops of the gloves, to prevent the dye staining the insides, wet them over with a sponge dipped in the liquid. A teacupful of dye will do a pair of gloves.
Boil four ounces of logwood and two ounces of roche alum in three pints of soft water till half wasted; strain, and let it cool. Sew up the tops, go over the outsides with a brush or sponge twice; then rub off the loose dye with a coarse cloth. Beat up the white of an egg, and rub it over the leather with a sponge. Vinegar will remove the stain from the hands.
The same as for cloth, but black dyeing is difficult.
2705. Silk (Blue)
Wash quite clean, rinse well, and then dip in a hot solution of sulphate of iron: after a short time take it out and rinse again. Have ready in another vessel a hot solution of prussiate of potash, to which a small quantity of sulphuric acid has been added. Dip the silk in this liquid; on removal rinse in clean water, and expose to the air to dry.
Wash well, rinse, wring out, and then dip in the following:—Boil a pound of indigo, two pounds of woad, and three ounces of alum, in a gallon of water. When the silk is of a proper colour, remove, rinse, and dry.
2706. Silk (Carnation)
Boil two gallons of wheat and an ounce of alum in four gallons of water; strain through a fine sieve; dissolve half a pound more of alum and white tartar; add three pounds of madder, then put in the silk at a moderate heat.
2707. Silk (Crimson)
Take about a spoonful of cudbear, put it into a small pan, pour boiling water upon it; stir and let it stand a few minutes, then put in the silk, and turn it over in a short time, and when the colour is full enough, take it out; but if it should require more violet or crimson, add a spoonful or two of purple archil to some warm water; steep, and dry it within doors. It must be mangled, and ought to be pressed.
2708. Silk (Lilac)
For every pound of silk, take one and a half pounds of archil, mix it well with the liquor; make it boil for a quarter of an hour, dip the silk quickly, then let it cool, and wash it in river water, and a fine half violet, or lilac, more or less full, will be obtained.
2709. Silk (Madder Red)
Use the dye for cloth.
Take clear wheat bran liquor fifteen pounds, in which dissolve three quarters of a pound of alum; boil the silk in this for two hours, and afterwards take half a pound of weld, and boil it till the colour is good. Nitre used with alum and water in the first boiling fixes the colour.
Boil in a decoction of logwood and sulphate or acetate of copper.
2712. Wool (Brown)
Steep in an infusion of green walnut-peels.
2713. Wool (Drab)
Impregnate with brown oxide of iron, and then dip in a bath of quercitron bark. It sumach is added, it will make the colour a dark brown.
No Lock will Hold gainst Keys of Gold.
2714. Wool (Green)
First imbue with the blue, then with the yellow dye.
2715. Wool (Orange)
Dye first with the red dye for cloth, and then with a yellow.
2716. Wool (Red)
Take four and a half pounds of cream of tartar, four and a quarter pounds of alum; boil the wool gently for two hours; let it cool, and wash it on the following day in pure water.
Infuse twelve pounds of madder for half an hour with a pound of chloride of tin, in lukewarm water; filter through canvas, remove the dye from the canvas, and put it in the bath, which is to be heated to 100° Fahr.; add two ounces of aluminous mordant, put the wool in, and raise to boiling heat.
Remove the wool, wash, and soak for a quarter of an hour in a solution of white soap in water.
Dye with that used for calico, &c.
Chip and straw bonnets or hats may be dyed black by boiling them three or four hours in a strong liquor of logwood, adding a little green copperas occasionally. Let the bonnets remain in the liquor all night, then take out to dry in the air. If the black is not satisfactory, dye again after drying. Rub inside and out with a sponge moistened in fine oil. Then block.
2719. To Dye Hair and Feathers Green
Take of either verdigris or verditer one ounce; gum water, one pint; mix them well, and dip the hair or feathers into the mixture, shaking them well about.
2720. To Clean White Satin and Flowered Silks
Mix sifted stale bread-crumbs with powder blue, and rub it thoroughly all over the article; then shake it well, and dust it with clean soft cloths. Afterwards, where there are any gold or silver flowers, take a piece of crimson ingrain velvet, rub the flowers with it, which will restore them to their original lustre.
Pass them through a solution of fine hard soap of a moderate heat, drawing them through the hand; rinse in lukewarm water, dry, and finish by pinning out. Brush the flossy or bright side with a clean clothes-brush, the way of the nap. Finish them by dipping a sponge into a size, made by boiling isinglass in water, and rub the wrong side. Rinse out a second time, and brush, and dry near a fire in a warm room.
Silk may be treated in the same way, but not brushed.
2721. Cleaning Silk, Satins, Coloured Woollen Dresses, &c.
Four ounces of soft soap, four ounces of honey, the white of an egg, and a wineglassful of gin; mix well together, and scour the article with a rather hard brush thoroughly; afterwards rinse it in cold water, leave to drain, and iron whilst quite damp.
2722. To Clean Black Cloth Clothes
Clean the garments well, then boil four ounces of logwood in a boiler or copper containing two or three gallons of water for half an hour; dip the clothes in warm water and squeeze dry, then put them into the copper and boil for half an hour. Take them out, and add three drachms of sulphate of iron; boil for half an hour, then take them out and hang them up for an hour or two; take them down, rinse them thrice in cold water, dry well, and rub with a soft brush which has had a few drops of olive oil applied to its surface. If the clothes are threadbare about the elbows, cuffs, &c., raise the nap with a teasel or half worn hatter’s card, filled with flocks, and when sufficiently raised, lay the nap the right way with a hard brush.
Strip the fur articles of their stuffing and binding, and lay them as nearly as possible in a flat position They must then be subjected to a very brisk brushing, with a stiff clothes-brush; after this any moth-eaten parts must be cut out, and neatly replaced by new bits of fur to match.
Sable, chinchilla, squirrel, fitch, &c., should be treated as follows: Warm a quantity of new bran in a pan, taking care that it does not burn, to prevent which it must be actively stirred. When well warmed, rub it thoroughly into the fur with the hand. Repeat this two or three times: then shake the fur, and give it another sharp brushing until free from dust.
White furs, ermine, &c., may be cleaned as follows:—Lay the fur on a table, and rub it well with bran made moist with warm water; rub until quite dry, and afterwards with dry bran. The wet bran should be put on with flannel, and the dry with a piece of book muslin.
The light furs, in addition to the above, should be well rubbed with magnesia, or a piece of book muslin, after the bran process.
Furs are usually much improved by stretching, which may be managed as follows: To a pint of soft water add three ounces of salt, dissolve; with this solution, sponge the inside of the skin (taking care not to wet the fur) until it becomes thoroughly saturated; then lay it carefully on a board with the fur side downwards, in its natural position; then stretch as much as it will bear, and to the required shape, and fasten with small tacks. The drying may be accelerated by placing the skin a little distance from the fire or stove.
Gold is no Balm to a Wounded Spirit.
2724. Cleansing Feathers of their Animal Oil
The following receipt gained a premium from the Society of Arts:—Take for every gallon of clean water one pound of quicklime, mix them well together, and when the undissolved lime is precipitated in fine powder, pour off the clean lime water for use. Put the feathers to be cleaned in another tub, and add to them a quantity of the clean lime water, sufficient to cover them about three inches when well immersed and stirred about therein. The feathers, when thoroughly moistened, will sink, and should remain in the lime water three or four days; after which the foul liquor should be separated from them, by laying them in a sieve.
The feathers should be afterwards well washed in clean water, and dried upon nets, the meshes of which may be about the fineness of cabbage nets. The feathers must be from time to time shaken on the nets, and, as they get dry, they will fall through the meshes, and must be collected for use. The admission of air will be serviceable in drying. The process will be completed in three weeks. When thus prepared, the feathers need only be beaten to get rid of the dust.
2725. To Clean White Ostrich Feathers
Four ounces of white soap, cut small, dissolved in four pints of water, rather hot, in a large basin; make the solution into a lather, by beating it with birch rods, or wires. Introduce the feathers, and rub well with the hands for five or six minutes. After this soaping, wash in clean water, as hot as the hand can bear. Shake until dry.
They may be washed with soap and water, rinsed in clear water, and dried in the air. Then wash them over with white of egg well beaten, Remove the wire before washing. Old straw bonnets may be picked to pieces, and put together for children, the head parts being cut out.
Wash it well in hot suds, and boil it until the colour seems to be gone, then wash, and rinse, and dry it in the sun; if still not quite white, repeat the boiling.
2728. Bleaching Straw Bonnets, &c.
Wash them in pure water, scrubbing them with a brush. Then put them into a box in which has been set a saucer of burning sulphur. Cover them up, so that the fumes may bleach them.
Take some fullers’ earth, dried till it crumbles to powder: moisten it with the juice of lemon, add a small quantity of pearlash, work and knead carefully together till it forms a thick paste; make into balls, and dry them in the sun. Moisten the spot on clothes with water, then rub it with the ball. Wash out the spot with pure water.
O Heart! But Try it Once;— ’Tis Easy to Be...
2730. To Wash China Crêpe Scarves, &c.
If the fabric be good, these articles of dress can be washed as frequently as may be required, and no diminution of their beauty will be discoverable, even when the various shades of green have been employed among other colours in the patterns. In cleaning them, make a strong lather of boiling water; suffer it to cool; when cold or nearly so, wash the scarf quickly and thoroughly, dip it immediately in cold hard water in which a little salt has been thrown (to preserve the colours), rinse, squeeze, and hang it out to dry in the open air; pin it at its extreme edge to the line, so that it may not in any part be folded together: the more rapidly it dries the clearer it will be.
2731. To Wash a White Lace Veil
Put the veil into a strong lather of white soap and very clear water, and let it simmer slowly for a quarter of an hour; take it out and squeeze it well, but be sure not to rub it: rinse it twice in cold water, the second time with a drop or two of liquid blue. Have ready some very clear weak gum arabic water, or some thin starch, or rice water; pass the veil through it, and clear it by clapping; then stretch it out evenly, and pin it to dry on a linen cloth, making the edge as straight as possible, opening out all the scallops, and fastening each with pins. When dry, lay a piece of thin muslin smoothly over it, and iron it on the wrong side.
Blond lace may be revived by breathing upon it, and shaking and flapping it. The use of the iron turns the lace yellow.
2733. Washing Bed Furniture, &c.
Before putting into the water, see that you shake off as much dust as possible, or you will greatly increase your labour. Use no soda, or pearlash, or the articles will lose their colour. Use soft water, not hot, but warm: have plenty of it. Rub with mottled soap. On wringing out the second liquor, dip each piece into cold hard water for finishing. Shake out well, and dry quickly. If starch is desired, it may be stirred into the rinsing water.
Half a pound of soap; half a pound of soda; quarter of a pound of quick-lime. Cut up the soap and dissolve it in half a gallon of boiling water; pour half a gallon of boiling water over the soda, and enough boiling water over the quick-lime to cover it. The lime must be quick and fresh; if quick, it will bubble up when the hot water is poured over it. Prepare each of these in separate vessels; put the dissolved lime and soda together, and boil them for twenty minutes; then pour them into a jar to settle.
After having made the Preparation, set aside the flannels and coloured articles, as they must not be washed in this way. They may be washed in the usual way while the others are boiling. The night before, the collars and wristbands of shirts, the feet of stockings, &c., should be rubbed well with soap and set to soak. In the morning pour ten gallons of water into the copper, and having strained the mixture of lime and soda well, taking great care not to disturb the settlings, put it, together with the soap, into the water, and make the whole boil before putting in the clothes.
A plate should be placed at the bottom of the copper, to prevent the clothes from burning. Boil each lot of clothes from half an hour to an hour, then rinse them well in cold blue water. When dry they will be beautifully white. The same water will do for three lots. Wash the finer things first.
2736. Washing. (Supremacy of Soapsuds over Lime)
To save your linen and your labour,—pour on half a pound of soda two quarts of boiling water, in an earthenware pan; take half a pound of soap, shred fine; put it into a saucepan with two quarts of cold water; stand it on a fire till it boils; and when perfectly dissolved and boiling, add it to the former. Mix it well, and let it stand till cold, when it will have the appearance of a strong jelly. Let your linen be soaked in water, the seams and any other soiled part rubbed in the usual way, and remain till the following morning. Get your copper ready, and add to the water about a pint basin full; when lukewarm put in your linen, and allow it to boil for twenty minutes. Rinse it in the usual way, and that is all which is necessary to get it clean, and to keep it in good colour. Housekeepers will find the above receipt invaluable.
...But to Appear so, what a Strain and Misery!
When water is hard, and will not readily unite with soap, it will always be proper to boil it before use; which will be found sufficiently efficacious, if the hardness depends solely upon the impregnation of lime. Even exposure to the atmosphere will produce this effect in a great degree upon spring water so impregnated, leaving it much fitter for lavatory purposes.
In both cases the water ought to be carefully poured off from the sediment, as the neutralized lime, when freed from its extra quantity of carbonic acid, falls to the bottom by its own gravity. To economize the use of soap, put any quantity of pearlash into a large jar, covered from the dust, in a few days the alkali will become liquid, which must be diluted in double its quantity of soft water, with an equal quantity of new-slacked lime. Boil it half an hour, frequently stirring it; adding as much more hot water, and drawing off the liquor, when the residuum may be boiled afresh, and drained, until it ceases to feel acrid to the tongue.
Much labour in washing has been saved by the introduction of washing machines, by which the toil of washing day, formerly so severe, has been much abridged. Suitable machines for washing, wringing, and mangling may be purchased at comparatively low prices of any of the makers of what is termed “labour-saving machinery,” such as Kent, Bradford, Twelvetrees, &c. Preparations for softening water, and facilitating the process, exist in the Extract of Soap, and the various washing powders now to be purchased of most grocers and oil and colourmen. Cold water soap, too, has achieved considerable popularity, for by its use a lather can be quickly produced, even in the hardest water.
Soap and labour may he saved by dissolving alum and chalk in bran water, in which the linen ought to be boiled, then well rinsed out, and exposed to the usual process of bleaching.
Soap may be dispensed with, or nearly so, in the getting up of muslins and chintzes, which should always be treated agreeably to the Oriental manner; that is, to wash them in plain water, and then boil them in rice water; after which they ought not to be submitted to the operation of the smoothing iron, but rubbed smooth with a polished stone. This work, which is known as “calendering,” is very heavy and laborious, and is done by men.
The economy which must result from these processes renders their consideration important to every family, in addition to which, we must state that the improvements in philosophy extend to the laundry as well as to the wash-house.
Procure two ounces of fine white gum arabic, and pound it to powder. Next put it into a pitcher, and pour on it a pint or more of boiling water, according to the degree of strength you desire, and then, having covered it, let it set all night. In the morning, pour it carefully from the dregs into a clean bottle, cork it, and keep it for use. A tablespoonful of gum water stirred into a pint of starch that has been made in the usual manner will give to lawns (either white or printed) a look of newness to which nothing else can restore them after washing. It is also good (much diluted) for the white muslin and bobbinet.
Life’s but a Means to an End...
Rub the linen well with, soap; then scrape some fine chalk, and rub it also on the linen. Lay it on the grass. As it dries, wet it a little, and the mildew will come out with a second application.
2744. To Render Linen, &c., Incombustible
All linen, cotton, muslins, &c., &c., when dipped in a solution of tungstate of soda or common alum, will become incombustible.
These may be composed of any mixtures of the following articles:—flowers, dried and pounded; powdered cloves, mace, nutmeg, cinnamon; leaves—dried and pounded—of mint, balm, dragon-wort, southernwood, ground-ivy, laurel, hyssop, sweet marjoram, origanum, rosemary; woods, such as cassia, juniper, rhodium, sandal-wood, and rosewood; roots of angelica, zedoary, orris; all the fragrant balsams—ambergris, musk, and civet. These latter should be carefully used on linen.
Rings which have stones in them should always be taken off the finger when the hands are washed, or they will become discoloured.
A series of papers were published in the Lancet and elsewhere a few years back on the subject of Adulteration. These brought about a parliamentary inquiry; the inquiry ended in demonstrating that nearly everything we ate and drank was adulterated—in many cases with ingredients very prejudicial to human health. The result of the inquiry was the passing of an Act of Parliament in 1875 for the purpose of putting a stop to this wholesale adulteration by making it a criminal offence. The Act is called the “Sale of Foods and Drugs Act,” and the following are the most important clauses it contains:
“No person shall mix, colour, stain, or powder any article of food with any ingredient or material, so as to render the article injurious to health, with the intent that the same may be sold in that state, and no person shall sell such article under a penalty not exceeding £50.”
“No person shall sell to the prejudice of the purchaser any article of food, or any drug which is not of the nature, substance, and quality of the article demanded under a penalty not exceeding £20.”
The Act also provides for the appointment of public analysts for counties and boroughs. An Act passed in 1887 provides that all substances or compounds made to imitate butter shall be sold as Margarine, and all wrappers, &c., used in its sale must be plainly marked. These Acts are intended for the protection of the public; but we give below the names of a few of the chief articles of consumption that are liable to be adulterated, and when possible how to detect the adulteration, or the best mode of avoiding it.
The chief adulteration of bread is alum. This is added to give the bread a pure white colour, which is supposed to be an advantage, thus enabling the baker to use inferior or damaged flour. The presence of alum can be detected by soaking a piece of the bread in an ammoniaca tincture of logwood. If alum be present the bread will be turned blue, whereas pure bread will remain pink. Recent investigations have proved that the presence of alum is extremely injurious, especially to children, affecting the coats of the stomach and impairing the digestion.
Butter is made heavy by water, being beaten up with it. Cheap samples are sometimes adulterated with other fats and grease, which however require an experienced analyst to detect.
The cayenne of commerce is adulterated with brickdust, red wood dust, cochineal, vermilion, and red lead. The last two are highly injurious. These can be detected by any one possessing a good microscope. The best way to avoid the impurities is to purchase the capsicums or chilies, pounding them with a pestle and mortar, and rubbing through a sieve, in small quantities as required. The pepper is far better flavoured when fresh ground.
...Beginning, Mean and End to All Things—God.
Those who prefer the pure cocoa can obtain the “nibs,” or more properly “beans,” and grind them. But many prefer the soluble cocoa, which is simply cocoa modified by admixture with less stimulating substances.
Coffee is adulterated with roasted beans, peas, and acorns; but chiefly with chicory. Having your own mill, buy the roasted beans; find out a respectable grocer, ascertain his roasting-days, and always buy from a fresh roast. If you like the flavour of chicory, purchase it separately, and add to taste. Chicory in small quantities is not injurious, but you need not pay the coffee price for it. Grind your coffee, and mix it with chicory for yourself.
Milk is “adulterated” by skimming off part of the cream, also by the addition of water.
Mustard is adulterated with flour and turmeric; as, however, mustard is usually sold in tins it is easy to obtain it pure, as under the Sale of Foods and Drugs Act, all that is mixed with flour and other flavourings has to be labelled as such on the outside of the package. Many prefer this mixture to the pure article.
Pepper is adulterated with inferior grain, husks of seeds, and even dust of a variety of descriptions. Having your pepper-mill, purchase the seed whole, and grind for yourself. You will then obtain the pure article at a moderate cost.
The most offensive of all adulterations are found in these savoury morsels. Horseflesh, diseased animals, and odds and ends of every description appear in the tempting guise of “sausages.” To escape this evil, make your own sausages by the aid of the sausage machine, which will enable you to add many savoury morsels to the attractions of your table. The same machine may be used for chopping vegetables, which it will do to such perfection that they will perfectly dissolve in soups and stews, and afford most delicious made-dishes. And in this you will soon save the cost of the machine.
Tea is all examined now by the Customs’ authorities before “duty” is allowed to be paid upon it; it is, therefore, practically pure. This was only done about a year ago.
This perhaps is more often adulterated than any other article of consumption. As a rule the water supplied by the companies to the large towns is exceedingly pure, that supplied by the London companies being analysed every month by a government official; but the adulteration chiefly rests with the consumer or householder, in not keeping the cisterns clean, dust, soot, and even dead mice, cockroaches, &c., being allowed to contaminate the water; also by permitting the overflow pipe to be connected with the soil pipe, or drain, whence the water absorbs poisonous gases. The overflow pipes should in all cases be entirely disconnected with, all drains, and the cisterns should, if possible have a cover. The cisterns should invariably be cleaned out thoroughly at least every three months.
In places where the water is drawn from wells great care should be taken that the well cannot be contaminated by any drain or cesspool leaking into it. Many cases of serious illness, notably diphtheria, have been traced to this cause. When there is the least reason to doubt the purity of the well all the water for drinking purposes should be boiled before using, and no time should be lost in having it examined by an experienced analyst. All water that is used for drinking should be first filtered through a reliable filter. Small glass filters for the table can now be obtained in every town for two or three shillings.
Good Ware Makes a Quick Market.
2759. Other Evils besides “Adulterations”
The butcher cannot adulterate the beef and the mutton, but he can send home short weight; and in casting up a bill, he can reckon the odd ounces at one penny each, instead of one halfpenny; and the baker, besides putting alum into the bread, to make it white and retain water, can send home deficient weight; the same with the grocer, the greengrocer, and the coal merchant; the publican can give short measure, and froth up the porter to fill the jug and disguise the shortness of quantity; and the draper can slip his scissors on the wrong side of his finger, and make a yard contain only thirty-three inches. We don’t mean to say that they do this, nor do we mean to say that they don’t. We argue, that people ought to possess the means of ascertaining who among shopkeepers are honest, and who are not; then the just would meet with justice, and the unjust would suffer for their own sins.
Bread contains eighty nutritious parts in 100; meal, thirty-four in 100; French beans, ninety-two in 100; common beans, eighty-nine in 100; peas, ninety-three in 100; lentils, ninety-four in 100; cabbages and turnips, the most aqueous of all the vegetables compared, produce only eight pounds of solid matter in 100 pounds; carrots and spinach produce fourteen in the same quantity; whilst 100 pounds of potatoes contain twenty-five pounds of dry substance. From a general estimate it results, that one pound of good bread is equal to two pounds and a half or three pounds of potatoes; that seventy-five pounds of bread and thirty of meat may be substituted for 300 pounds of potatoes. The other substances bear the followed proportions: four parts of cabbage to one of potatoes; three parts of turnips to one of potatoes; two parts of carrots and spinach to one of potatoes; and about three parts and a half of potatoes to one of rice, lentils, beans, French beans, and dry peas.
Instead of standing in any fear of a generous consumption of ripe fruits, we regard them as conducive to health. We have no patience in reading the endless rules to be observed in this particular department of physical comfort. No one ever lived longer or freer from disease by discarding the fruits of the land in which he finds a home. On the contrary, they are necessary to the preservation of health, and are therefore designed to make their appearance at the very time when the condition of the body, operated upon by deteriorating causes not always understood, requires their renovative influences.
Blackberries are very beneficial in cases of dysentery. The berries are healthful eating. Tea made of the roots and leaves is good; and syrup made from the berries excellent.
Sloe wine is useful in cases of diarrhœa, the astringent properties of this fruit tending to counteract relaxation of the bowels. It is made by steeping sloes in water, and letting them stand therein until a thick coating of mildew is formed on the surface. This is removed, and the liquor is then strained and bottled, and tightly corked down. Not more than from half a wine-glassful to a wine-glassful should be taken when required.
“Morning’s Milk,” says an eminent German philosopher, “commonly yields some hundredths more cream than the evening’s at the same temperature. That milked at noon furnishes the least; it would therefore be of advantage, in making butter, &c., to employ the morning’s milk, and keep the evening’s for domestic use.”
Of All Smells, Bread; of All Tastes, Salt.
This fashionable and delightful game, suitable for both ladies and gentlemen, is generally played on a lawn or grass-plat by two, three, or four players, with balls and racquet bats. The object of the game is to strike a ball over a net and keep it in play backwards and forwards within certain limits. The court or ground may be of any size consistent with the lawn, the base lines being marked out by chalk, or tapes slightly pinned to the turf, which should be frequently mown and rolled. The mode of play may be seen from the following leading rules, which are now generally accepted by all players.
The Court, for a single-handed game, should be 78 ft. long and 27 ft. wide, and for a double-handed game the same length, but 36 ft. wide, divided across the centre by a net attached to two upright posts. The net should be 3 ft. 6 in. high at the posts, and 3 ft. at the centre. At each end of the court, parallel with the net, are the base lines, whose extremities are connected by the side lines. The half-court line is halfway between the side lines and parallel with them. The service lines are 21 ft. from the net and parallel with it.
The balls should be 2-1/2 in. in diameter and 2 oz. in weight.
The players stand on opposite sides of the net. The player who first delivers the ball is called the server, the other the striker-out.
At the end of each game the striker-out becomes server, and the server striker-out.
The server stands with one foot beyond the base line, and delivers the service from the right and left courts alternately.
The balls served must, without touching the net, drop within the court nearest to the net, diagonally opposite to that from which the striker serves it.
If the service be delivered from the wrong court it is a fault. It is also a fault if the server does not stand in the manner as stated above, or if the ball served drop in the net or beyond the service line, or if it drop out of court, or go in the wrong court.
A fault must not be taken, that is, played back to the server.
The striker-out may not volley the service. Volleying is striking the ball back before it has touched the ground.
The ball, having been returned, must be kept in play either by volleying it, or striking it back after the first bounce. A ball bouncing twice is out of play.
If, in serving, the ball touch the net and go over into the proper court, it counts to neither server nor striker-out.
The server scores if the striker-out volley the service, or fail to return the service in such a way that the ball would fall within the opponents’ court.
Two consecutive faults count a stroke against the server.
If the ball when in play touch either player it scores a stroke for his opponent.
The first stroke won by either player scores 15 to that player; the second, won by the same player, raises his score to 30, his third stroke to 40, and his fourth counts game. If, however, the players have both scored 40, it is called deuce, and the next stroke won by either is called advantage to the winner of it, and if he also win the following stroke he scorea game. Should he lose it the score returns to deuce. The player winning two consecutive strokes directly following a deuce scores game.
Whichever player first scores six games is considered to win the set.
2767. Three—Handed and Four-Handed Lawn Tennis
The laws as given above apply equally to these games. The difference in the width of the court has been stated.
In Four-handed Tennis the players deliver the service in turns: thus supposing A and B are partners opposed to C and D; A serves in the first game, C in the second, B serves in the third, and D in the fourth, and so on.
In Three-handed Tennis the single player serves in each alternate game.
No player may return a service that has been delivered to his partner.
Badminton is a game similar to Lawn Tennis, but it is played with shuttlecocks instead of balls, and over a higher net.
That Thou mayest Injure No Man, Dove-like be.
2769. Bills of Exchange and Promissory Notes
Inland Bill of Exchange, Draft, or Order for the payment to the bearer, or to order, at any time, otherwise than on demand, of any sum of money,
| Duty | ||||||
| £ | s. | d. | ||||
| Not above | ...... | ...... | £5 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| above | £5 | and not above | £10 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
| above | £10 | and not above | £25 | 0 | 0 | 3 |
| above | £25 | and not above | £50 | 0 | 0 | 6 |
| above | £50 | and not above | £75 | 0 | 0 | 9 |
| above | £75 | and not above | £100 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| above | £100 | and not above | £200 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
| above | £200 | and not above | £300 | 0 | 3 | 0 |
| above | £300 | and not above | £400 | 0 | 4 | 0 |
| above | £400 | and not above | £500 | 0 | 5 | 0 |
| above | £500 | and not above | £600 | 0 | 6 | 0 |
| above | £600 | and not above | £700 | 0 | 7 | 0 |
| above | £700 | and not above | £800 | 0 | 8 | 0 |
| above | £800 | and not above | £900 | 0 | 9 | 0 |
| above | £900 | and not above | £1000 | 0 | 10 | 0 |
And for every additional £100 or fractional part of £100, 1 s.
2770. Percentages or Discounts
Showing the Reduction per £ on Discounts allowed for Cash Purchases, at Rates ranging from 1 to 50 per cent.
2771. A Table of the Number of Days, from any Day of any one Month to the same Day of any other Month.
What is the number of days from 10th of October to 10th July? Look in the upper line for October, let your eye descend down that column till you come opposite to July, and you will find 273 days, the exact number of days required.
Again, what is the number of days from 16th of February to 14th August?
| Under February, and opposite to August, is | 181 days |
| From which subtract the difference between 14 and 16: | 2 days |
| The exact number of days required is: | 179 days. |
N.B.—In Leap Year, if the last day February comes between, add one day for the day over to the number in the Table.
...and Serpent-like, that None may Injure Thee.
2772. For Mistresses and Servants: Table of Expenses, Income and Wages
Showing at one view what any sum, from £1 to £1,000 per Annum, is per Day, Week, or Month.
2773. Interest Table for Savings, Investments, &c.
Showing what any sum, from £1 to £500, will produce for a given number of days, which may be, by simple addition, calculated at £5 per cent. for Months or Years, for sums up to £5,000 or any other amount.
The Groat is Ill Saved Which Shames its Master.
2774. Interest Table for One Year
By this Table unlimited calculations may made. Thus, to find interest on £1,250 per annum, add sums given for £1,000, £200, and £50. 2 per cent, is found by taking half of 4 p.c; 8 p.c., by doubling 4 p.c.; 7-1/2 p.c., by adding 5 to 2-1/2 p.c., and so on.