VI Miscellaneous Information
Inscriptions on Rugs
We are occasionally indebted to an Oriental scholar for a translation of an inscription on a rug; often these inscriptions show the religious belief of the maker.
One fine rug in a museum in Austria has the following inscription: “Allah! No God exists besides Him, the Living, the Eternal. Nothing causes Him to slumber or to sleep. To Him belongs everything in heaven and on earth. Who can intercede with Him without His permission? He knows what is before and what is behind, and only so much of His wisdom can be grasped as He permits. His throne fills heaven and earth, and the support of both to Him is easy. He is the High One, the Exalted!”
A rug of Persian weave owned by Baron Nathaniel Rothschild has, worked in the oval cartouches, an inscription translated by Professor F. Bayer as follows:
1.”Honored mayst thou be in the world,
Among the clever and wise.
2. May no sorrow be allotted thee by an unfavoring Heaven,
And may no care torment thy heart.
3. May earth be all to thee that thou wouldst have it, and destiny prove thy friend.
May high Heaven be thy protector.
4. May thy rising star enlighten the world,
And the falling stars of thine enemies be extinguished.
5. May every act of thine prosper,
And may every year and every day be to thee Spring-time.”
In the Industrial Museum at Berlin there is a rug with this inscription: “There is no Deity but God, and Mahomet is His Prophet.”
On a Persian silk rug is a line from the Koran: “All perisheth but His face.”
Another rug has: “God is greatest! He is great!”
Often a marking in a corner of a rug is simply the name of the maker, and the date.
The Holy Carpet of the Mosque at Ardebil, now in the South Kensington Museum, at London, has the following interesting inscription woven in black characters in the light cream cartouche at the top of the carpet. Translated it reads:
“I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold.
My head has no protection other than this porchway.
The work of the slave of this Holy Place,
Maksoud of Kashan
In the year 946.”
(The year 946 of the Hegira corresponds to A. D. 1568.)
Oriental Symbols
All Oriental rugs have designs, and every design is symbolical. To the connoisseur, as well as to the owners of rugs, it is vastly interesting to understand the meaning attached to these symbols by the Orientals. Every one is familiar with the tree design in some of its various forms, and with the stiff little birds and the many odd and strange-looking animals which frequently are seen on an Eastern fabric of the loom. Yet each unique figure has a meaning, and it is a fascinating, as well as an apparently endless task, to find the hidden significance of these symbols. If one goes no further, he should at least become familiar with the designs on his own rugs, and know, if possible, what they typify.
The rug itself symbolizes Eternity and Space, and the filling or plan is the symbol of the world—beautiful, but fleeting and limited.
Chinese Symbols
| Bat | Happiness. |
| Buddhist Sceptre | Success in literary labors. |
| Chi-lin (a kind of doe) | Nobleness; gentleness. |
| Cloud-band | The Deity. |
| Cock and hen on an artificial rock-work | Pleasures of country life. |
| Crane | Immortality. |
| Crow | Evil. |
| Deer | Official emolument. |
| Dragon | The imperial emblem, signifying increase and imperial grandeur. |
| Dragon with five claws on each of its four feet | Exclusive emblem of the Emperor. |
| Dragon and Phœnix | Newly wedded pair. |
| Duck | Conjugal affection. |
| Goose | Domestic felicity. |
| Gourd | Happiness. |
| Lion | Victory. |
| Magpie | Good luck. |
| Old man leaning on a staff | Long life. |
| Owl | Dread. |
| Peach | Old age. |
| Phœnix | The Emblem of the Empress. |
| Stork | Long life. |
| Tortoise | Long life. |
| Tree of Life with seven branches on a short stem | Seven days of Creation. |
| Young stags | Long life. |
Egyptian Symbols
| Asps | Intelligence. |
| Bat with a ring in its claws | Duration. |
| Bee | Immortality. |
| Beetle | Earthly life and the development of man in the future state. |
| Blossom | Life. |
| Boat | Serene spirit gliding upon the waters. |
| Bull | Source of life. |
| Butterfly | Soul. |
| Cartouche | Eternity. |
| Crescent | Celestial virgin. |
| Crocodile | Beneficent Deity. |
| Dove | Love; mourning of a widow. |
| Eagle | Creation; preservation; destruction; power. |
| Egg | Life. |
| Eye of Osiris | Eye of the Eternal Judge over all. |
| Feather of an Ostrich | Truth; justice. (The ostrich itself does not appear In Egyptian art.) |
| Feathers of rare birds | Sovereignty. |
| Frog | Renewed birth. |
| Hawk | Power. |
| Ibis | Usefulness; the heart. |
| Lizard | Divine wisdom. |
| Lotus | The Sun; creation; resurrection. |
| Nile Key | Life. |
| Palm tree | Immortality; longevity. |
| Papyrus | Food for mind and body. |
| Pine cone | Fire. |
| Pomegranate | Life. |
| Rosette | A lotus motive. |
| Sail of a vessel | Breath; the belief that the soul is inactive and worthless until revived by the breath of the mind. |
| Scarabæus | Immortality; resurrection; a ruling providence. |
| Solar disk with serpents | Royalty. |
| Sphinx | Beneficent Being. |
| Staff in the hands of the gods | Purity. |
| Sun | Deity; life. |
| Viper | Power. |
| Wheel | Deity. |
| Zigzag | Water. |
Indian Symbols
| Ass | Humility; austerity. |
| Banian or Burr Tree | Deity (because of its outstretched branches and overshadowing beneficence). |
| Butterfly | Beneficence of Summer. |
| Fylfot cross of Buddhism | Auspiciousness. |
| Knot and flower design | Divine bounty and power. |
| Serpent | Desire. |
Japanese Symbols
| Pine trees | Long life. |
| Storks | Long life. |
| Tortoises | Long life. |
Persian Symbols
| Descending Eagle | Bad luck. |
| Eagle | Light; height. |
| Flying Eagle | Good luck. |
| Hounds | Fame; ever increasing honor. |
| Leopards | Fame; ever increasing honor. |
| Lion | Power; victory. |
| Peacock | Fire; light. |
| Phœnix | Immortality. |
| Standing Eagle | Good luck. |
| Sun | Light. |
| Sword | Force. |
| Tree of health | Immortality. |
| Tree of life | Knowledge; truth. |
The Coat of Arms of Persia is the Lion holding a sword in his paw, and with the Sun at his back.
Turkish Symbols
Crescent Increasing power.
The Turkish Coat of Arms is the Crescent and the Star. These heavenly bodies are supposed to signify growth.
Miscellaneous Symbols
| Anemone | Good fortune. |
| Bat | Maternity. |
| Bird | Spirit. |
| Boar | Winter. |
| Butterfly | Ethereal soul. |
| Circle | Eternity; perpetual continuity. |
| Cypress tree | Tree of life; immortality; perfect and renewed life. |
| Dog | Destruction; vigilance. |
| Elephant | Patient endurance; self-restraint. |
| Evergreens | Immortality. |
| Fir Cone | An existence terminated but united--the union of the tribes against the dominion of Rome. |
| Fly | Destroying attribute. |
| Hare | Fertility. |
| Heart | Man morally. |
| Hippopotamus | Destroying power. |
| Hog | Deep meditation. |
| Jug | Knowledge. |
| Lily | Purity. |
| Olive | Consecration to immortality. |
| Owl | Wisdom. |
| Ox | Patience; gentleness. |
| Peacock | Resurrection (because of the annual renewing of its plumage, and from a belief in the incorruptibility of its flesh). |
| Phœnix | Good luck; herald of prosperity; birth of great men. |
| Pig | Universal kindness. |
| Ram | Spiritual leadership. |
| Reed | Royalty. |
| Rhinoceros | Religious recluse. |
| Scorpion | Invincible knowledge. |
| Serpent | Life; immortality. |
| Spear | Destructive power. |
| Spider | Slave of passion. |
| Squirrel | Averter of evil. |
| Stars | Divinity. |
| Swastika | Good fortune. |
| Turtle | Constancy. |
| Wheel | Universe. |
| Wings | Spontaneous motion. |
| Wolf | Destroying power. |
Meanings of Some of the Place-Names Associated With Rugs
| Akhissar | White Citadel. |
| Bagdad | Abode of Peace. |
| Baku | Place of Winds. |
| Beluchistan | Land of the Beluchis. |
| Bhagulpore | Tiger City. |
| Bokhara | Treasury of Sciences; the Noble. |
| Deccan | The South Land. |
| Derbent | Fortified Gate. |
| Fars | Land of the Farsi or Persians. |
| Fu-Chau | Happy City. |
| Gilan | The Marshes. |
| Gulistan | The Rose Garden. |
| Haiderabad | Gate of Salvation. |
| Herat | The Pearl of Khorassan; the Gate of India. |
| Islamabad | Abode of Islam. |
| Ispahan | Place of Horses. |
| Jerusalem | Heir of Peace. |
| Kandahar | Key of India. |
| Karabagh | Country of the Sun. |
| Kara Dagh | Black Mountains. |
| Kelat | Castle. |
| Khorassan | Land of the Sun. |
| Kwatah | Citadel. |
| Mecca | The Heart of Islam; the Holy City. |
| Meshed | Tomb of a Martyr. |
| Mirzapore | City of the Emir. |
| Ning-po | Peaceful Wave. |
| Peshawar | Advanced Fortress. |
| Samarkand | The Head of Islam. |
| Shang-hai | Approaching the Sea. |
| Srinagar | City of the Sun. |
| Tabriz | Pinnacle of Islam. |
| Teheran | The Pure. |
| Yezd | City of Light; City of Worship. |
Geographical Data
Owing to the variety of ways in which the names of Oriental localities are spelled when transliterated, it is extremely difficult to establish a standard of spelling. Many curious examples of this occur both on maps and in dictionaries. It is certainly confusing to open an atlas that is supposed to be an authority, and find that the name one seeks differs in spelling from that used in the atlas first consulted. Then by looking into dictionaries it is found that each of these has a different way of spelling the word sought. Then turning to a guide book of the country there will probably be found not only another combination of the letters, but also a conflict between the descriptive matter in the book and the map accompanying it. When books of travel are consulted, the embarrassment is still further increased.
After having accepted a mode of spelling geographical names for use in this volume, I propose in the pages that follow to assist the reader to locate the places mentioned, by assigning them to their respective countries, so that at a glance he may identify them. This classification will also be a key to the map.
Occasionally the name of a place has been inserted which is not rug-producing, but only a mart for the selling of rugs. This has seemed advisable as the names are intimately associated with the rug industry.
Localities Arranged Geographically
Afghanistan
Balkh.
Charikar.
Ghazni (Gäzne).
Gulistan.
Herat.
Istalif.
Jelalabad.
Kabul (Cabul, Cabool).
Kandahar.
Zerni.
Beluchistan
Bagh (Bhag).
Belar.
Gundava.
Jhalawan (District).
Kelat.
Khozdar.
Mastung.
Ormarah.
Quetta (Kwatah).
Rustam Khan.
Sarawan (District).
Sonmeani.
Chinese Empire
Canton.
Fu-chau.
Hang-chau.
Kiang-su.
Ning-po.
Shang-hai.
Shan-tung.
Su-chau.
Tient-sing.
Tsi-nan.
Tsing-chau.
Tsing-ning.
Province of East Turkestan
Karashar.
Kashgar.
Kucha.
Yangi-hissar.
Yarkand.
India
Agra.
Ahmedabad.
Allahabad.
Alleppi.
Ambala (Umballa).
Amritsar.
Bahadapur (District).
Bangalore.
Bardwan.
Bareli (Bareilly).
Bellary.
Benares.
Beypur.
Bhagalpur (Boglipoor).
Bijapur.
Bombay.
Calcutta.
Cawnpur.
Chanda.
Deccan (Dekkan-peninsula).
Delhi.
Ellore.
Goa.
Gorakhpur (Gorukpore).
Haiderabad (Hyderabad).
Jabalpur (Jubbulpore-Jubbulpur).
Jaipur (Jeypore).
Jalandhar (Jullinder).
Jammu (Jamu).
Jodhpur.
Kashmir (State, British India).
Khyrpur.
Kohat.
Kotah.
Kushmore.
Lahore.
Lucknow.
Madras.
Malabar (District).
Mandalay.
Masulipatam.
Merut.
Mirzapur.
Moradabod.
Multan.
Murshidabad.
Mysore.
Nagpur.
North Arcot (District).
Patna.
Peshawar.
Poona (Pooneh).
Raipur.
Rampur.
Rangpur.
Serampur.
Shikarpur.
Srinagar (Serinuggar).
Surat.
Tanjore.
Warangal.
Japan
Aitsi-ken.
Kioto.
Sakai.
Tokio.
Persia
Aaragh (Province, written Irak on maps).
Ardebal (District).
Ardebil.
Astrabad.
Azerbaijan (Province).
Bibikabad.
Bijar.
Birjand.
Bujnurd.
Burujird.
Bushire.
Enzeli.
Fars (Province Farsistan).
Feraghan.
Gask.
Ghilan (Gilan).
Hamadan.
Herez.
Irak-Ajemi (Province).
Ispahan (Market only).
Kain (Ghain, Ghayn).
Kara Dagh (District).
Kashan.
Kermanshah (Kermanshahan).
Khonsar.
Khora-mabad.
Khorassan (Khorasan, Province).
Khuzistan (Ancient Susiana, Province).
Kirman.
Kuchan.
Kurdistan (the Persian portion).
Lar.
Laristan (Province).
Luristan (Province).
Makran (Mekran, District).
Mazandaran.
Mehran.
Meshhed.
Niriz.
Nishapur.
Oustri-Nan.
Rawar.
Resht.
Shiraz.
Shirwan.
Shuster.
Sinna.
Sirab.
Sultanabad.
Tabriz (Tabriez).
Teheran (Market only).
Yezd.
Zarand.
Russian Empire
Astrakhan.
Baku.
Batum.
Daghestan (Government).
Derbent.
Erivan.
Kars.
Kazan.
Shushu.
| } | Daghestan. | |
| Caucasia. | Derbent. | |
| Kuba. |
| } | Karabagh. | |
| Transcaucasia. | Shemakha. | |
| Shirvan. |
Central Asia
Bokhara.
Ferghana (Province).
Hissar.
Khiva.
Kokand (Khokand).
Samarkand.
Turkey in Asia
Regions
Arabia.
Armenia.
Asia Minor or Anatolia.
Kurdistan.
Mesopotamia.
Syria.
Districts and Towns
Adana.
Adiaman (Adiyemen).
Afium-Kara-hissar.
Aidin.
Akhissar.
Akshehr.
Aleppo.
Altun.
Anatolia (District).
Asium.
Bagdad (Baghdad), Shipping Port.
Behesne.
Beirut.
Bergama (Bergamo, Pergamo).
Brusa (Broussa).
Cæsarea.
Chal.
Constantinople.
Demirdji.
Diarbekir.
El-Hosn.
Erzerum.
Fakeh.
Gemerik.
Ghiordes (Gordis, Qourdes, Gürdiz, ancient Gordus).
Haidamoor.
Hakkam.
Hayzoor.
Hereke.
Hissar.
Homs.
Hossu.
Jerusalem.
Kaisarieh (Cæsarea).
Karahissar.
Karaman.
Kerkuk.
Khorsabad.
Kir-Shehr.
Konieh.
Kulah (Koula, Coula).
Kutahia (Kutai, Kutayah).
Ladik.
Marash (Maresh).
Mecca.
Medina.
Milassa (Melasso, Mylasso).
Mosul (Moussul).
Ouchak (Ushak, Oushak).
Safieta.
Savas.
Sharjah (Sharkah).
Shirvan.
Smyrna (Mart only).
Sohar.
Sparta.
Trebizond.
Urfa (Oorfa).
Zileh (Zilleh, Zeli).
Africa
Cairo (Mart).
Kairouan (the only place where the genuine Tunisian rugs are now made).
Misratah.
Tajura.
Tripoli.
France
Aubusson.
Beauvais.
Roubaix.
Tourcoing.
Tournay.
Greece
Agrinion.
Rachova.
Owephissa.
Localities Arranged Alphabetically
A
Aaragh, Persia.
Adana, Turkey in Asia.
Adiaman, Turkey in Asia.
Afium-Kara-Hissar, Turkey in Asia.
Agra, India.
Agrinion, Greece.
Ahmedabad, India.
Aidin, Turkey in Asia.
Aitsi-ken, Japan.
Akhissar, Turkey in Asia.
Akshehr, Turkey in Asia.
Aleppo, Turkey in Asia.
Allahabad, India.
Alleppi, India.
Altun, Turkey in Asia.
Amabala, India.
Amritsar, India.
Anatolia, Turkey in Asia.
Ardebal, Persia.
Ardebil, Persia.
Asium, Turkey in Asia.
Astrabad, Persia.
Astrakan, Russia in Asia.
Aubusson, France.
Azerbaijan, Persia.
B
Bagdad, Turkey in Asia.
Bagh, Beluchistan.
Bahadapur, India.
Baku, Russia in Asia.
Balkh, Afghanistan.
Bangalore, India.
Bardwan, India.
Batum, Russia in Asia.
Beauvais, France.
Behesne, Turkey in Asia.
Beirut, Turkey in Asia.
Belar, Beluchistan.
Bellary, India.
Benares, India.
Bergama, Turkey in Asia.
Beypur, India.
Bhagalpur, India.
Bibikabad, Persia.
Bijapur, India.
Bijar, Persia.
Birjand, Persia.
Bokhara, Central Asia.
Bombay, India.
Brusa, Turkey in Asia.
Bujnurd, Persia.
Burujird, Persia.
Bushire, Persia.
C
Cairo, Egypt.
Calcutta, India.
Canton, Chinese Empire.
Cawnpur, India.
Chanda, India.
Charikar, Afghanistan.
D
Daghestan, Russia in Asia.
Deccan, India.
Delhi, India.
Demirdji, Turkey in Asia.
Derbent, Russia in Asia.
Diabekir, Turkey in Asia.
E
El-Hosn, Turkey in Asia.
Ellore, India.
Enzeli, Persia.
Erivan, Russia in Asia.
Erzerum, Turkey in Asia.
F
Fakeh, Turkey in Asia.
Fars, Persia.
Feraghan, Persia.
Fu-chan, Chinese Empire.
G
Gemerik, Turkey in Asia.
Ghazni, Afghanistan.
Ghilan, Persia.
Ghiordes, Turkey in Asia.
Goa, India.
Gorakhpur, India.
Gulistan, Afghanistan.
Gundava, Beluchistan.
H
Haidamoor, Turkey in Asia.
Haiderabad, India.
Hakkam, Turkey in Asia.
Hamadam, Persia.
Hang-chau, Chinese Empire.
Hayzoor, Turkey in Asia.
Herat, Afghanistan.
Herez, Persia.
Hissan, Central Asia.
Hissar, Turkey in Asia.
Homs, Turkey in Asia.
I
Irak-Ajemi, Persia.
Ispahan, Persia.
Istalif, Afghanistan.
J
Jabalpur, India.
Jaipur, India.
Jalandhar, India.
Jammu, India.
Jelalabad, Afghanistan.
Jerusalem, Turkey in Asia.
Jhalawan, Beluchistan.
Joohpur, India.
K
Kabul, Afghanistan.
Kain, Persia.
Kairouan, Africa.
Kaisarieh, Turkey in Asia.
Kandahar, Afghanistan.
Karabagh, Russia in Asia.
Karahissar, Turkey in Asia.
Karaman, Turkey in Asia.
Karashar, East Turkestan.
Kars, Russia in Asia.
Kashan, Persia.
Kashgar, East Turkestan.
Kashmir, India.
Kazan, Russia in Asia.
Kelat, Beluchistan.
Kerkuk, Turkey in Asia.
Kermanshah, Persia.
Khiva, Central Asia.
Khonsar, Persia.
Khora-mabad, Persia.
Khorassan, Persia.
Khorsabad, Turkey in Asia.
Khozdar, Beluchistan.
Khuzistan, Persia.
Khyrpur, India.
Kiang-su, Chinese Empire.
Kioto, Japan.
Kirman, Persia.
Kir-Shehr, Turkey in Asia.
Kohat, India.
Kokand, Central Asia.
Konieh, Turkey in Asia.
Kotah, India.
Kuba, Russia in Asia.
Kucha, East Turkestan.
Kulah, Turkey in Asia.
Kurdistan, Persia.
Kushmore, India.
Kutahia, Turkey in Asia.
L
Ladik, Turkey in Asia.
Lahore, India.
Lar, Persia.
Laristan, Persia.
Lucknow, India.
Luristan, Persia.
M
Makran, Persia.
Malabar, India.
Marash, Turkey in Asia.
Mastung, Beluchistan.
Masulipatam, India.
Mazandaran, Persia.
Mecca, Turkey in Asia.
Medina, Turkey in Asia.
Mehran, Persia.
Merut, India.
Meshhed, Persia.
Milassa, Turkey in Asia.
Mirzapur, India.
Misratah, Africa.
Mosul, Turkey in Asia.
Mujur, Turkey in Asia.
Multan, India.
Murshidabad, India.
Mysore, India.
N
Nagpur, India.
Ning-po, Chinese Empire.
Niriz, Persia.
Nishapur, Persia.
North Arcot, India.
O
Ormarah, Beluchistan.
Ouchak, Turkey in Asia.
Oustri-nan, Persia.
Owephissa, Greece.
P
Patna, India.
Peshawar, India.
Poona, India.
Q
Quetta, Beluchistan.
R
Rachova, Greece.
Rampur, India.
Rangpur, India.
Resht, Persia.
Rustam Khan, Beluchistan.
S
Safita, Turkey in Asia.
Sakai, Japan.
Samarkand, Central Asia.
Sarakhs, Persia.
Sarawan, Beluchistan.
Serampur, India.
Shang-hai, Chinese Empire.
Shan-tung, Chinese Empire.
Sharjah, Turkey in Asia.
Shemakha, Russia in Asia.
Shikarpur, India.
Shiraz, Persia.
Shirvan, Russia in Asia.
Shirvan, Turkey in Asia.
Shirwan, Persia.
Shusha, Russia in Asia.
Shuster, Persia.
Sinna, Persia.
Sirab, Persia.
Sivas, Turkey in Asia.
Smyrna, Turkey in Asia.
Sohar, Turkey in Asia.
Sonmeani, Beluchistan.
Srinagar, India.
Su-chau, Chinese Empire.
Sultanabad, Persia.
Surat, India.
T
Tabriz, Persia.
Tajura, Africa.
Tanjore, India.
Teheran, Persia.
Tient-sing, Chinese Empire.
Tokio, Japan.
Tourcoing, France.
Tournay, France.
Trebizond, Turkey in Asia.
Tripoli, Africa.
Tsi-nan, Chinese Empire.
Tsing-chau, Chinese Empire.
Tsing-ning, Chinese Empire.
U
Urfa, Turkey in Asia.
W
Warangal, India.
Y
Yarkand, East Turkestan.
Yezd, Persia.
Z
Zarand, Persia.
Zerni, Afghanistan.
Zileh, Turkey in Asia.
List of Authorities
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American Journal of Archeology.
Ashenhurst, Thomas R.: Design in Textile Fabrics.
Auber, M.L., Abbé: Bible Myths.
Babelon, Ernest: Manual of Oriental Antiquities.
Ball, J. Dyer: Things Chinese.
Birdwood, Sir George C.: The Industrial Arts of India.
Bishop, Mrs. Isabella L. Bird: Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan.
Bishop, Mrs. Isabella L. Bird: Unbeaten Tracks in Japan.
Blackie, C.: Dictionary of Place Names.
Bode, Wilhelm: Vorderasiatische Knüpfteppiche.
Bonnick’s Egyptian Belief and Modern Thought.
Brummer, Martin: Egypt, Three Essays on the History, Art, and Religion.
Budge, E.A. Wallis: The Mummy Badge.
Century Atlas, The.
Century Dictionary, The.
Chambers’s Encyclopædia.
Clarke, Sir C. Purdon: Oriental Carpets. (English Edition. Published by the Imperial and Royal Austrian Commercial Museum. Vienna, 1892.)
Constable’s Hand Atlas of India.
Coxon, Herbert: Oriental Carpets.
Curson, Hon. George N.: Persia and the Persian Question.
Davis and Cobern: Ancient Egypt.
Denny, M.B.: The Folk Lore of China.
Dresser, Charles: Carpets.
Edwards, Amelia: Third Lecture, Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers.
Elkins, Joseph, D.D.: Ancient Symbolism among the Chinese.
Ely, Talfourd: Manual of Archæology.
Emmaus’s Life in Ancient Egypt.
Evans, E. P.: Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture.
Faber, George Stanley: Origin of Pagan Idolatry.
Fergusson, James: Tree and Serpent Worship.
Fusenbeth, F. C., D.D.: Emblems of Saints.
Goodyear, William H.: The Grammar of the Lotus.
Hedin, Sven: Through Asia.
Hulme, F. Edward: Symbolism in Christian Art.
Iconographic Encyclopædia of the Arts and Sciences.
Inman, Thomas, M.D.: Ancient Faiths.
James, A. G. F. Eliot: Indian Industries.
Jones, Owen: The Grammar of Ornament.
Journal of the Society of Arts.
Karabacek, Dr. Joseph: Die Persische Nadelmalerei.
Knight, Richard Payne: The Symbolical Language of Ancient Art and Mythology.
Landor, A. Henry Savage: In the Forbidden Land.
Layard, Austen Henry: Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh.
Layard, Austen Henry: Nineveh and Babylon.
Layard, Austen Henry: Nineveh and Its Remains.
Lenormant, François and Chevalier, Charles: Manual of the Ancient History of the East.
Lessing, Julius: Oriental Carpets.
Lübke, Wilhelm: History of Ancient Art.
Malcom, Sir John: History of Persia.
Marvin, Charles: Merv, the Queen of the World.
Maspero, Gaston C. Charles: Manual of Egyptian Archæology.
Maspero, Gaston C. Charles: Dawn of Civilization.
Meyer’s Handbook of Ornament.
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Footnotes
A Some prayer rugs have a representation of the hands of Mohammed, and on them the suppliant places his own as he throws himself prostrate. In the corners of some of these rugs pulpits are represented, and occasionally trees.
The End