Part II Forwarding
This branch of the art may be divided into several parts. We will give precedence to that branch or class of forwarding that requires the utmost precision and opens to the ambitious forwarder a field of exertion worthy of his best efforts. Let the workman who strives to excel in his art remember that his work goes through the hands of critics and judges; that it possibly may be compared with the productions of the most celebrated artists. Let him, then, look well to his laurels if engaged upon first-class job or
CUSTOMER WORK.
The book being taken from the sewing-press, the end-papers and the first sheet are then turned back. A strip of paper is placed about one-eighth of an inch from the back, so as to prevent the paste from spreading unevenly, and paste is then applied with the finger along the edge of the sheet. The sheet is turned over, and the same process repeated to the first and second leaves of the end-papers, if the book is to be lined with buff or brown paper. After the papers have been cut to the proper size and evenly folded, they are pasted along the folded edge in the same manner as the end-papers were. The first leaf of the end-paper is then turned over, and the lining-paper laid full up to the back-edge of the book. If this be done carelessly, or not entirely straight and square from end to end, the future appearance of the book will be considerably marred. As much of the beauty of the joint depends upon the manner in which the lining has been performed, if it is intended to line with marbled paper, after turning over the end-leaf, place the lining as near as possible to the back-edge, so as to expose to the action of the brush almost the entire leaf of the end-paper that lies on the book. Paste this lightly over; then place the lining upon it, and rub it even and smooth with the hand. In either case it should be left to dry before the end-paper is folded down to its place, as it is liable to force the lining-paper from the back. A better method is to paste the marble-paper upon the white end-paper before it is inserted in the book. The papers may then be lightly pressed, to make them perfectly smooth, and hung upon lines to dry. By this process there is no fear of the book being wrinkled by the dampness from the lining-paper. Attention should be paid that such papers only as will blend well with the colour of the leather intended for the cover are used.
If a joint of calf or morocco is required, all that is necessary for the forwarder to do is to tip the back-edge of the lining that goes next to the book very slightly, merely to secure it until it reaches the finisher, and place one or two guards of stout paper along the joint, to be afterwards torn out by the finisher.
These matters being adjusted, the end-paper turned back to its place, and the twine on which the book has been sewn pulled tight, care having been taken to avoid pressing the twine against the end-papers, on account of their liability to tear near the bands, the bands which are intended to be laced in the boards must be opened, or the strands separated with a bodkin and scraped with a dull knife so as to bring them to a point and make them more convenient to pass through the boards which are to form the side covers.
The book is now taken between the hands and well beaten up at the back and head on a smooth board, or on the laying-press, to bring the sheets level and square, as the beauty of the book, in all the subsequent operations, depends much on the care and attention paid in this place. The volume is then laid carefully upon a board, with the back to the edge of the board, a strip of pasteboard is laid on the upper side, the book placed in the laying-press, and the back evenly glued. The glue should be well rubbed in between the sheets, taking care that the sheets are even on the back and the volume equal in thickness throughout the whole length. It is then laid on a board to dry, but must not be placed before the fire, as, by so doing, the glue becomes hard and liable to crack in the process of
ROUNDING.
In commencing this operation, the book is placed upon the laying-press with the fore-edge towards the workman; the left hand should then be placed flat and open upon it, the thumb towards the fore-edge. With the four fingers the volume is slightly bent and the upper portion of the back drawn towards the workman. The right hand is then engaged with a backing-hammer in lightly tapping the sheets with an upward motion from the centre of the back. The volume is then turned upon the other side, and the operation is repeated until it is evident that the book has acquired a sufficient round. The left hand is held to the back while the round is pressed into the fore-edge with the fingers of the right. The volume is then held up and the back carefully examined to ascertain if the round is perfectly regular, and, if not, it must be again submitted to light blows of the hammer until the back describes a portion of a perfect circle. Care should be taken that the round be not too flat for the thickness of the volume, or, on the other hand, that it does not become what is called a pig-back,—a horrible monstrosity in binding, having a sharp ridge in the centre of the back. If the round be not regular and even from the centre to the edges, as well as from head to tail, and entirely free from twist, no after-skill or care can overcome the evil, but it will ever remain to prove the want of care or the incapacity of the workman. The next process, and equally important, is that of
BACKING,
which is done to form the groove for the reception of the boards. One of the backing-boards is placed upon the volume at an equal distance from the back, the distance depending upon the thickness of the board; then, turning the volume, the other is placed in a similar manner; the boards are then firmly grasped by the left hand across the back, and, with the assistance of the right hand, the whole carefully put into the laying-press, the edge of the boards nearest the back of the volume even with the cheeks of the press, and screwed up with the press-pin as tight as possible. The backing-hammer is then taken in the right hand and employed in turning the sheets from the centre over the backing-boards, to form the necessary groove. For this purpose the first blows should commence near the centre of the volume, and should be as light as possible, the blows glancing towards the edge, so as to merely commence the turning of the sheets, without causing any indentations or wrinkles on the inside of the volume. This should be proceeded with lengthwise of the volume, each series of blows growing gradually nearer to the edge or backing-board, and, as they approach, becoming more firm, until the sheets are turned over the backing-board, so as to form a regular and solid groove. The process is repeated up the other side, the volume examined to see if the back is regular and equal in its circle throughout, and any slight irregularities corrected by light taps of the beating-hammer; but nothing can justify a workman in striking a heavy blow near the centre of the back, as it must inevitably crush and wrinkle the paper on the inside. It serves but to prove his ignorance of the principle upon which the entire operation is based. There is nothing connected with the forwarding of a book that requires more attention, patience, and skill, than the rounding and backing, and there is nothing that contributes more to the general appearance of the volume. If well done, it gives a character and a tone to all the subsequent operations; if done badly, no care or skill that may be afterwards employed can hide it. It remains an enduring mark of a careless or inefficient workman. The volume is now ready for the boards, which have been previously prepared. This is done by cutting the sheets of milled-boards according to the size of the book, with the table or patent-shears. One side of the board is then lined with paper, the shrinkage of which will cause the board to curl towards it. If the volume be large, or a thick board be required, it will be necessary to paste two or more thicknesses of board together. Place them in the standing-press, under pressure, until dry; then take them out and line them on the side of the board that has been pasted, or, if one board be thinner than the other, upon the thin board, in the same manner as the single board. Boards made in this manner should always be prepared some length of time before they are used. The boards being in readiness, the volume is taken and one point of the compasses placed at the centre of the back, and the other point extended towards the fore-edge until it reaches the edge of the smallest bolt. This will give the proper size to cut the boards, as the groove or joint will give the projection or square of the board. If the volume be rare and valuable, let the workman be merciful in the use of his steel, as the cropping of ignorant workmen has impaired the value of many a choice tome. If it be intended that the leaves are to remain uncut, previous to the rounding of the volume, take a large butcher’s-knife and carefully trim the extreme ends of the projecting leaves. After the size has been obtained, the next operation is
SQUARING THE BOARDS.
This is done by cutting the back-edge of the boards with a plough in the laying-press; the boards are then marked with the compasses from the edge which has been squared towards the front; the front cutting-board is placed at the compass-holes, and again put in press, with the front cutting-board or runner level with the cheek of the press, the back-board being a little higher, so as to allow the plough-knife to cut against it. The rough part is cut off with the plough as hereafter described, with this difference:—that, in cutting pasteboards, the workman cuts towards him. The boards are then taken out of press, and the square applied to the head, and marked with the point of a bodkin; this is cut off in the same manner. The volume is then opened and examined for the purpose of finding a leaf of an average length, which is measured by placing the thumb of the left hand against the edge of the head and applying against it one of the points of the compasses, carrying the other so much over the end of the leaf as will allow for the square of the boards at the tail; and if the volume be large for a portion of the square at the head, the superfluous portion is then cut off with the plough. In taking the size, let the workman recognise as a rule that every book should be cut as large as possible, lest he be suspected of having an eye more to the shaving-tub than to his reputation as a binder. Among the early binders, De Rome is noted for his merciless cropping. But few volumes have preserved the integrity of their margins after having been submitted to the cruel operation of his steel. A volume cut to the print is said to bleed; therefore be careful to avoid the slightest approach towards the commission of such an act of Vandalism. The boards having been squared for the back, front, head, and tail, they are placed, with the lined side of the board next to the book, preparatory to the
LACING IN.
Each board is then marked with a bodkin opposite to the slips intended to be laced in; a hole in a vertical position is then made through the board, and being turned, another in the same way near to the first. The bands, having been pasted and passed in above, are returned through the other hole, and, being pulled tight, the boards will necessarily be perpendicular to the back, and confined in the groove. After cutting off the end of the strings near to the lace-holes, they must be beaten well and evenly into the board by placing the under part on an iron (called the knocking-down iron) fixed at the end of the laying-press, and beating above with the backing-hammer.
If it be desirable that the bands should not be seen inside, the hole may be made so vertical that, by placing the bodkin in the same on the other side, another verging a contrary way to the first may be made, and the band, being passed in this one continued hole, will not be seen underneath. The liability, however, of its tearing out is an objection, and from this cause the common way, with care in beating down, is preferable.
After the slips have been well beaten down, the roundness of the back must be examined, and any twist that is perceptible corrected with the backing-hammer. A piece of smooth tin, larger than the volume, must then be inserted between each board and the book, with one edge of the tin full up to the joint. The volume is next placed between pressing-boards even with the joint, and put into the standing-press, which must be screwed tight and evenly down. Stewart’s double-screw iron standing-press is well adapted for the purpose, and is in very general use. After the press has been screwed down, the back of the volume is then damped with thin paste, and, according to the firmness of the sewing and book, grated and scraped, and finally rubbed smooth with paper-shavings, and left to dry in the press for as long a time as possible. If a large volume, it is usual to apply a little glue to the back. When taken out of the press, the boards must be disengaged from the end-papers, where they adhere, so that they may move freely up and down in the cutting.
CUTTING THE EDGES.
The manner of preparing the volume for cutting is very important, as swerving from right angles in cutting the head and tail will present a disagreeable appearance. Every precaution must be taken to insure the volume being cut perfectly square. The front-board is drawn down from the head just sufficient for the knife to operate upon in the cutting. A piece of trindle is inserted between the volume and the back-board for the point of the knife to cut against. The volume is then placed, with the back towards the workman, on a cutting-board in the left hand; the runner or smooth-edged board is then fixed on the other side, with the right hand, even and square with the edge of the mill-board, and the whole, held tight with the left hand, put into the cutting-press, to the level of the right-hand cheek of the same, taking care that the volume hangs perpendicular to the cheeks of the press. Being screwed tight with the pin, the workman then takes the plough with the right hand, by the head of the screw, and, placing it on the groove of the press, proceeds to cut the book, holding the other end of the screw firmly with the left hand, and causing the knife to advance gradually through the book by turning the screw gently as he cuts, which should be all one way,—viz.: as the arms are removed from the body. The plough must be held firm in the groove or guides of the press, to prevent the knife jumping or cutting the edges uneven; and, should the knife be found to run up or down, the defect must be remedied by removing some of the paper or boards placed under the knife where it is fastened to the plough. If there should be none required to bring the knife even with the plough, then a piece must be placed on whichever side of the bolt the defect may require. The head being cut, the same operation is repeated for the tail.
Much precaution is necessary in cutting the fore-edge. Mark the book with a bodkin on the projecting part of the end-papers, and on each side, at the head and foot, close to the square side of the boards, drawing a line from one to the other; then, laying the boards open, insert a trindle at each end of the volume, under the back, so as to throw the round out; then wind a piece of fine cord several times round from the head to the tail, to prevent the leaves returning after the back is made flat, to form the gutter on the fore-edge. This done, beat the back flat on the press, and place one of the cutting-boards at the end of the book, even with the line before made; turn it, and place the runner as much below the line on the title-side as has been allowed for the square on the fore-edge. Taking the whole in the left hand, the volume must be examined to remedy any defects, should it not be regular and equal on both sides, and then put into the press, the runner as before even with the right cheek, taking care to keep the other board projected above the left, equal to the square allowed in front, so that, when cut through, the fore-edge may be equally square with the boards on each side. After the fore-edge is cut, the string is taken off, the back resumes its circular form, and the edge in consequence presents a grooved appearance, which puzzles the uninitiated to ascertain how it is produced. The method above described is called “cutting in boards,” and is superior to any other.
It is of the utmost importance to the young workman that he should pursue and acquire a methodical system in all his operations. Select the best method, as a matter of course, and then adhere to it. Do not, every time you perform one particular process, do it in a different manner. For instance: in backing or in turning up your books, it is better to always have the head towards you; in cutting head and tail, to have the back nearest you. In laying your work down, always do it in one way. Let that way be the one whereby you can most conveniently take it up again. Much time may be wasted, from inattention to these particulars, in the unnecessary handling and confused manner of working. It will be found that the best and most expeditious workmen are those who do their work in a systematical manner. In taking leave of this department, our parting admonition to the young workman is, strive to excell. Do not be content if your work will merely pass, and say to yourself, “Oh, that is good enough!” If it is possible for you to do it better, it is not good enough. Employ your reasoning faculties as well as your physical powers, so that you do not sink into a mere machine. When performing a process, ask yourself the question, “Why is this done? What is the object of it? Can the process be improved?” You will find the hand to be an apt instrument of the mind and will, and that you will speedily be recognised as an intelligent workman. Have, at least, this much ambition.
The next process which the volume must undergo is the gilding or colouring of
THE EDGES.
Colouring the edges with one colour, equally sprinkling over, marbling, and gilding, come under this head; and the style of ornament of this description must depend on the price allowed for the work, and will vary according to the taste of the workman and wish of the employer.
OF COLOURING AND SPRINKLING.
The colours most used are brown and red, in preparing which it is necessary to grind them in water, very fine, on a slab, with a muller. Each colour is then placed in a separate vase, and mixed up with a little paste and water to the proper consistency for use. To procure a better edge, two drops of oil and about an equal quantity of vinegar and water may be mixed with the paste.
In colouring the edges equally over, the boards at the head of the volume must be beat even with the edges, and the book rested on the edge of the press or table; then, holding the book firm with the left hand, the colours must be applied with a small sponge or brush, passing it evenly upon the edge, proceeding towards the back one way and the gutter the other, to avoid a mass of colour being lodged in the angle of the fore-edge. This done, the other parts are similarly coloured, the fore-edge being laid open from the boards and a runner held firm above to prevent the colour searching into the book. It will be perceived that a dozen volumes may be done at the same time with scarcely more than the additional trouble of placing one above the other. For further security, and to prevent the colour searching into the books, it is advisable to put them into the laying-press and screw them moderately tight. In fact, for all good work, this must be done.
In sprinkling, it is usual to tie together a number of volumes with a board on each side of the outside books, or place them in the laying-press first, with the heads upwards; then, with a large brush, similar to a painter’s, dipped in whatever colour may be wished, and well beat on the press-pin over the pot till the sprinkle becomes fine, the edges are covered. The pin and brush are held sufficiently above the book, and the edge sprinkled by beating lightly at first, and stronger as the brush becomes less charged with colour, being careful that the spots are as fine as possible, the sprinkle being thereby made more beautiful.
The cleanest method, and at the same time the surest to produce a fine sprinkle, is to use a wire sieve and a stiff brush, something like a shoe-brush, for convenience. The sieve should be oval in form, with a very thick wire running round the edge until they meet, then projecting about a foot from the sieve so as to form a handle, the whole somewhat resembling in shape the bat used by ball-players. Fine brass wire is the best for the sieve. The wire should be about one-fourth of an inch apart. After every thing is in readiness, dip the stiff brush in the colour and lay the sieve over the pan, and rub the brush over it to get rid of the superfluous colour, which will drop into the pan; then knock off all the loose colour adhering to the sieve; then hold the sieve over the books, and rub the brush over the wires, lightly at first, and afterwards harder as the brush loses the colour. The colour will descend like a fine mist, and the effect produced upon the edge cannot be equalled by the old method. Several colours are sometimes used with very pleasing effect; some of these combinations will be described, and many others will readily occur to the workman as his taste may suggest.
Colours
Of vegetable colours, and ochres, directions for mixing which have been given above, it will only be necessary to particularize the most approved and generally-used substances. The liquid ones will require a more lengthened description.
Blue.—Indigo and Prussian blue, with whiting for lighter shades.
Yellow.—Dutch pink, King’s yellow, and yellow orpine.
Brown.—Umber, burnt over the fire.
Red.—Vermilion; or Oxford ochre, burnt in a pan.
Pink.—Rose-pink; to make it brighter, add lake.
Green.—The first and second mixed to any shade.
The liquid or spirit colours will be found best for use, as the edges will not rub, which all other colours are liable to do. Some of the receipts are well known; but, it being necessary to give a faithful record of the art, the whole of the colours used and modes of preparation will be presented.
BLUE.
Two ounces of the best indigo, finely powdered, mixed with a teaspoonful of spirit of salts and two ounces of best oil of vitriol. Put the whole into a bottle, and let it remain in boiling water for six or eight hours, and mix with water as wanted to the shade required.
YELLOW.
French berries, saffron, or faustic chips. Boil with a small portion of alum; strain and bottle for use.
GREEN.
The two colours above will make an excellent green used in proportions as the shade required. Another green may be made by boiling four ounces of verdigris and two ounces of cream of tartar till a good colour is produced.
ORANGE.
Two ounces of Brazil dust, one ounce of French berries, bruised, and a little alum. Boil in water and strain.
RED.
Brazil dust, half a pound; alum, two ounces, well powdered; boiled in a pint of vinegar and a pint of water till brought down to a pint. Strain and bottle. The red edges now in vogue are made with vermilion, mixed with vellum-size. The better class are scraped before they are coloured, and afterwards they are burnished.
PURPLE.
Logwood chips, in the proportion of half a pound to two ounces of alum, and a small piece of copperas, boiled in three pints of soft water till reduced a third, will make a good purple.
Brazil dust, submitted to the action of strong potash water, will make a good purple for immediate use, but will not keep.
BROWN.
A quarter of a pound of logwood, and the same quantity of French berries, boiled together. If a darker shade is required, add a little copperas. Plain brown edges are made with burnt umber, in the same manner as that described for red edges.
With these colours, edges of books may be sprinkled to almost an infinite number of patterns. A few will be given; for, though fancy sprinkles are seldom used where the binder can get the edges of extra books marbled, they will be of use to those who would find marbling a work of too great preparation and expense for a small number of books in places where there is no marbler.
RICE MARBLE.
This pattern has been so called from the use of rice; but linseed, or bread crumbs, will answer the same purpose. The rice is laid on the edge of the book according to fancy, and the edge sprinkled with any colour, the rice thus forming blank spaces. The edge may be coloured previously all over, or sprinkled with a lighter shade.
WHITE SPOT.
Take white wax and melt it in a pot; then with a brush throw some upon the edge of the book; when it is set, colour the edge with a sponge. Take the book and give it two or three smart knocks on the end of the press, when the wax will fly off and a beautiful white spot remain. This pattern may be much varied by using two or three colours or sprinkling the edge before the wax is thrown on, and, after it is, again with other colours.
Whiting mixed with water to a thick consistency will nearly answer the same purpose, and is less expensive than wax.
FANCY MARBLE.
Take a small portion of rose-pink, green, or any other vegetable colour, and well bray it on the slab with the muller, till reduced to a fine powder. Prepare a dish, or other vessel, large enough to admit the fore-edge of the book, and filled with clear water; then with the palette-knife mix a portion of the colours with spirits of wine, and convey with the knife some of the same to the middle of the vessel, and allow it to flow gradually on the surface of the water. The spirit of wine will cause it to spread in a diversity of pleasing forms, when the edge of the book must be dipped in the same manner as for marbling, and a very neat pattern will be produced at a trifling cost, as no more colour need be mixed than wanted at each time.
GOLD SPRINKLE.
After the edges of the book are stained with any of the colours above described, a good effect may be given by sprinkling with a gold liquid, made in the following manner:—Take a book of gold and half an ounce of honey, and rub them together in a mortar until they are very fine; then add half a pint of clear water and mix them well together. After the water clears, pour it off and put in more, till the honey is all extracted and nothing left but the gold; mix one grain of corrosive sublimate with a teaspoonful of spirits of wine, and when dissolved put the same, with a little thick gum-water, to the gold, and bottle it, always shaking it well before using. When dry, burnish the edge, and cover it with paper till the work is finished.