Of Reading Verse
With respect to the art of reading verse, we can lay down but a few simple rules; but these may perhaps be useful.
1. Words should be pronounced as they are in prose and in conversation; for reading is but rehearsing another’s conversation.
2. The emphasis should be observed as in prose. The voice should bound from accent to accent, and no stress should be laid on little unimportant words, nor on weak syllables.
3. The sentential pauses should be observed as in prose; these are not affected by the kind of writing, being regulated entirely by the sense. But as the cesural and final pauses are designed to encrease the melody of verse, the strictest attention must be paid to them in reading. They mark a suspension of voice without rising or falling.
To read prose well it is necessary to understand what is read; and to read poetry well, it is further necessary to understand the structure of verse. For want of this knowlege, most people read all verse like the Iambic measure. The following are pure Iambics.
“Above how high progressive life may go!
Around how wide, how deep extend below!”
It is so easy to lay an accent on every second syllable, that any school boy can read this measure with tolerable propriety. But the misfortune is, that when a habit of reading this kind of meter is once formed, persons do not vary their manner to suit other measures. Thus in reciting the following line,
“Load the tall bark, and launch into the main,”
many people would lay the accent on every second syllable; and thus read, our poetry becomes the most monotonous and ridiculous of all poetry in the world.
Let the following line be repeated without its pauses, and it loses its principal beauty.
“Bold, as a hero,, as a virgin, mild.”
So in the following.
“Reason, the card,, but passion, is the gale.”
“From storms, a shelter,, and from heat, a shade.”
The harmony is, in all these instances, improved much by the semipauses, and at the same time the sense is more clearly understood.
Considering the difficulty of reading verse, I am not surprised to find but few who are proficients in this art. A knowlege of the structure of verse, of the several kinds of feet, of the nature and use of the final, the cesural and the semicesural pauses, is essential to a graceful manner of reading poetry; and even this, without the best examples, will hardly effect the purpose. It is for this reason, that children should not be permitted to read poetry of the more difficult kind, without the best examples for them to imitate. They frequently contract, in early life, either a monotony or a sing song cant, which, when grown into a habit, is seldom ever eradicated.
Footnotes
125 Sheridan’s Art of Reading.
126 Sheridan.
127 Churchill has improved English versification, but was sometimes too incorrect. It is a remark of some writer, “That the greatest geniuses are seldom correct,” and the remark is not without foundation. Homer, Shakespear, and Milton, were perhaps the greatest geniuses that ever lived, and they were certainly guilty of the greatest faults. Virgil and Pope were much inferior in point of genius, but excelled in accuracy. Churchill had genius, but his contempt of rules made him sometimes indulge a too great latitude of expression.
Notes
Historical and Critical
[A], page 42, Text.
The author of the “Specimen of an Etymological Vocabulary,” asserts that “the Celtic was demonstrably the origin of the Greek and Latin; of most, if not all the languages of Europe; of part of Africa and the two Tartaries.”
Mons. Gebelin, who has, with great industry, investigated the origin of the European languages, is of opinion that the Celtic was spoken from the borders of the Hellespont to the ocean, and from Troy to Cape Finisterre and Ireland. “La langue Celtique, dans son sens le plus extendu, est la langue que parlerent les premiers habitans de l’Europe, depuis les rives de l’Hellespont & de la Mer Egée, jusques a celle de l’Ocean; depuis le cap Sigée aux portes de Troie, jusques au cap de Finisterre en Portugal, ou jusques en Irelande.”——Dis. Prelim. art. 2.
From this language, he says, sprung the Greek or Pelasgic, prior to Hesiod and Homer—the Latin or that of Numa—the Etruscan, spoken in a considerable part of Italy—the Thracian, spoken on the Danube, from the Euxine to the Adriatic sea, which was the same as the Phrygian—the Teutonic or German, spoken from the Vistula to the Rhine—the Gaulish, spoken on the Alps, in Italy, on this side the Po, and from the Rhine to the Ocean, including France, the Low Countries, Switzerland, Alemain, and the two Bretagnes—also the Cantabrian, or ancient language of Spain—in short, the Runic, spoken in the North, Denmark, Sweden, &c.
The only pure remains of this primitive Celtic, the same author supposes, are found in Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany in France, where the people still speak dialects of a language which is proved to be the ancient British.
“Separes ainsi du reste de l’univers, ces debris des anciens Celtes ont conservé leurs anciens usages, & parlent une langue qui n’a aucun rapport a celles des peuples qui les ont subjugués, & qui s’est partagée en trois dialectes, le Gallois, le Cornouaillien, & le Bas Breton; dialectes qui ont entr’eux le plus grand rapport, & qui sont incontestablement les precieux restes de l’ancienne langue des Celtes ou des Gaulois.”——Dis. Prelim.
“Separated from the rest of the world, these remains of the ancient Celts have preserved their ancient customs, and speak a language which has no agreement with those of their conquerors, and which is divided into three dialects, the Welsh, the Cornish, and the Armoric—dialects which have a close affinity with each other, and which are, beyond dispute, the precious remains of the ancient Celtic or Gaulish language.”128
In this passage the author seems to contradict what he had just before advanced, that the Celtic was the primitive language of Europe, from which sprung the Gothic or German. Now the Franks, Normans and Saxons, who subdued Gaul and Britain, spoke dialects of the Gothic; consequently there must have been, upon our author’s own hypothesis, some agreement between the ancient Celtic and the more modern languages of the Goths, Saxons, and other northern conquerors of the Celtic nations. This agreement will appear, when I come to collate a number of words in the different languages.
Many learned men have attempted to prove that the Northern Goths and Teutones, and the Celts who lived in Gaul and Britain, were originally the same people. Mons. Mallet, the celebrated historian, has composed his “Introduction to the History of Denmark” upon this hypothesis. His translator is of a different opinion, and has generally substituted the English word “Gothic” for the “Celtique” of the original. In a preface to his translation, he endeavors to confute the opinion of Mons. Mallet, Cluverius, Pellutier and others, and prove that the Gothic and Celtique nations were ab origine two distinct races of men. Great erudition is displayed on both sides of the question, and those who have a taste for enquiries of this kind, will receive much satisfaction and improvement, in reading what these authors have written upon the subject.
After a close examination, I freely declare myself an advocate for the opinion of Mons. Mallet, Lhuyd, and Pellutier, who suppose the Celts and Goths to be descended from the same original stock. The separation however must have been very early, and probably as early as the first age after the flood. To say that the Gothic and Celtique languages have no affinity, would be to contradict the most positive proofs; yet the affinity is very small—discoverable only in a few words.
The modern English, Danish, Swedish and German are all unquestionably derived from the same language; they have been spoken by distinct tribes, probably not two thousand years, and almost one half of that period, the sounds have been in some measure fixed by written characters, yet the languages are become so different as to be unintelligible, each to those who speak the other. But, suppose two languages separated from the parent tongue, two thousand years earlier, and to be spoken, thro the whole of that time, by rude nations, unacquainted with writing, and perpetually roving in forests, changing their residence, and liable to petty conquests, and it is natural to think their affinity must become extremely obscure. This seems to have been the fact with respect to the Gothic and Celtic tongues. The common parent of both was the Phenician or Hebrew. This assertion is not made on the sole authority of Moses; profane history and etymology furnish strong arguments to prove the truth of the scripture account of the manner in which the world was peopled from one flock or family. Of these two ancient languages, the Celtic or British comes the nearest to the Hebrew, for which perhaps substantial reasons will be assigned. The Gothic bears a greater affinity to the Greek and Roman, as being derived through the ancient Ionic or Pelasgic, from the Phenician.
Lhuyd, a celebrated and profound antiquary, remarks, Arch. Brit. page 35. “It is a common error in etymology to endeavor the deriving all the radical words of our western European languages from the Latin and Greek; or indeed to derive constantly the primitives of any one language from any particular tongue. When we do this, we seem to forget that all have been subject to alterations; and that the greater and more polite any nation is, the more subject, (partly for improvement, and partly out of a luxurious wantonness) to new model their language. We must therefore necessarily allow, that whatever nations were of the neighborhood and of one common origin with the Greeks and Latins, when they began to distinguish themselves for politeness, they must have preserved their languages (which could differ from theirs only in dialects) much better than they; and consequently no absurdity to suppose a great many words of the language, spoken by the old aborigines, the Osci, the Læstrigones, the Ausonians, Ænotrians, Umbrians and Sabines, out of which the Latin was composed, to have been better preserved in the Celtic than in the Roman. “Lingua Hetrusca, Phrygia, Celtica (says the learned Stiernhelm) affines sunt omnes; ex uno fonte derivatæ. Nec Græca longe distat, Japheticæ sunt omnes; ergo et ipsa Latina. Non igitur mirium est innumera vocabula dictarum Linguarum communia esse cum Latinis.” And that being granted, it must also be allowed that the Celtic (as well as all other languages) has been best preserved by such of their colonies, as, from the situation of their country, have been the least subject to foreign invasions. Whence it proceeds that we always find the ancient languages are best retained in mountains and islands.”
The result of this doctrine is, that the primitive Celtic was preserved, in greatest purity, in Britain, before the Roman and Saxon conquests, and since those periods, in Wales and Cornwall. Hence the affinity between the Hebrew and British, which will afterward appear.
Wallis remarks that it is doubtful whether many words in the English and German languages are derived from the Latin, or the Latin from the Teutonic, or whether all were derived from the same stock. “Multas autem voces, quæ nobis cum Germanis fere sunt communes, dubium est an prisci olim Teutones a Latinis, an hi ab illis, aut denique utrique ab eodem commune fonte, acceperint.”——Gram. Cap. 14.
But I presume that history, as well as etymology, will go far in solving the doubt, and incline us to believe that the Teutonic, Greek and Latin were all children of the same parent tongue.
We first hear of men in the mild climate of Asia Minor, and about the head of the Mediterranean. Soon after the flood, the inhabitants began to migrate into distant countries. Some of them went northward and settled in Bactriania and Hyrcania, thence extending westward along the shores of the Caspian sea into Armenia. From these Asiatic colonies, sprung the Scythians and the numerous tribes that afterwards covered the territory of modern Russia, Sweden and Denmark. The different tribes or hordes of these people were called Cimbri, (perhaps from Gomer) Galli, Umbri, &c. and settled the northern parts of Europe as far as the Rhine.
The northern Greek countries, Thrace and Mysia, were peopled by the descendants of Tiras or Thiras, a son of Japhet. The whole country from Thrace to Peloponnesus was inhabited by the posterity of Javan and Cittim; indeed Ionia, the ancient name of Greece, seems to be derived from Javan, J or I being anciently pronounced as liquid i, or y consonant, and as it is still pronounced in the German ja, yaw. These settlements were made long before the Pelasgic migrations into Greece, which happened at least 2000 years before Christ. The original language of Greece was called Ionic, from Javan or Ion. The Pelasgi were probably Phenicians; and ancient historians relate that they carried letters into Greece; but these must have been in a very rude state, so early after their invention;129 nor do we find that they were ever much used; at least no records or inscriptions, in these characters, are mentioned by the Greek historians.
Cadmus introduced the Phenician letters into Greece 1494 years before Christ. These letters were introduced with some difficulty, and both Cadmus and his followers were obliged to adopt the Ionic or original Japhetic language, which was afterwards written in his Phenician characters.
The Greeks, at different periods, sent colonies into distant parts of the country. These settled in Thrace, Macedon, on the banks of the Euxine, in Asia Minor, in Italy, Sicily and on the southern shore of the Mediterranean. This Ionic or Japhetic language was therefore the root of the Greek and Latin. It was also the root of the Gothic language, spoken in the north of Europe; and from which, after the revolution of ages, the shocks of war, and the improvements in science, no less than seven or eight different languages are derived.130
Profane history therefore warrants us in asserting that the Greek, Roman, and all the modern languages of the north of Europe, and the English, among the rest, had a common stock. But history alone would not silence our objections to this theory, were it not incontestibly proved by a number of radical words, common to all, which are not yet lost in the changes of time. Etymology therefore furnishes a demonstration of what is related in history. When one sees the words γινωσκω and γνοω in Greek, nosco, and anciently, gnosco in Latin, and know in English, conveying the same idea, he is led to suspect that one nation borrowed the word from another. But when did the English borrow this word? The word was used by the Saxons, long before they could have had any knowlege of Greek or Roman authors. It furnishes therefore a strong presumption that all the streams came from the same fountain. But when we examin further, and find many, perhaps a hundred words or more, common to all these languages, the evidence of their common origin becomes irresistible. This in fact is the case.
The authors then who have labored to prove the Greek and Latin Languages to be derived from the Celtic, mistake the truth. The Celtic was not prior to the Greek and Latin, but a branch of the same stock; that is, cotemporary with those languages.
This Japhetic language, I take to be coeval with the Phenician or Hebrew; and there are some Hebrew words in the English language, which must have been derived thro the Saxon or Teutonic. But the old British, as I before remarked, retained the greatest affinity to the Hebrew. The reason which appears probable, has been already assigned; the Celts and Britons in the west of Europe, remained, till the times of Julius Cæsar, less disturbed by wars and revolutions, than the inhabitants of Asia, Egypt and Greece.
But I am inclined to believe further, that the descent of the Britons from the first Japhetic tribes that settled in Greece, was more direct, than thro the Gomerians or Cimbri, who travelled northward along the shores of the Baltic. I suspect that very ancient colonies settled on the shores of the Mediterranean, in Italy and Spain, and thence found their way to Gaul and Britain, before the northern tribes arrived thro Germany and Belgium. This would account for the affinity between the Hebrew language and the Welsh. The opinion however is not well supported by historical facts, and the ancient name of the British language, Cymraeg, denoting its descent from the Cimbric is a weighty objection.131
It is certain however that Carthage was settled by Phenicians, about 900 years before Christ. Greek colonies went thither in the following century, and not long after they settled at Marseilles in Gaul. The people therefore on both shores of the Mediterranean were descended from the same stock as the northern nations.
Accordingly we are not surprized to find some radical words nearly the same in all the existing languages of Europe. See Jackson’s Chronological Antiquities, vol. 3, with Lhuyd, Geblin, and others.
To illustrate what I have advanced, respecting the first peopling of the world, and the derivation of most European languages from one mother tongue, I will here insert some remarks from Rowland’s Mona Antiqua Restaurata, p. 261, with a table of words, evidently of Hebrew original.
“A TABLE, shewing the Affinity and near Resemblance, both in Sound and Signification, of many Words of the Ancient Languages of Europe with the Original Hebrew Tongue.
“For the better understanding of the parallels of this following table, it is to be observed, that letters of one and the same organ are of common use in the pronunciation of words of different languages—as for example, M, B, V, F, P, are labials: T, D, S, are dentals: G, Ch, H, K, C, are gutturals—and therefore if the Hebrew word or sound begins with, or is made of, any one of the labials, any of the rest of the same organ will answer it in the derivative languages. The same is to be observed in using the dental and the guttural letters. For in tracing out the origin of words, we are more to regard the sound of them than their literal form and composition; wherein we find words very often, by the humors and fancy of people, transposed and altered from their native sounds, and yet in their signification they very well fit their original patterns. I shall only exemplify in the letters M, B, and V, which are of one organ, that is, are formed by one instrument, the lip; and therefore are promiscuously used the one for the other, in pronouncing words of one language in another. The Hebrew B is generally pronounced as a V consonant. And the Irish also, most commonly in the middle of a word, pronounce M as a V; as we find the ancient Britons to have made use of V, or rather F, which they pronounce as V, for M and B in many Latin words; as,
| Latin. | British. |
|---|---|
| Animal | Anifail |
| Turma | Tyrfa |
| Terminus | Terfyn |
| Calamus | Calaf |
| Primus | Prif |
| Amnis | Afon |
| Arma | Arfau |
| Firmus | Ffyrf |
| Monumentum | Monfent |
| Firmomentum | Ffurfafen |
| Lamentor | Llefain |
| Elementum | Eifen |
| Memorare | Myfyrio |
| Hyems | Gauaf |
| Clamare | Llafaru |
| Numerus | Nifer |
| Columna | Colofn |
| Gemelli | Gefeill |
| Roma | Rhufain |
| Scribo | Scrifenu |
| Liber | Llyfr |
| Remus | Rhwyf |
| Domo | Dofi |
| Rebello | Rhyfela |
| Pluma | Pluf |
| Catamanus | Cadfan |
| Dimetæ | Dyfed |
| Lima | Llif |
| Lamina | Llafn, &c. |
“We are not to wonder at this analogy of sounds in the primitive distinction of languages. For before the use of writing, which has established the correct form of words, people were only guided by the ear in taking the sound of words, and they pronounced and uttered them again as the organs of their voice were best fitted for it; and it happening that the aptitude and disposition of those organs, peculiar to some people and countries, were various (as we find to this day some nations cannot shape their voice to express all the sounds of another’s tongue,) it accordingly affected and inclined some parties of people to speak the same consonants harder or softer, to utter the same vowels broader or narrower, longer or shorter, as they found themselves best disposed to do. And thereupon custom prevailing with particular sets of people, to continue the use of such different pronunciation as they affected, the words so varied came at length to take on them different forms, and to be esteemed and taken as parts of different languages, tho in their origin they were one and the same.132
| Hebrew. | Derivatives. | English. | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Auch | Awch | Brit. | The edge of a sword |
| Even | Maen | A stone | |
| Agam or Leagam | Lagam | Corn. | A pool or lake |
| Ivah | Deis-yfu | Br. | To desire |
| Auor | Awyr | Lightened air | |
| Ano | Yno | Then | |
| Achei | Achau | Brethren or kindred | |
| Aedenei | Gwadnau | The soles of the feet | |
| Calal | Cyllell | To wound or pierce | |
| Domen | Tomen | Muck or dung | |
| Gehel | —— | Coal | |
| Sâl | Sâl | Br. | Vile or of no account |
| Kadal | Gadael | To forsake or desist | |
| Aggan | Angeion | Greek | A vessel or earthen pot |
| Alaph | ‘Alphoō | To find | |
| Bama | Boōmòs | An altar | |
| Hag | Agios | Holy | |
| Hadar | Cadair | Br. | Honor or reverence |
| Katha | Irish | ||
| Hia | Y hi | Br. | She |
| Goph | Corph | A body, corpse | |
| Deraich | Braich | An arm | |
| Raich | |||
| Dad | Diden | Br. | The dug or udder |
| Ager | Aggero | Lat. | To heap together |
| Elah | -Illi, illæ | They, masc. & fem. | |
| Angil | Axilla | The arm pit | |
| Dapsh | Daps | Cheer or dainties | |
| Hen | En! ecce! | Lo! behold! | |
| Phar | Phérō | Greek | To bear or carry |
| Harabon | Arrhabon | A pawn or pledge | |
| Phalat | Phuláttō | To keep or defend | |
| Pathah | Peíthō | To persuade | |
| Gab | Gibbus | Lat. | Bent or crooked |
| Dur | Duro | To endure | |
| Laish | Lis | Greek | A lion |
| Deka | Dekō | To bite | |
| Ephach | Ophis | A serpent | |
| Dath | Deddf | Br. | A law |
| Denah | Dyna | This, that, there it is | |
| Hissah | Ys taw | Be silent | |
| Distaw | |||
| Cala | Claf | To be sick | |
| Clei | Cleas | Irish | Jewels, ornaments |
| Devar | Deveirim | To speak | |
| Ein | Ynys | Br. | Island |
| Hama | Aman | Armor. | Butter |
| Ymenyn | Br. | ||
| Im | Irish | ||
| Ivo | Nava | His enemy | |
| Beala | Mealam | To be wasted | |
| Vock | Vacuus | Lat. | Empty |
| Gwâc | Br. | ||
| Aita | Ydyw | Is, or are | |
| Bar | Bar | Irish | Son |
| Bareh | Bara | Br. | Meat, or victuals |
| Beram | Verùm | Lat. | But, nevertheless |
| Beth | Bwth | Br. | A house, booth |
| Se | She | Irish | He, or him |
| Gaha | Iachau | Br. | To heal, or cure |
| Gad | Càd | An army | |
| Boten | Potten | Br. | The belly |
| Gever | Gwr | A man | |
| Hada | Edō | Greek | To cherish |
| Boa | Báō | To come | |
| Aniah | Anía | Sadness | |
| Charath | Charâttō | To insculp | |
| Maas | Miséō | I hate | |
| Semain | Semaínō | I shew | |
| Aaz | ‘Aix | A goat | |
| Aleth | Alaeth | Br. | A curse |
| Elil | Ellylly | Idol | |
| Allun | Llwyn | A grove of oaks | |
| Amunath | Amynedd | Constancy | |
| Ap | Wep | Face | |
| Itho | Iddo | With him | |
| Atun | Odyn | A furnace | |
| Atha | Aeth | Went, or came | |
| Ische | Yssu | To burn | |
| Emaeth | Ymaith | From him | |
| Barach | Parch | To esteem, or bless | |
| Gobah | Coppa | The top | |
| Geven | Cefn | A ridge, or back | |
| Gedad | Gwiwdod | Excellency | |
| Gaiaph | Cau | To shut, or inclose | |
| Evil | —— | Evil | |
| Beasch | —— | Base | |
| Babel | —— | To babble, cabal; and hablar in Spanish, to speak; Lat. fabula; Fr. fariboles, idle talk | |
| Baroth | —— | Broth | |
| Gaah | —— | Gay | |
| Dum | —— | Dumb | |
| Dusch | —— | To dash | |
| Hebisch | —— | To abash | |
| Hua | —— | He, masc. gend. | |
| Haras | —— | To harass | |
| Chittah | —— | Wheat | |
| Mesurah | —— | A measure | |
| Sahap | —— | To sweep | |
| Charath | —— | To write | |
| Saar | —— | A shower | |
| Aanna | —— | To annoy | |
| Phæer | —— | Fair | |
| Pheret | —— | A part, or portion | |
| Phærek | —— | Fierce | |
| Eretz | —— | Earth; Sax. hertha | |
| Sad | —— | Side | |
| Spor | —— | A sparrow | |
| Kinneh | —— | A cane | |
| Kera | —— | To cry | |
| Shekel | —— | Skill | |
| Rechus | —— | Riches | |
| Kre | —— | A crow | |
| Pasa | —— | To pass | |
| Halal | —— | A hole | |
| Catat | —— | To cut | |
| Ragez | —— | To rage | |
| Ragal | —— | To rail, or detract | |
| Maguur | Magwyr | Habitation | |
| Madhevi | Myddfai | Distempers | |
| Doroth | Toreth | Generations, encrease | |
| Dal | Tal | Tall and high | |
| Havah | Y fu | Was, or has been | |
| Mahalac | Malc | A pathway, or a balk | |
| Hilo | Heulo | Shining. Apollo, Sol. | |
| Tor | Toar | Irish. | A boundary, or limit |
| Terfyn | Br. | ||
| Siu | Syw | Resplendent | |
| Achalas | Achles | Defence, Achilles | |
| Machaneh | Machno and Mechain | Places of defence of old in the co. of Montgomery. Penmachno | |
| Chorau | Crau | Holes | |
| Choresh | Cors | Br. | A place full of small wood or reeds |
| Nodah | Nodi | To make known, or note | |
| Jadha | Addef | To know | |
| ‘Oída | Greek | ||
| Hathorath | Athrawiaeth | Br. | Discipline |
| Jch | Eich | Your, or your own | |
| Jared | I wared | Descended | |
| Cha | Chwi | You | |
| Jain | Gwîn | Wine | |
| Toledouth | Tylwyth | Generations | |
| Lus | Llyfu | To go away, or avoid | |
| Caolath | Colled | A loss | |
| Hounil | Ynnill | Gain | |
| Jester | Ystyr | Consideration | |
| Jadadh | Gwahodd | To invite | |
| Cafodoth | Cyfoeth | Honours, or wealth | |
| Cis | Cîst | A chest | |
| Bar | Far | Lat. | Bread corn |
| Bara | Br. | ||
| Shevah | —— | Seven | |
| Dakar | —— | A dagger | |
| Hinnek | —— | To hang | |
| Shelet | —— | A shield | |
| Hever | —— | Over, or above | |
| Shibbar | —— | To shiver, or quake | |
| Jiled | —— | 133A child | |
| Chœbel | —— | A cable | |
| Parak | —— | To break | |
| Gannaf | —— | A knave, or a thief | |
| Coll | —— | All | |
| Hannah | —— | To annoy, or hurt | |
| Eth | Etos | Greek | A year, or age |
| Ætas | Lat. | ||
| San | Cœna | A supper | |
| Nabal | Nebulo | A churl | |
| Mot | Motus | Lat. | Motion |
| Bath | Batos | Greek | A thorn |
| Eden | Edone | Pleasure | |
| Kolah | Kleiō | To praise | |
| Sas | Ses | A moth | |
| Phac | Phake | Lentil | |
| Skopac | Scopō | To speculate | |
| Jounec | Jevangc | Br. | A suckling |
| Hamohad | Ammod | Covenant | |
| Parad | Pared | A partition | |
| Keren | Corn | A horn | |
| Kefel | Cefail | The armpit | |
| Me-Ab | Mâb | Son, or from a father | |
| Luung | Llyngcu | To swallow | |
| Temutha | Difetha | Destruction | |
| Ceremluach | Cromlech | A sacrificing stone | |
| Hamule | Aml | Plenty, or store | |
| Mah? | Mae? | What? where? how? | |
| Magal | Maglu | To betray | |
| Makel | Magl | A staff | |
| Meria | Mêr | Fat, or marrow | |
| Mout | Mudo | To remove | |
| Meth | Methu | To die, or fail | |
| Mar | Maer | A lord | |
| Marad | Brad | 134Rebellion | |
| Nafe | Nef | Joyful | |
| Taphilu | Taflu | To cast | |
| Hanes | Hanes | To signify | |
| Nevath | Neuadd | Habitation | |
| Jissal | Isel or Iselu | To throw down | |
| Naoaph | Nwyf | Lust | |
| Nadu | Nadu | They moan | |
| Sethar | Sathru | To throw under feet | |
| Heber | Aber | A ford, or passage | |
| Nucchu | Nychu | Being smitten | |
| Nuu | Nhwy | They, or those | |
| Naodhad | Nodded | To escape | |
| Gadah | Gadaw | Br. | To pass by |
| Niued | Niweid | To spoil | |
| Goloth | Golwyth | Burnt offerings | |
| Mohal | Moel | Top of a hill | |
| Galas | Glwys | Pleasant | |
| Hasem | Asen | A rib, or bone | |
| Garevath | Gwarth | Shame | |
| Taphug | Diffyg | Want, or defect | |
| Phoreth | Ffrwyth | Fruit, or effect | |
| Pach | Bach | A crooked stick | |
| Pinnouth | Pennaeth | Chief, or uppermost | |
| Phinnah | Ffynnu | To prosper | |
| Path | Peth | A part or portion | |
| Philegesh | Ffiloges | A concubine | |
| Caton | Cwttyn | Short and little | |
| Cir | Caer | A walled town | |
| Reith | Rhîth | Appearance | |
| Tireneh | Trîn | To feed and look after | |
| Ragah | Rhwygo | To tear, rag | |
| Rasah | Râs and Rhâd | Grace, or good will | |
| Semen | Saim | Fat, or oil | |
| Saraph | Sarph | A serpent | |
| Sac | Sâch | A 135sack | |
| Phuk | Ffûg | Disguise | |
| Fucus | Lat. | ||
| Phærek | Ferocia | Fierceness | |
| Pinnah | Pinna | Battlement | |
| Pigger | Piger fuit | Lazy | |
| Naca | Neco | To slay | |
| Ad | Ad | Unto | |
| Nut | Nuto | To nod | |
| Darag | Trechō | Greek | To run to, or come at |
| Bala | Palai | Some time ago | |
| Hannak | ‘Agchō | To strangle | |
| Tagu | Br. | ||
| Naar | Nearos | Greek | New or lately |
| Agab | ‘Agapaō | To love | |
| Pacha | Pege | Greek | A fountain |
| Parash | Phrasō | To declare, phrase | |
| Kol | Kalèō G. Galw | B. | To call |
| Mashal | Basileuō | Greek | To reign |
| Shareka | Syrinx | A syringe | |
| Bekarim | Pecora | Lat. | Cattle |
| Ahel | Aula | A hall | |
| Carpas | Carbasus | Fine linen, or lawn | |
| Æsh | Æstes La. Tês | Br. | Heat, or hot weather |
| Gibar | Guberno | Lat. | To govern |
| Parah | Vireo | To look green | |
| Ki | Quia | Wherefore | |
| Olam | Olim | Of old | |
| Golem | Glomus | A clew of thread | |
| Amam | Ymam | Mother, mamma | |
| Coaphar | Gwobr | Reward | |
| Cala | Caula | Lat. | A sheepfold |
| Sarch | Serch | Br. | Lustful |
| Goliath | Glwth | A bed | |
| Pathehen | Puttain | A whore | |
| Burgad | Bwrgais | A burgess | |
| Terag | Drwg | Bad, or evil | |
| Dasgar | Dysgl | A dish | |
| Shiovang | Sionge | Honorable | |
| Anas | Annos | To instigate | |
| Tam | Dim | Nothing | |
| Pherch | Y ferch | A daughter | |
| Tetuva | Edifar | Penitent | |
| Leamor | Ar lafar | Saying | |
| Casas | Ceisio | To search | |
| Cark | Carchar | To bind; Lat. carcer | |
| Kam | Cammu | To bend | |
| Caffa | Cyff | A beam | |
| Cevel | Ar gyfyl | Near | |
| Dumga | Dammeg | A simile | |
| Tor and Sor | Tarw | A bull; Lat. taurus | |
| Turna | Teyrn | A prince, tyrant | |
| Manos | Myddyn | A mountain | |
| Malas | Melys | Sweet | |
| Palac | Plygu | To fold | |
| Banc | Mainc | A bench | |
| Malal | Malu | To grind | |
| Marak | Marc | A note | |
| Cadif | Gwadu | To tell a lie | |
| Tohum | Eyfn | Depth | |
| Colar | Coler | A neck band, collar | |
| Corontha | Coron | A crown | |
| Berek | Brêg | A breach | |
| Bagad | Bagad | A great many | |
| Arach | Arogli | To smell | |
| Nagash | Yn agos | To approach | |
| Ciliah | Ceilliau | Stones | |
| Gevr | Cawr | A giant | |
| Kec | Cêg | A mouth | |
| Kun | Cwyno | To lament | |
| Natsar | Dinystr | Destruction, or ruin | |
| Pinnah | Pinagl | Pinnacle | |
| Mahalal | Mawl or Moli | To praise | |
| Hedel | Hoedl | Life | |
| Halal | Haul | Sun | |
| Gavel | Gafael | Tenure | |
| Lashadd | Glasaidd | Blueish | |
| Gerem | Grym, grymmus | Bony or strong | |
| Masac | Cym-myscu | To mingle | |
| Gana | Canu | To sing; Lat. cano | |
| Celimah | Calumnia | Lat. | Reproach |
| Netz | Nisus | Endeavor | |
| Ptsel | Psileō | To make bear | |
| Shushan | Souson | Lilly | |
| Shecan | Sceneō | To dwell in tabernacles | |
| Kalal | Gwael | Br. | Vile |
| Taffi | Diffoddi | To extinguish | |
| Tselem | Delw | An image | |
| Hoberi | Obry | Men over against | |
| Aen-adon | Anudon | Disclaiming God, or perjury |
Here are about fifty English words, which, from their near resemblance to the Hebrew, both in sound and signification, must have been borrowed from the latter in modern ages, or been preserved thro successive generations from Heber to the present times. But they could not have been introduced into English in modern ages, for many of them are found in the other branches of the Gothic, the German, Danish and Swedish; and it can be proved that they existed in the original Gothic or northern language. For example, our word earth is found in Hebrew, and in all the dialects of the Gothic. Hebrew, ert or ertz; Welsh, d’aira; Greek, éra; Latin, terra; Gothic, airthai; ancient German, erth or herth; Saxon, eartho; Low Dutch, aerden; High Dutch, erden; Swiss, erden; Scotch, airth; Norwegian or Norse, iorden; Danish, iorden; Swedish, iordenne; Irelandic, iordu. In the pronunciation of these words there is little difference, except such as is common to the several languages. The ancients aspirated their words more frequently than the moderns; hence the old Germans pronounced the word with h, as appears by a passage in Tacitus, De Mor. Germ. 40. “Nec quidquam notabile in singulis, nisi quod in commune Herthum, id est terram, matrem colunt.”—The modern nations of the north generally write and pronounce d where we write th; as erden; and the i of the Norwegians answers to our e or y, so that iorden is pronounced yorden; and it is remarkable that many of the common English people still pronounce earth, yerth.
The Hebrew turna is found in the British teyrn, signifying a prince or ruler. This word is the root of the Greek turannos, the Latin tyrannus, the British dyrnas, a kingdom or jurisdiction, which is still preserved in the modern Welsh deyrnas; and we see the word in the name of the celebrated British commander, Vortighern. Our word tyrant is derived from it, but it is always used in a bad sense.
In the Hebrew rechus or rekus, we have the origin of the English rich, riches, and the termination rick in bishop-rick, and anciently, in king-rick; the word originally denoting landed property, in which wealth was supposed to consist, and afterwards jurisdiction. From the same word are derived the Anglo Saxon ryc; the Franco Theotisc, rihhi; the Cimbric, rickie; the ancient Irish or Gaedhlig, riogda; the Low Dutch, rijcke; the Frisic, rick; the German, reich; the Swiss, rijch; the Danish, rige; the Norwegian, riga; the Swedish, ricke; the French, riche, and the Spanish, riccos, a general name for nobility, or wealthy proprietors of land.
The word Caer seems to have been a very ancient name for a city or town. We probably see this word in a great number of Welsh names, Carmarthen, Carnarvon, Carlisle, &c. This word seems also to be the origin of Cairo, in Egypt; Carthage or town of the horse;136 the cirthe of the Numidians, and the Caere of the Etruscan. “Inde Turnus Rutilique, diffisi rebus, ad florentes Etruscorum opes Mezentiumque eorum regem, confugiunt; qui Caere, opulento tum oppido imperitans—haud gravatim socia arma Rutulis junxit.”—Liv. lib. 1. 2. Here we hear of the word before the foundation of Rome.
But the affinity between the Hebrew and British is much more obvious, than that between the Hebrew and English. There are about one hundred and eighty British words in the foregoing table, which are clearly the same as the Hebrew; and there is no way to account for the fact, but by supposing them to be all derived from the same primitive tongue.
The resemblance between the Welsh, Latin and English may be observed in the following.
| Welsh. | Latin. | English. |
|---|---|---|
| Y’sgol | schola | school |
| Y’spelio | spolio | spoil |
| Y’sprid | spiritus | spirit |
| Y’stad | status | state |
| Y’stod | stadium | furlong |
The old Britons however might have borrowed these words from the Romans, during their government of the Island; as the English did many of theirs at a later period.
The same remark will not apply to the following:
| Welsh. | Latin. | Irish. | English. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Guin | vinum | fin | wine |
| Guyl | vigilæ | feil | watch |
| Gur | vir | fearr | man |
| Guynt | ventus | wind | |
| Gual | vallum | wall | |
| Armoric. | |||
| Gosper | vesper | feaskor | guespor |
| Eng. | |||
| Guedhar | weather | ||
| Guerth | virtus | worth | |
| Guylht | wild |
In this table, we see the different nations begin the same word with a different consonant. The ancient Latin v was pronounced as our w; vinum, winum; hence the English wine. So in the following:
| Latin. | English. |
|---|---|
| Via | way |
| Venio, ventum | went |
| Vellus | wool |
| Vespa | wasp |
| Volvo | wallow |
| Volo | will137 |
That the Welsh should pronounce gu, where we pronounce w, may seem strange; yet such is the fact, and an anatomist will readily assign the reason. The French, in the same manner, use g where we write and pronounce w.
| English. | French. | |
|---|---|---|
| War | guerre | |
| Warrant | garrant | |
| Ward | gard | |
| Wise | guise | |
| Wile | guile | |
| Wage | gage | |
| Wicket | guicket | |
| William | Guillaum | |
| Wales | Gales, Gaul, Gallia138 |
A number at least of the words in the foregoing tables, must have existed in the several languages from the earliest times; and therefore must have been derived from the same stock.
In the following words, we trace the common origin of the Greek and Gothic languages.
| Greek. | English. |
|---|---|
| Kardia | heart |
| Kear | |
| Kiō | hie |
| Kaleō | hail, call |
| Koilas | hollow |
| Kēdas | heed, care |
| Kerdas | hire |
| Keras | horn, herald |
| Axine | ax |
| Ophrun | frown |
| Pur | fire |
| Platus | plate |
| Xeras | fear |
| Mignuō | mingle |
| Eileō | heal, hail |
| Kairō | cheer |
| Gonu | knee |
| Knix | gnat |
| Zēteō | seek |
The reader will find no difficulty in believing these words to be from the same root, when he is told that the Greeks and the northern nations of Europe pronounced with a strong guttural aspirate; and that k among the Greeks was often a mere aspirate, like h. Thus the Romans often pronounced c; for which reason that letter is often omitted, and h substituted in modern English. Curro and hurry are the same word; and so are cornu and horn; Carolus and Harold.
| Greek. | Latin. | English. |
|---|---|---|
| ‘Oinos | vinum | wine |
| Damaō | domo | tame |
| Zeugos | jugum | yoke |
| Upper | super | upper |
| Gnoō | nosco | know |
| Ginosko | cognosco |
Some old people still pronounce the k in know.
In the following, the Welsh differ from the Greek in the prepositives or initial mutes; but they are clearly from the same root.
| Greek. | Latin. | English. |
|---|---|---|
| Stoma | saman | mouth |
| Ikanos | digon | sufficient |
| Arkē | d’erke | beginning |
| Airō | d’uyrey | arise |
| Platun | lhydon | broad |
| Papyrun | bruyn | rushes |
| Trekō | rhedeg | run |
| Petalon | dalen | loaf139 |
In the following words, the Welsh are nearer the Greek than the Latin; yet all came from one stock.
| Greek. | Welsh. | Latin. | English. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Helios | heil | sol | sun |
| Hypnos | hyn, heppian | somnus | sleep |
| Halon | halen | sal | salt |
| Hamolos | hamal | similis | like |
| Bounos | ban | mons | mountain |
| Kleas | klad. Cornish, klas | laus | praise |
| Pepto | pobo | coquo | cook |
| Hyle | hely | sylva | woods |
| Krios | kor | aries | ram |
These words are incontestibly the same, with mere dialectical variations. All are branches of the same stock, yet neither can claim the honor of being that stock.
But the most curious etymological analysis ever exhibited perhaps in any language, is that found in Gebelin’s works. Take the following specimens.
In the primitive language (of Europe) the monosyllable tar, ter, tor or tro, for it appeared under these forms, signified force. It was composed of t and ar or d’ar, roughness, rapidity. Hence tar expressed the idea of force, with the collateral ideas of violence, rigor, grandeur, &c. From tar are derived, taurus, a bull; torrent, target, trunk, truncare, to cut off; terror, trepan, tare, detriment, trancher, to cut; retrench; tardus, tardy, retard, tergum, because things heavy, that require force, were carried upon the back; intrigue, for it implies difficulties; trop, too much, troop, ter, trois, which originally signified a multitude; for many savage nations have names only for the three first numbers; tierce, tres, very; tresses, a braid or plait of hair in three divisions; triangle, tribunal, tribe, attribute, contribute, &c. trident, trillion, trio, trinity, entre, enter, taken from a relation of three objects, one between two, makes a third; hence internal, external, travers, across; tradition, passing from one to another; traffic, trahir, to draw; traitor, trepidation, intrepid. From tra, between, and es, it is, came the Celtic, treh, a narrow pass, a strait, strict, Fr. etroit, astringent, detroit, strait; distress, strength. The compounds are numerous. Intrinsic, entrails, introduce, extraneous, extravagant, transcendent, transfer, transform, transgress, transact, translate, transmit, transmigrate, transmutation, &c.
Paltroon is from pollex, a thumb, and truncare, to cut off; for cowards use to cut their thumbs to avoid service.
TEM.
Tem signified river, water. Hence tempero in Latin signified to plunge into water. We to this day say to temper iron or steel. To temper, is to moderate. From this root come temperance, temperature, and a numerous catalogue of other words. The river Thames derives its name from the same root.
VA, to go, radical.
From va, the Celtic root, we find a multitude of branches in Greek, Latin, English and French. It is an onomatope, a word borrowed from the sound of our feet in walking. Its derivatives are, wade, evade, evasion, invade, invasion, venio, Lat. and venir, Fr. to come; venia and venial,140 adventure, avenue, convenio, convenience, convention, covenant perhaps, contravene, intervene, invent, prevent, province,141 advance, via, way, voyage, convoy, convey, obviate, vex, invective, vein, a way for the blood; voiture, Fr. for a load to carry; evitare, Lat. to shun; inevitable.
To these derivatives, I will just add a comparative view of the verbs have and be in several languages.
HAVE.
| English. | Latin. | French. | Germ. | Spanish. | Portuguese. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| I have | habeo | ai142 | habe | he | éy |
| Thou hast | habes | as | hast | as | has |
| He has | habet | a | hat | as | ha |
| We have | habemus | avons | haben | avemos | hamos, avemos |
| You have | habetis | avez | habet | aveis | éys, evéys |
| They have | habent | ont | haben | an | ham |
The Substantive Verb BE.
| English. | Latin. | French. | Germ. | Spanish. | Portuguese. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| I am, be | sum | suis | bin | estoy & soy | sou, estou |
| Thou art, beest | es | es | bist | estas, eres | es, estas |
| He is, be | est | est | est-es | está, es | he, esta |
| We are, be | sumus | sommes | sind | estamos, somos | somos, estamos |
| You are, be | estis | êtes | seyd | estais, sois | soys, estoys |
| They are, be | sunt | sont | sind | estan, son | sam, estam |
It is indisputable that have, in all these languages, is from the same root. But there seem to have been anciently two substantive verbs, or perhaps three, from which modern nations have borrowed; viz, the Greek ειναι or ειμι, or the Latin esse, from which most of the foregoing are derived; the Teutonic beon, whence the Germans have their bin and bist, and the English their be and beest; and an old Gothic or Teutonic word, weorthan, whence the Danes have derived their vœrer, and the English and Germans their were and werden. In the old English phrase, “woe worth the day,” we see the same verb.
Having stated my reasons and authorities for believing all the European languages descended from one parent tongue, I will here subjoin the Lord’s Prayer in several languages of Celtic and Gothic origin. The affinity between all the branches of the Gothic is very visible; the affinity likewise between all the branches of the Celtic is very obvious, except the ancient Irish. The Cantabrian and Lapland tongues have little resemblance to either of the stocks or their branches.
GOTHIC. | | +——+——+ | | | | | | 1. Old Saxon, 2. Francic, 3. Cimbric, or Anglo-Saxon. or Franco-Theotisc. or Old Icelandic. | | | | | | | {1. English. +—1. German, +—1. Icelandic. +—{2. Broad, | or High Dutch (proper.) +—2. Norwegian, | or Lowland Scotch. +—2. German | or Norse. | | of Swabia. +—3. Danish. | {3. Belgic, +—3. Swiss. +—4. Swedish. +—{ or Low Dutch (proper.) | {4. Frisic, | { or Friezeland Tongue.
Very little affinity is discoverable between the original Gothic and Celtic or their derivatives; yet this is not a proof that they were ab origine distinct languages; for the words in this prayer are few, and it has been proved that there are many words common to both those ancient tongues.
CELTIC. |
+——+——+
| |
+——+——+ |
| | |
1. The Ancient 2. The Ancient 3. The Ancient GAULISH. BRITISH. IRISH. | | |
| | |
No Language fully +—1. WELSH. +—1. IRISH. derived from this is +—2. AMORICAN, +—2. ERSE, or now extant, unless it | or Bas Bretagne. | Highland Scotch. be the AMORICAN, +—3. CORNISH. +—3. MANKS, or a Language which yet the best | of the Isle of Man. authorities derive from the Ancient British, or CYMRAEG.