3 The Hagiographa (כתובים)
The Hagiographa form the last collection of holy writings, composed by men who, although they were not prophets, were filled with the spirit of the Lord (רוח יי). They include the three larger works: (a) תהלים (or תלים) Psalms, משלי Proverbs, and איוב Job; (b) the Five Scrolls (חמש מגלות), viz., שיר השירים Song of Songs, רות Ruth, איכה Lamentations, קהלת Ecclesiastes, אסתר Esther; (c) the historical books: דניאל Daniel, עזרא Ezra, נחמיה Nehemiah, and דברי הימים the two books of Chronicles.
1. Psalms (תהלים).—The Psalms are hymns containing praises of God’s greatness, prayers for His mercy, and meditations on His wisdom, power, justice, and goodness. However various the Psalms are in form and contents, they have this in common, that they all are based on the purest and sincerest trust in God’s justice and goodness. “The mighty and proud, זדים who rely on their own strength and are guided by the dictates of their own will, cannot succeed for ever; the poor and humble, ענוים who rely on God’s mercy and are guided by the word of God, will not suffer for ever.” This is the truth which the Psalmist proclaims in his songs over and over again. Yet there is a great variety in the contents of the Psalms. Some are simply praises of God’s greatness, e.g., viii., xix., xxxii., xcii., xcv. to xcix., ciii., civ., &c. Others are the expression of gratitude, e.g., ix., xviii., xxxiv., lxvi., lxviii., &c. Many are prayers in time of trouble; in most of these the suppliant feels sure that God will accept his prayer, and is confident that help will come. Such psalms are iii., iv., v., vi., xii., xiii., &c. To this class belong also all the psalms which refer to the troubles of David during the reign of Saul, as lii., liv., lvi., lix., lxiii., &c.; some of the Asaph-psalms, lxxiii., lxxvii., lxxix., lxxx.; the penitential psalms, in which the sinner prays for mercy, as xxv., xxxii., xxxviii., li.; and those in which a longing is expressed for the House of God, e.g., xxvii., xlii., xliii., lxv., lxxxiv. Some psalms are a protest against those who rely on human force and human cunning instead of having faith in God, a protest of the ענוים against the view and creed of the זדים and גאים or גוים e.g., ix. and x., xi., xiv., xvi., xvii., &c. Some psalms are of a more didactic character, showing the way of true happiness (Ps. i.), depicting a truly pious life (xv., xxiv.), or the excellence of the word of God, as xix., cxix.; or the uselessness of sacrifice without purity of heart (xl., l., li.).
The poetical form of the Psalms, as of Hebrew poetry in general, is parallelism. The sentences are formed in such a manner that the psalm can be arranged in lines divisible into two parts, which are either two elements of a single idea, or a double expression of the same idea, or a combination of two ideas or things opposed to each other, illustrating an idea by its antithesis. In some of the Psalms the parallelism is perfect throughout, in others it is partly abandoned, probably in order not to slavishly subordinate the idea to the form of its expression. The same is to be noticed as regards other forms of the Psalms. Some are arranged alphabetically, that is, the successive verses begin with successive letters of the alphabet; but deviations from the plan are met with almost in all such psalms. There are psalms which are divided into a certain number of parts or strophes, each part beginning or ending with the same phrase or verse; but almost invariably these phrases or verses undergo some modification.
The style is naturally poetical, and figurative language is employed throughout. God is a Rock (צור), an habitation (מעון), a Shepherd (רועה), who feeds His flock with great care and love; He is an eagle, under whose wings (אברתו, כנפיו) the weak find protection; He rides in the heavens of the heavens of old (רכב בשמי שמי קדם). Man is compared to “grass that withers,” to a “flower that blossoms in the morning, and in the evening it is withered and dried up;” the life of man is but a breath (הבל); a lie (כזב); light in the balance (במאזנים לעלות); he changes like a garment, like a raiment. The days of a long life are like the days of the heavens, the sun or the moon (כימי שמים, לפני שמש, עם שמש or לפני ירח). The mighty are mountains with many peaks (הרים גבנונים), they have horns like those of the unicorns, whilst the weak are “a wall bent” (קיר נטוי), “a fence thrust down” (גדר הדחויה); “they have sunk in deep mire;” “they have come into fire and into water;” “the waters have come unto the soul.” The meek are “broken in heart,” “crushed in spirit.” The wicked and unjust are like lions and dogs; they have poison “like the poison of a serpent, like a deaf adder that stoppeth its ears, that does not listen to the voice of charmers, to the clever sorcerer.” Their words are smooth like cream and oil, whilst in the heart there are war, daggers, sharp swords. The threatened one runs like a hind, escapes like a bird. Those who have no higher aim than material enjoyments are like “sheep driven to death;” “man in his dignity, without understanding, is like cattle that perish.” Mishaps come upon man like the waves of the sea. The Divine judgment visits the wicked like a thunderstorm; it shakes the earth like an earthquake or volcano. Sinners receive “the cup of confusion” (כוס התרעלה) at the hand of God; for “a cup is in the hand of the Lord, and the wine therein is red; it is full with drink, and He pours out from it, but its dregs all the wicked of the earth will suck and drink.”
The sinner is punished by his own deed; “he digs a pit and falls into it;” he feels like a sick person whose “bones are troubled, and wither;” his purification is toe healing of the soul; he is purified with hyssop; he becomes whiter than snow (li. 9). When man sins he feels as if he had become a changed creature, as if he had now been born and conceived in sin (ver. 7); when he repents and improves, God creates in him a new heart, and renews a firm spirit within him (ver. 12). The wife of the God-fearing man is compared to the fruitful vine, his children to young olive-trees (cxxviii.). The righteous will flourish like a palm-tree, will grow high like a cedar upon Lebanon (xcii. 13). Whilst the righteous is like a tree planted by the brook of water, the wicked are like chaff which the wind drives away (i. 3, 4). Israel is likened to a vine brought from Egypt and planted in Palestine (lxxx. 9). Peacefulness and brotherly love, between high and low, the mighty and the weak, the rich and the poor, the wise and the simple, are illustrated by the fine oil that flows down from the head to the beard, the beard that descends over the garments, and the dew of the high Hermon that comes down to the lower mountains of Zion (cxxx.).
There are some instances of play upon words (lvi. 9), and of rhymes (cxlv. 11; xxxiv. 6); the latter are apparently not intentional.
Although we generally speak of the Psalms of David, only a portion of them was composed by King David; the headings ascribe also one psalm to Moses, two to King Solomon, twelve to Asaph, one to Heman, and one to Ethan; and some have no author mentioned in the heading. Many have no superscription at all, and most of these seem to belong to a later period.
The individual psalms have various names. The most general of them is מזמור a poem, set in music. Of some it is distinctly stated that they were intended to be sung; this is expressed in the heading by the word שיר “song,” which either precedes or follows the title מזמור or stands alone without מזמור. The term, שיר “song,” is further qualified by חנוכת הבית “of the dedication of the house,” ידידות “of love,” and המעלות or למעלות “of degrees leading upward,” i.e., towards God. Another name occurring in twelve psalms is משכיל “instructive song;” the maschil proclaims the lesson that God is King of the universe, and that those are happy who trust in His justice and mercy. A similar meaning attaches to ללמד the word superadded to משכִל in Ps. lx.; lit. “to teach,” i.e., that the song be learnt by all, in order that people may strengthen their confidence in God in times of trouble (comp. 2 Sam. i. 18). The meaning of להזכיר which occurs in two psalms (xxxviii. and lxx.), is “for prayer.” There is one psalm לתודה (c.), “for thanksgiving;” another “for the Sabbath-day,” ליום השבת (xcii.). Four psalms are called תפלה “prayer” (xvii., lxxxvi., xc, cii.); one (cxlv.), תהלה “praise;” one (vii.), שגיון “an error,”6 referring to the miscalculation of the wicked in preparing weapons against the innocent, which weapons are turned against themselves; and six are superscribed מכתם “a jewel.” Such a jewel is the Psalmist’s “faith in God,” that inspires him with hope and pure joy in the midst of misfortune.
The headings include also instructions for the singers and references to the musical instruments which are to be used. The most general term is למנצח “to the chief,” scil., of the singers or Levites; it refers to the chief of a particular division of the Levites if it is followed by a qualifying phrase, and to the chief of all the Levites if it is not followed by any qualification. The term למנצח describes the psalm as a Temple-song, although this may not have been its original object. Even poems which have been composed by David on certain personal events became—perhaps slightly modified—national songs, and formed part of the public service. The adaptation was easy, because these historical psalms rarely contain any allusion to the particular event mentioned in the superscription.
The term למנצח is qualified by על נגינת “on a stringed instrument,” נגינת being the particular instrument of the Levites, of whom this מנצח was the master. The term בנגינות which in several psalms follows the word למנצח is grammatically unconnected with the latter; it means “on stringed instruments,” and is the instruction for the מנצח. There were several kinds of such instruments; two kinds are named שמינית and גתית “the neginath with eight strings” or “chords,” and “the gittith” coming from Gath, a town in the land of the Philistines. Other kinds of musical instruments are נהילות (v.), מחלת (liii.), and עלמות (xlvi.); these are hollow flute-like instruments, also called נבלים (1 Chron. xv. 20). In some cases the division of Levites is named instead of the instrument: ידותון “Jeduthun” (xxxix., lxii. and lxxvii.; comp. 1 Chron. xxv. 3); לבני קרח “to the sons of Korah” (xlii. to xlix., and lxxxiv. to lxxxviii.); once the direction occurs לענות (lxxxviii.), “to sing alternately,” referring to the two divisions of Levites headed by הימן האזרחי and איתן האזרחי “the Ezrahite Heman,” and “the Ezrahite Ethan” (lxxxviii. and lxxxix.).
A few terms are met with in the headings which describe the contents of the psalm in a poetical style. Such are (a.) שושן עדות, ששנים עדות and ששנים (lx., lxxx., xlv., and lxix.), “Testimony for the lily or lilies,” or “for lilies.” The poet calls by this name the flower of the nation, the meek and God-fearing, who are under the special protection of God, and are destined to be crowned in the end with glory and victory, (b.) אילת השחר (xxii.), “The strength of the dawn.” The phrase refers to the strength given to the sufferer in the darkness of his despair by the awakening of his faith in God, which is compared by the poet to the dawn as the forerunner of daylight, (c.) אל תשחת “Do not destroy” (lvii., lviii., lix., and lxxv.). By this heading the author indicates that the psalm is a protest against the self-confidence of the wicked in the success of their wickedness, either with reference to their evil designs against the author himself, or to their plans in general. (d.) יונת אלם רחקים “Dove in the force of those far,” scil., from God (lvi.). The psalm contains the expression of David’s faith in God when he was caught by the Philistines in Gath.
In some of the headings the event is mentioned which prompted the Psalmist to compose the psalm: David’s flight from Jerusalem when Absalom rebelled against him (iii.); the slander of the Benjamite Kush (vii.); the death of Labben (ix.); rescue from the hands of Saul and other enemies (xiii.); dedication of the house (xxx.); David’s escape from Abimelech, king of the Philistines (xxxiv.); his capture by the Philistines in Gath (lvi.); his stay in the cave of Adullam (lvii., cxlii.); danger of being put to death by the servants of Saul (lix.); war with Aram and Edom (lx.); sojourn in the wilderness of Judah (lxiii.).
The order of the Psalms is not chronological; e.g., chap. iii. refers to the rebellion of Absalom, whilst chap, cxlii. was composed before the death of Saul. The principle which guided the collector in fixing the place of each psalm is not known. But it is certainly not the result of mere chance that the first two psalms speak of the Law of God, and of the punishment of those who rebel against God and against His anointed; and that the last psalm calls upon all to praise God with all their soul: “Let every thing that hath breath praise the Lord, Hallelujah!” Nor is it mere chance that the psalms are divided, like the Law, into five groups or books, each one ending with a doxology. It is possible that the psalms were recited or sung at the public service in a manner corresponding to the reading of the Law and the Prophets.
The first two books contain most of the psalms superscribed לדוד “by David,” but there are also some in the other books (one in III., two in IV., fourteen in V.). At the end of the second book (lxxii. 20) the following words are added: “The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended;” i.e., the hope which has just been expressed in the words וימלא כבוד יי את כל הארץ “And the whole earth shall be filled with the glory of God,” forms the aim and end of all the prayers of David, the son of Jesse. The verse does not mean that the first seventy-two chapters of the Psalms contain all the prayers of David, as there are several psalms of David between chaps, lxxiii. and cl.
The Psalms were composed by David and other authors partly for private use, partly for the public service in the Temple and other places of worship. Of those that were originally for private use some were subsequently adapted for public service, and even those intended from the beginning for public worship were adapted to the different modes of recitation or singing. The Book of Psalms includes, therefore, two recensions of several chapters; e.g., xiv. and liii.; xviii. and 2 Sam. xxii.; lx. 7–14 and cviii. 7–14; lvii. 8–12 and cviii. 2–6; cv. 1–15 and 1 Chron. xvi. 8–22; xcvi. and 1 Chron. xvi. 23–33; cxxxv. and cxxxvi.
A considerable portion of our daily prayers consists of psalms. We distinguish the following groups:—(a.) פסוקי דזמרא “Verses of song,” Ps. cxlv. to cl.; to which the following are added on Sabbaths and Festivals: xix., xxxiv., xc, xci., cxxxv., cxxxvi. (called הלל הגדול “the great Hallel”), xxxiii., xcii., and xciii. (b.) שיר של יום “Song of the day;” a different psalm is recited each day of the week after the morning prayer in the following order: xxiv., xlviii., lxxxii., xciv., lxxxi., xciii., xcii. (c.) קבלת שבת “Friday evening psalms,” xcv. to xcix. (d.) Sabbath afternoon psalms: civ., cxx. to cxxxiv. (e.) הלל “Praise,” cxiii. to cxviii. (f.) Penitential psalms after evening prayer on week-days, in the following order: xxv., xxxii., xxxviii., li., lxxxvi.
2. משלי Proverbs of Solomon, the son of David, king of Israel. The Book of Proverbs belongs to those Biblical books which are called ספרי חכמה “books of wisdom.” They appeal to the reason of man, and do not support their words by the authority of Revelation, although the authors and those who gave them the final shape were inspired and guided by the רוח ה׳ “the divine spirit.” The commandments of God and His ways are referred to as the safest guide for man in all conditions of life. Three books are included in this class: Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes.
“The Proverbs of Solomon” are divided into the following six sections:—(A.) Introduction, i. to ix.; (B.) Collection of Proverbs: (a.) Proverbs of Solomon, x. to xxii. 16; (b.) Words of the Wise, xxii. 17 to xxiv. 22; (c.) Second group of Words of the Wise, 23 to 34; (d.) Proverbs of Solomon collected by the men of Hezekiah, xxv. to xxviii.; (e.) Words of Agur-bin-yakeh, xxx.; (f.) Words of Lemuel, xxxi.
The fourth section (chaps, xxv. to xxix.) is introduced by the following superscription:—“Also these are the Proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah, had removed.” The men of Hezekiah seem to have been uncertain whether this section should form part of the book, because of the seeming contradiction between the fourth and fifth verses of the twenty-sixth chapter. The men of the Great Synagogue decided the question in favour of its incorporation in the book, and reconciled the seeming contradiction by their interpretation.
The fifth collection of proverbs is ascribed to Agur-bin-yakeh, an allegorical phrase meaning “collection deserving respect.” The collection is further called “the burden”—the usual heading of prophecies—in order to give it more weight. Also the rest of the superscription, “The saying of the man Leïthiel,” Leïthiel ve-ucchal, is of an allegorical character, signifying, “God—i.e., the word of God—is my task, and I shall prevail.” The phrase is set forth more clearly in the succeeding verses: human knowledge is insufficient, but “All the word of God is pure; he is a shield to those who trust in him” (xxx. 5). The second half of this collection has the heading La-alukah, “For a necklace” (comp. i. 9), similar in meaning to the heading מכתם “Jewel,” in the Psalms. The form of these proverbs, based on the numbers two, three, and four, is similar to that of the prophecies of Amos (chaps, i. and ii.). The last collection is headed, “Words to Lemuel, the king; the burden wherewith his mother instructed him.” The contents of the instruction is, “Be not licentious and intemperate; help the poor and oppressed.” The name Lemuel is likewise allegorical, meaning “God-ward.” The book concludes with the praises of a virtuous woman.
(A.) Introduction.—The object of the book is set forth in verses 2 to 7 of the first chapter as follows: “To make man know wisdom and instruction, comprehend words of understanding, and take the instruction of acting wisely, with justice, judgment, and righteousness; to give skill to the simple; to the young knowledge and discretion; that the wise may hear and increase doctrine, and the prudent acquire cleverness to understand proverb and figure, the words of wise men and their allegories. The beginning of knowledge is the fear of the Lord; wisdom and instruction fools despise.” This last sentence is the basis of the book. Without fear of the Lord all knowledge and wisdom will prove insufficient for establishing man’s true happiness. The Introduction consists of several connected addresses, in which the author persuades the reader to listen to his advice, and keep away from wicked people before it is too late. He exhorts man to entrust himself to the guidance of the Lord, and not to rely on his own understanding. “Be not wise in thine eyes, fear the Lord, and depart from evil” (iii. 7). He warns against bad society, against becoming security for debtors, and against idleness. The two ways open to man are allegorically represented by two women, the one wise, the other foolish; the one leading to happiness, the other to ruin; each one inviting man to her house, and displaying in the very act of invitation her full character.
(B.) The collections of proverbs begin with the tenth chapter. The proverbs have the form of parallelism, each verse being divided into two parts, mostly containing an antithesis illustrating the difference between the wise and the foolish, the good and the bad, the just and the unjust, the industrious and the idle, the rich and the poor, and the like. Each verse is a proverb by itself, and is independent of the verses which precede and follow. There are only a few passages in which several verses are connected, and these occur in the later collections, e.g., xxii. 22–23, 24–25, 26–27; xxiii. 1–3, 4–5, 6–9, 10–11, 12–13, 20–21, 29–35; xxiv. 3–7, 10–12, 30–34; xxvii. 23–27. The whole of the thirtieth chapter consists of small paragraphs of three or four verses, and the last chapter consists of two continuous parts.
In these collections of proverbs we find advice for every condition of our life. Our relation to God is shown; how He loves the good and just:—
“The way of the wicked is an abomination of the Lord; but he loveth him who pursues righteousness” (xv. 9).
“The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination of the Lord, but the prayer of the righteous is his pleasure” (xv. 8).
“The Lord is far from the wicked, but he heareth the prayer of the righteous” (xv. 29).
“To do justice and judgment is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice” (xxi. 3).
He protects the poor, the weak, the widow, and the orphan:—
“He who oppresseth the poor, blasphemeth his Maker; and he who is gracious to the needy, honoureth him” (xiv. 31).
“He who is gracious to the poor, lendeth to the Lord, and he will repay him his reward” (xix. 17).
“Do not rob the poor because he is poor; and do not crush the poor in the gate, for the Lord will plead their cause, and will take the soul of those who rob them” (xxii. 23).
“The Lord will pull down the house of the proud, and will establish the border of the widow” (xv. 25).
“The rich and the poor meet; the Maker of them all is the Lord” (xxii. 2).
He punishes the evil-doer and rewards the righteous:—
“Do not say, I will repay evil; hope in the Lord, and he will help thee” (xx. 22).
“He who closeth his ear because of the crying of the poor, he also will call and will not be answered” (xxi. 13).
“He who keepeth a command, keepeth his soul; he who despiseth his ways shall die” (xix. 16).
“When the Lord is pleased with the ways of man, he will cause even his enemies to make peace with him” (xvi. 7).
“The Lord will not let the soul of the righteous be hungry, but the desire of the wicked will he thrust back” (x. 3).
He knows the heart of man:—
“There is a test for silver, and a refining pot for gold; but God trieth the hearts” (xvii. 3).
He directs all events:—
“Man’s heart planneth his way, but the Lord directeth his step” (xvi. 9).
“The horse is prepared for the day of war, but the victory is the Lord’s” (xxi. 31).
His blessing is a true blessing:—
“The blessing of the Lord, it maketh rich, and doth not increase trouble with it” (x. 22).
His Will alone must be obeyed:—
“There is no wisdom, and no understanding, and no counsel against the Lord” (xxi. 30).
“Whoso despiseth a word will be punished, but he who feareth a commandment will be rewarded” (xiii. 13).
“Without a vision the people cometh into disorder; but he who keepeth the Law, happy is he” (xxix. 18).
The fear of the Lord is the basis of a virtuous and happy life:—
“The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge (i. 7); the fountain of life (xiv. 27); the fear of the Lord adds days, but the years of the wicked will be short” (x. 27).
According as we display wisdom or folly we make others and ourselves happy or unhappy:—
“A wise son giveth joy to his father, and a foolish son is the sorrow of his mother” (x. 1).
“The wisdom of woman buildeth her house, and folly pulleth it down by her hands” (xiv. 1).
“Eat, my son, honey, for it is good, and honeycomb, which is sweet for thy palate; know that thus is wisdom for thy soul; if thou hast found it, there is a future, and thy hope will not be cut off” (xxiv. 13, 14).
“The prudent seeth evil, and is hidden; the ignorant pass by, and are punished” (xxvii. 12).
“As a jewel of gold in a swine’s snout, so is a fair woman without discretion” (xi. 22).
“The simple believeth every word; but the prudent man looketh well to his going” (xiv. 15).
The ways of wisdom and folly are frequently displayed in our words:—
“In the multitude of words there wanteth not sin, but he who spareth his words acts wisely” (x. 19).
“A soft answer turneth back wrath, but a harsh word raiseth anger” (xv. 1).
“Also a fool when silent is considered wise; he who closeth his lips is prudent” (xvii. 28).
“He who keepeth his mouth and his tongue, keepeth his soul from troubles” (xxi. 23).
“By long-suffering the prince is persuaded; and a soft tongue breaketh a bone” (xxv. 15).
“Answer not a fool like his folly, lest thou be equal to him. Answer a fool according to his folly, lest he be wise in his eyes” (xxvi. 4, 5).
The principal virtues recommended to man are righteousness (צדקה), honesty (אמונה), truthfulness (אמת), meekness (ענוה), industry, thrift, temperance, contentment, and moderation:—
“Treasures of wickedness are of no profit, but righteousness delivereth from death” (x. 2).
“Better a little in the fear of the Lord than a large treasure, and confusion therewith” (xv. 16).
“The righteousness of the upright maketh his way straight, but the wicked falleth by his wickedness” (xi. 5).
“The remembrance of the righteous is for blessing; but the name of the wicked will rot” (x. 7).
“Guilt is the interpreter of fools, but favour that of the straightforward” (xiv. 9).
“To do justice is joy to the righteous, and a terror to evil-doers” (xxi. 15).
“Like a fountain made turbid and a well that is corrupted, is the righteous that yieldeth in the presence of the wicked” (xxv. 26).
“Where a man of honesty is, there is multitude of blessings; but he who hasteneth to become rich will not be guiltless” (xxviii. 20).
“The lip of truth will be established for ever, but the tongue of falsehood for a moment” (xii. 19).
“A witness of faithfulness is he who does not lie, but he who uttereth falsehood is a false witness” (xiv. 5).7
“A lip of excellency becometh not a low man; how much less doth a lip of falsehood a noble man!” (xvii. 7).
“Pride came, and shame came; but with the meek is wisdom” (xi. 2).
“Meekness cometh before honour” (xv. 33). “Pride cometh before the fall, and haughtiness of spirit before the stumbling” (xvi. 18). “Let another praise thee, and not thy mouth; a stranger, and not thy lips” (xxvii. 2).
“He is poor who worketh with a slack hand, but the hand of the industrious maketh rich” (x. 4).
“Better is he who thinketh little of himself, and is a slave to himself, than he who thinketh much of himself and lacketh bread” (xii. 9).
“The hand of the industrious shall rule, but the slack hand shall be tributary” (xii. 24).
“In all labour there is profit; but when there is only a word of lips it leads but to want” (xiv. 23).
“Also he who is lazy in his work is a brother to the man that destroyeth” (xviii. 9).
“I passed by the field of a slothful man, and the vineyard of a man wanting heart; and behold, thorns have come up over the whole of it; its surface is covered with thistles, and its stone-fence is pulled down. And I beheld, I turned my heart, I saw, I took instruction: a little of sleep, a little of slumber, a little of joining the hands to lie down; then thy poverty cometh like a traveller, and thy want like an armed man” (xxiv. 30–34).
“The righteous eateth to the fulness of his soul, but the belly of the wicked shall want” (xiii. 25).
“Wine is a mocker, strong drink roareth, and every one that erreth therein will not be wise” (xx. 1).
“Who hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath contentions? who hath complaining? who hath wounds without cause? who hath redness of eyes? Those who tarry long at the wine; those who come to search mixed drink. Do not look upon the wine though it be red, though it send forth its colour through the cup, though it flow smoothly; in the end it biteth like a serpent and stingeth like an asp; thine eyes shall see strange things, and thy heart shall speak perverse things; and thou shalt be like one that lieth in the midst of the sea, and like one that lieth on the top of the mast. They have stricken me, shalt thou say, and I was not sick. They have beaten me; I felt it not. When shall I awake? I will seek it yet again” (xxiii. 29–35).
“He who is greedy after gain troubleth his house, but he who hateth gifts shall live” (xv. 27).
“He whose desire is wide stirreth up strife, but he who trusteth in the Lord shall be fattened” (xxviii. 25).
“There are who spend liberally, and there is an increase; and there are who withhold more than is right, and yet it leads to want” (xi. 24).
“Know well the state of thy flock; set thy heart to the droves; for treasure is not for ever, nor a crown for generation and generation. When hay is gone, and grass is spoilt, and the herbs of the field are gathered in, there are lambs for thy clothing, and he-goats are the price of a field: and there will be goats’ milk enough for thy food, for the food of thy house, and maintenance for thy maidens’ (xxvii. 23–27).
“Lust overcome is sweet to the soul; but to depart from evil is the abomination of fools” (xiii. 19).
“Better is he who is long-suffering than a hero; and he who ruleth his spirit is better than he who conquereth a city” (xvi. 32).
“Like an open town without a wall is the man whose spirit is without restraint” (xxv. 28).
The following proverbs refer to the relation between husband and wife, and between man and his neighbour as friend or enemy, father and child, rich and poor, king and people:—
“He who hath found a wife hath found a good thing, and obtained favour of the Lord” (xviii. 22).
“A virtuous wife is the crown of her husband, but a wicked woman is like rottenness in his bones” (xii. 4).
“House and wealth are the inheritance of fathers, but a wise wife is from the Lord” (xix. 14; chap. xxxi. 10 to end).
“He who revealeth a secret is a slanderer, but he who is faithful in spirit covereth a thing” (xi. 13).
“Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins” (x. 12).
“Better is a meal of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith” (xv. 17).
“He who covereth transgression seeketh love, but he who repeateth a matter separateth a friend” (xvii. 9).
“Open rebuke is better than secret love” (xxvii. 5).
“He who saith to the wicked, Thou art righteous, him shall the people curse, nations shall abhor him; but to them that rebuke him shall be delight, and a good blessing shall come upon them” (xxiv. 24, 25).
“Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses of an enemy are like smoke” (xxvii. 6).
“When there is no wood the fire goeth out; so when there is no tale-bearer strife ceaseth” (xxvi. 20).
“A kind man doth good to his soul, and a cruel man troubleth his flesh” (xi. 17).
“Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth, and let not thy heart be glad when he stumbleth, lest the Lord see it and it displease Him, and He turn away His wrath from him” (xxiv. 17, 18).
“The righteous knoweth the feelings of his cattle, but the heart of the wicked is cruel” (xii. 10).
“He who curseth his father and his mother, his lamp shall be put out in obscure darkness” (xx. 20).
“Children’s children are the crown of old men, and the glory of children are their fathers” (xvii. 6).
“The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles shall eat it” (xxx. 17).
“Where there is the instruction of the father, there is a wise son; but a mocker will he be who heard no rebuke” (xiii. 1).
“He who spareth his rod hateth his son, and he who loveth him chastiseth him early” (xiii. 24).
“Chastise thy son while there is hope, and let not thy soul turn to his crying” (xix. 18).
“Train the lad in his way, and when he is old he will not depart from it” (xxii. 6).
“Foolishness is bound in the heart of a child, but the rod of correction shall drive it far from him” (xxii. 15).
“Withhold not correction from the child; for if thou beatest him with the rod, he shall not die. Thou shalt beat him with the rod, and shalt deliver his soul from death” (xxiii. 13, 14).
“The benevolent shall be blessed, for he hath given of his bread to the poor” (xxii. 9).
“The liberal soul shall be made fat, and he that stilleth the thirst of others shall also have his thirst stilled” (xi. 25).
“He who despiseth his neighbour sinneth, but whoso is gracious to the poor is happy” (xiv. 24).
“In the multitude of people is the glory of the king; but in the want of people is the destruction of the prince” (xiv. 28).
“The king’s wrath is like messengers of death; but a wise man will pacify it” (xvi. 14).
“The heart of a king is in the hand of the Lord like brooks of water; He turneth it whithersoever He liketh” (xxi. 1).
On miscellaneous subjects:—
“There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing; there is that maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches” (xiii. 7).
“The heart knoweth its own bitterness, and a stranger doth not intermeddle with its joy” (xiv. 10).
“If care is in the heart of man, let him still it; if a good thing, let him brighten it up” (xii. 25).
“He is a guide to life who keepeth instruction, but he that refuseth reproof misleadeth” (x. 17).
“Boast not thyself of to-morrow; for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth” (xxvii. 1).
“All the ways of man are clean in his own eyes; but the Lord weigheth the spirits” (xvi. 2).
Job, איוב—The Book of Job consists of the following three parts:—
(a.) Introduction (i. and ii.).—God is figuratively represented as presiding over a council of ministers (בני האלהים “sons of God”), amongst whom also the accuser (השטן “the hinderer,” one who is hostile to the word of God) appears. While God praised the piety of Job, the accuser doubted the purity of his heart, and suggested that if any adversity were to befall Job he would no longer be pious; Job, exposed to hard trials, remained firm in his faith in God. “Naked came I forth from my mother’s womb, and naked shall I return thither; the Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken: let the name of the Lord be praised” (i. 21). “Skin for skin,” said the accuser, “and everything that man hath, he giveth for his soul; but stretch now forth thy hand and touch his bone and his flesh: surely he will take leave of thee in thy presence” (ii. 5). The trial was granted. And when Job’s wife was surprised that Job was still holding to his integrity, adding “Take leave of God and die,” he replied, “Thou speakest like the speaking of one of the wicked women. Are we to accept of God the good, and shall we not accept the evil?”—“In all this did Job not sin with his lips, and did not find fault with God” (i. 22). His friends came to see him, but felt so distressed that they sat with him for seven days without uttering a word.
(b.) Discussion between Job and his friends Eliphaz, Bildad, Zophar, and Elihu; Job asserting his innocence, and consequent inability to see the justice of his afflictions; his friends contending that he has sinned, and has been justly punished; Elihu attempts to justify Job’s sufferings, on the plea that they are merely a reminder sent by God that Job has sinned, and must seek reconciliation with God, who is All-wise, All-good, and All-powerful; God addresses Job, and shows him man’s inability to comprehend the Divine power and wisdom in the creation and in the ruling of the universe; whereupon Job repents.
(c.) Conclusion.—God rebukes the friends of Job, that they have not spoken rightly like His servant Job (xlii. 7), and richly compensates Job for his sufferings and losses.
The book has no heading, and therefore we do not know by whom or when it was written. There is, however, a tradition, mentioned in the Talmud (Baba Bathra, p. 14b), that Moses wrote the Book of Job. Even about Job himself it is impossible to ascertain at what time he lived. But the description of his riches and the length of his life leads us to think of the time of the patriarchs. His name is mentioned only in one other book of the Bible. The prophet Ezekiel names him together with Noah and Daniel as a righteous man who would, by his piety, save himself in the time of general calamity, though he would not be able to save his generation (Ezek. xiv. 14). There is also an opinion that Job never existed at all. איוב לא היה ולא נברא אלא משל היה “Job never lived; nor has he had any existence; the story is all only an allegory” (Babyl. Talm. Baba Bathra, 15a). This dictum can only refer to the detailed account of the manner in which the misfortune came upon Job, and the poetical discussion of Job and his friends. But it is undeniable that a pious man of the name of Job lived, and escaped from a calamity to which others succumbed; since it is clear that Ezekiel refers to real and not to imaginary personages. Job and his friends were not Israelites. The patriarch lived in the land of Uz in Arabia; the friends came from Teman, Shuah, Naamah, and Buz, in the south, east, west, and north of Uz. Like the Book of Jonah, this book conveys the lesson, חסידי אומות העולם יש להם חלק לעולם הבא “The pious of all nations have a portion in the world to come” (Maim., Mishneh-torah I. Hilchoth Teshubah, iii. 5). God rewards the righteous of all nations, punishes those among them who deserve punishment, and pardons the penitent.
The introduction and conclusion are written in prose, but the principal part of the book is poetical, and consequently parallelism is a predominant feature of the book.
The following are a few sentences from the book:—
“Shall we receive good at the hand of God, and shall we not receive evil?” (ii. 10).
“The small and great are there (in the grave), and the servant is free from his master” (iii. 19).
“Shall mortal man be more just than God? shall a man be more pure than his Maker?” (iv. 17).
“Behold, happy is the man whom God correcteth: therefore despise not thou the chastening of the Almighty” (v. 17).
“Is there not an appointed time to man upon earth? are not his days also like the days of an hireling?” (vii. 1).
“He is wise in heart, and mighty in strength; who hath hardened himself against him, and hath prospered?” (ix. 4).
“Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him” (xiii. 15).
“For I know that my Redeemer liveth, and he will rise in the end over the dust” (xix. 25).
“And when my skin is gone, when worms have destroyed this body, and when my flesh is no more, yet shall I see God” (xix. 26).
“And unto man he said, Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom; and to depart from evil, that is understanding” (xxviii. 28).
The following passages are noteworthy, on account of both their lofty thought and their poetical form:—
Eliphaz mildly rebukes Job, exhorting him to repentance (iv.).
Job’s charge against the cruelty of his friends (v. 12–30).
Bildad’s view of God’s justice (viii. 3–13).
Job’s conception of God’s Omnipotence (ix. 2–12).
Zophar’s explanation of God’s justice (xi. 2–7, 10–15).
Job’s declaration of his faith in God (xiii. 6–16; xix. 23–27; xxiii. 3–12).
Job’s confession of man’s dependence on God’s wisdom (xxviii. 1, 2, 12–28).
Job’s defence of his innocence (xxxi.).
Elihu’s defence of God’s justice (xxxiii. 8, 9, 12–30).
Job is shown his ignorance (xxxviii. 3–24); his impotence (xl. 9–14).
Job’s contrition (xlii. 2–6).
The three books, Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, are distinguished from the rest of the Bible by their peculiar accents, which are on this account called מעמי אמ״ת “the accents of the books, תהלים, משלי and איוב.”
The Song of Solomon, שיר השירים (lit., The Song of Songs = the most poetical song).—The faithfulness of the beloved to her lover, her resistance to all temptation, and the concentration of all her thoughts on the well-being of her lover, form the theme of the book. The relation between lover and beloved has been interpreted allegorically as representing the relation between God and Israel. The latter remains faithful to his God, throughout all vicissitudes of fortune. “I am for my lover, and my lover is for me,” is the centre of this feeling of faith. According to the heading and the tradition, King Solomon is the author of the book.
Ruth, רות—The book contains the history of Ruth, a Moabite woman, who, by her marriage with Boaz, became the founder of the house of David. Elimelech of Beth-lehem in Judah, with his wife Naomi and his two sons, left his country in time of famine in order to stay in the land of Moab. There the two sons marry Moabite women, Orpah and Ruth. Elimelech and the two sons die. Naomi returns to Judah; Orpah, at the request of Naomi, remains in Moab and goes back to her family, but Ruth insists on accompanying Naomi, saying, “Whither thou goest I will go, and where thou lodgest I will lodge; thy people shall be my people, and thy God my God: where thou diest will I die, and there will I be buried: so the Lord do to me, and more also, if ought but death will part thee and me” (i. 16, 17).
Naomi having lost her property, Ruth was obliged to glean ears of corn in the fields in order to maintain herself and her mother-in-law. She happened to glean in the field of Boaz, a near relative of Elimelech. Boaz having noticed her, and having heard of her conduct toward Naomi, married her; his son was Obed; the son of the latter was Jesse, the father of David. Thus the virtues of Ruth, modesty, faithfulness, and industry, were rewarded; this is one of the lessons derived from the book. The principal object of the book, however, is to show the origin of the house of David.
The Lamentations of Jeremiah, איכה—The name of the author is not mentioned in the book, but tradition informs us that the prophet Jeremiah composed these lamentations. The first four chapters are alphabetical; in the third chapter there are three verses for each letter; the fifth chapter is not alphabetical. The cause of the lamentations is the catastrophe of the kingdom of Judah through the victories of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, although neither Nebuchadnezzar nor Babylon is mentioned in the book.
Ecclesiates, קהלת—This book contains reflections on the vanity of man’s labours and plans; whatever man aims at as the source of his happiness and blessing proves in the end useless and deceptive. Man is disappointed to find everything transient; he discovers just people in misery, and wicked people in apparent comfort; he begins to doubt whether virtue and wisdom are really conducive to true happiness. Thus man, left to himself, is at a loss to find the right way to happiness. The author therefore concludes his reflections with the exhortation: “The end of the word in which everything is heard is, Fear God, and keep His commandments, for that is the whole of man. For every deed will God bring to account, together with every hidden thought, whether good or bad” (xii. 13, 14).
Koheleth mentioned in the heading is King Solomon. The philosophical reflections are frequently intermixed with proverb-like lessons and maxims, of which the following are a few examples:—
“For in much wisdom is much grief; and he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow” (i. 18).
“To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven” (iii. 1).
“The fool foldeth his hands together, and eateth his own flesh” (iv. 5).
“Better is an handful with quietness, than both the hands full with travail and vexation of spirit” (iv. 6).
“Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God, and readiness to hear is better than the fools’ giving of sacrifice; for they consider not that they do evil” (iv. 17).
“Be not rash with thy mouth, and let not thine heart be hasty to utter any thing before God: for God is in heaven, and thou upon earth; therefore let thy words be few” (v. 1).
“When thou vowest a vow unto God, defer not to pay it; for He hath no pleasure in fools: pay that which thou hast vowed” (v. 3).
“A good name is better than precious ointment; and the day of death better than the day of one’s birth” (vii. 1).
“Be not hasty in thy spirit to be angry; for anger resteth in the bosom of fools” (vii. 9).
“Be not righteous over much; neither make thyself over wise: why shouldst thou destroy thyself?” (vii. 16).
“Be not over much wicked, neither be thou foolish: why shouldst thou die before thy time?” (vii. 17).
“There is not a just man upon earth, that doth good, and sinneth not” (vii. 20).
“Let thy garments be always white; and let thy head lack no ointment” (ix. 8).
“A wise man’s heart is at his right hand; but a fool’s heart at his left” (x. 2).
“He that diggeth a pit shall fall into it; and whoso breaketh an hedge, a serpent shall bite him” (x. 8).
“He that observeth the wind shall not sow; and he that regardeth the clouds shall not reap” (xi. 4).
“Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth, while the evil days come not, nor the years draw nigh when thou shalt say, I have no pleasure in them” (xii. 1).
“Then shall the dust return to the earth as it was, and the spirit shall return to the God who gave it” (xii. 7).
Esther, אסתר—The history of the conception and frustration of the wicked plans of Haman against Mordecai and the Jews is described in this book. Ahasuerus, king of Persia, sent Vashti, his wife, away, and married Esther, a cousin of Mordecai. Haman, enraged against the Jews because Mordecai did not bow before him, planned to kill the Jews on the thirteenth of Adar; but Esther frustrated Haman’s design; Haman himself and his ten sons were killed; and the Jews were allowed to take up arms against those who attacked them. The Jews defended themselves victoriously on the thirteenth of Adar; in Shushan, the capital, also on the fourteenth. This deliverance was the cause of the institution of Purim.
The name of the author is not mentioned; the book was probably written by Mordecai and Esther (comp. Esther ix. 29).
Daniel, דניאל—The author of this book is not named. The book is called Daniel because it contains the history and the visions of Daniel. According to a tradition mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud (Baba Bathra, 15a), the men of the Great Synagogue wrote or edited the book probably from trustworthy traditions, partly written, partly oral. The last six chapters seem to have been written by Daniel himself; he speaks in them of himself in the first person.
The object of the book is to show that God is the Ruler of the Universe. The author, therefore, gives, on the one hand, examples of men of great piety and genuine faith in God—Daniel and his friends; and, on the other hand, examples of men of great wickedness—Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar; the former enjoyed glorious victories, the latter received their due punishment. The style is throughout bold and emphatic; the frequent heaping of synonyms is to serve the purpose of emphasis. In the last chapters the author shows that the misdeeds of the wicked and the sufferings of the pious are foreseen by God, and that both the punishment of the former and the redemption of the latter form part of the Divine plan in the government of mankind. We are thus exhorted to remain firm in our faith in time of oppression, and to wait patiently for deliverance, which is sure to come.
Although Daniel belonged to those distinguished men to whom God communicated coming events in visions, he is not classed among the prophets, because he had no Divine message to bring to his fellow-men, and he was not charged to address them in the name of God. Daniel was brought to Babylon, together with other captives, in the third year of Jehoiakim, and remained there during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar, Darius the Mede, and the first years of Cyrus the Persian. He distinguished himself by great piety and wisdom, so that in a prophecy of Ezekiel (xiv. 14), in the sixth year of the exile of King Jehoiachin, he is mentioned, together with Noah and Job, as famous for piety, as one of those whom God protects from danger because of their righteousness, although their piety could not save their fellow-men. The same prophet mentions him as a wise man (xxviii. 3).
The book is divided into two parts: (A.) An account written in Chaldee of Daniel’s wisdom and piety, with a Hebrew Introduction (i. to vi.). (2.) The visions of Daniel in Chaldee and Hebrew (vii. to xii.). In the introductory chapter the author narrates the principal facts of the training of Daniel in Babylonian wisdom, and his great success at the court of Nebuchadnezzar. Then follows the Chaldee portion, including the following subjects:—
(1.) Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream.—The king demands that the sages initiated in Babylonian wisdom shall tell him his dream, which he himself has forgotten, and its interpretation. They cannot do it, and many of them are put to death. Daniel arrests the slaughter; for he prays to God, and God reveals to him the king’s dream.
When Daniel appeared before the king he began thus: “The secret which the king wants to know, no wise men can tell. But there is a God in heaven, the revealer of secrets, and He has let King Nebuchadnezzar know what will come to pass in the remote future” (ii. 27, 28). The dream was this: He saw a big statue, its head of gold, breast and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs and feet of iron and clay. A large stone fell upon the legs of the statue, broke them, and the whole statue fell together and was crushed into pieces; then the stone grew larger, and filled the whole earth. The following was the interpretation of the vision: The statue represented a series of earthly kingdoms; the gold was Nebuchadnezzar, the silver referred to his successors, the brass to the Persian government, the iron to the Greek, and the mixture of iron and clay to the kingdoms that would then follow, all of which would ultimately be overthrown, and the Divine kingdom would then be recognised by all. Daniel was greatly rewarded; he and his friends received high positions in the government of the empire.
(2.) Nebuchadnezzar erected a large statue, and commanded that at certain times all should worship it; disobedience was to be punished with death. Daniel’s friends did not bow before it, and were accused before the king. They said to the king, “There is a God whom we worship; He can save us from the burning furnace and from thy hand, O king. And if He does not save us, let it be known to thee, O king, that we shall not worship thy god, and not bow down before the golden image which thou hast set up” (iii. 17, 18).
They were thrown into the furnace, and miraculously saved. Thereupon Nebuchadnezzar sends letters to all the peoples of his empire, testifying to the greatness of God, and narrating what wonderful thing had occurred to him. He had a strange dream, and none but Daniel was able to interpret it; the dream was literally fulfilled according to Daniel’s interpretation. The dream, which, after the manner of such phenomena, introduced and mingled together diverse elements, was this: He saw a high tree with many branches and much foliage. Suddenly an angel from heaven came, and ordered the tree to be cut down, but the root to be left for seven seasons, bound with fetters of iron and brass, in the midst of the grass of the field. The heart of man was to be taken from it, and replaced by a heart of beasts. The interpretation was, that the mighty Nebuchadnezzar would be removed from the society of man, and live like a beast with beasts for seven seasons. This happened to him just when he was boasting of his greatness and said, “Is this not great Babylon which I have built for the royal house, in my great power, and to my great glory?” (iv. 27). He was humbled, recognised the dominion of God over the whole universe, and was again, after seven seasons, restored to his former power and dignity. “Praised be God,” he exclaimed, “whose deeds are all truth, and whose ways are justice, and who can humble those who walk in pride” (Ibid. 34).
(3.) King Belshazzar, in the midst of a banquet, at which the holy vessels of the Temple in Jerusalem were used, perceived a hand writing on the wall opposite him strange signs which none could read. Daniel was called, and read the writing: “Mene, mene, tekel upharsin,” and explained it thus: The days of thy government are counted and brought to a close; thou hast been weighed and found wanting; thy kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians (v. 25–28). That same night King Belshazzar was killed, and the Mede Darius was made king (v. 30–vi. 1).
(4.) King Darius, advised by his officers, who sought to find an opportunity for overthrowing Daniel, issued an order, that within thirty days no god or other being except Darius should be prayed to, and that transgressors against this decree should be punished with death. Daniel prayed to God three times a day at his open window. He was thrown into the lions’ den; but God protected him from the mouths of the lions. When he was taken out of the den, his accusers were thrown into it, and the lions immediately devoured them. Thus Darius was forced publicly to recognise the Omnipotence of God.
(5.) A dream of Daniel is related by the author in Daniel’s own words, who had written down the dream, and explained the chief points.8 The following is the dream:—He saw four beasts, viz., a lion, a bear with three ribs in its mouth, a leopard with four wings and four heads, and a fourth beast with iron teeth and ten horns, one of the horns being small, but having “a mouth speaking haughtily.” In a court of justice the latter beast was sentenced to death, and the other beasts were to be deprived of their power; but respite was granted to them for a time and a season. The royal power was given to one who approached the judge appearing like a human being, and not like any of the beasts. His rule was to remain for ever. The interpretation of the dream is this: There will be four different kingdoms; out of the fourth ten different kingdoms will be formed. One of these will haughtily presume to oppose the Will of God, and to abolish the festivals and the religion of the holy ones. It will succeed for “a season, seasons, and half a season,” and will then be utterly destroyed, whilst the rule of “the holy ones”9 will in the end be firmly established and continue for ever.
The indefinite character of the vision shows that it was intended to apply to all those oppressors of the Jews who at different times have presumed, or still presume, to be able to abolish the religion of “the holy ones.” Whether the oppression lasts a “season of seasons” (or “a season and seasons”), i.e., a very long time, or “half a season,” i.e., a very short time, the holy ones are exhorted to remain firm in their faith in God’s justice. The truth of this vision is especially illustrated by the failure of the attempts of Antiochus Epiphanes after a temporary success. More definite are the numbers 2300 “evening-mornings” (viii. 14), 1290 days and 1335 days (xii. 11, 12); but the absence of any further description as to the date of the first of these days leaves even to these numbers a certain degree of indetermination. From the context we learn that they are somehow connected with the persecution to which the Jews were subjected by Antiochus Epiphanes. 2300 days (or 6 years 110 days) passed between the decree of the Syrian king enforcing idolatry and the peace with Lysias granting religious liberty; there were 1290 days between the decree forbidding the practice of the holy religion and the enforcement of idolatry in the Temple of Jerusalem, and 1335 days is the period between the latter event and the death of Antiochus.
(B.) The second part contains visions of Daniel as written down by himself.
(1.) In the third year of Belshazzar, Daniel had the following vision:—Being in Susan, in the province of Elam, near the river Ulai, he saw a ram with two unequal horns pushing towards west, north, and south. From the west came a goat with one horn, and overthrew the ram; in the place of the one horn four horns grew up in all directions; there was one small horn which pushed on against the south, the east, and Palestine; it rose even against the host of heaven and the chief of the host, and destroyed his holy place. Daniel heard one holy one saying to another, “This state of things will last till ‘evening-morning 2300.’” The angel Gabriel gave him the interpretation of the vision: The ram represented the empire of the Medes and the Persians, the goat that of the Greeks, out of which four kingdoms would be formed; in one of these a wicked king would venture to rise against the Prince of princes, but his power would in the end be destroyed. Daniel was told to keep the vision secret, for it referred to a distant future (viii. 26).
(2.) In the first year of Darius, son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of the Medes, Daniel reflected on the seventy years of exile foretold by Jeremiah, and fervently prayed to God for pardon and the restoration of Jerusalem. At the end of his prayer the angel Gabriel appeared to him, and told him that the hoped-for restoration would not take place before the lapse of seventy weeks of trouble and anxiety. There would elapse seven weeks before the “princely anointed” (משיח נגיד) led the Jews back to Palestine; sixty-two weeks of trouble and anxiety were predicted for the time of the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the Temple; and one week’s misery on the arrival of a new prince or governor, who would strengthen the covenant of the enemies and entirely suspend the Divine Service in the Temple for a short time.10
(3.) In the third year of Cyrus, king of Persia, Daniel, after three weeks’ mourning and fasting, had the following vision on the twenty-fourth day of the first month:—He saw near the river Tigris (Hiddekel) a man of extraordinary appearance, who told him that he came in answer to his prayers; that for twenty-one days (x. 13) he was opposed by the prince of the kingdom of Persia, and had on his side only one of the princes, Michael. Future events are foretold: the fall of Persia, the division of the Greek kingdom, the wars between the Northern country (Syria) and the Southern (Egypt), the troubles of the Jews, the ultimate deliverance of the Jews out of danger, and the glorious victory of the teachers “who taught many, and led them to righteousness” (המשבילים ומצדקי הרבים xii. 3). When Daniel asked, “Till when have we to wait for the end of these wondrous things?” (עד מתי קץ הפלאות Ibid. 6), he was told, “After a season, seasons, and a half (למועד מועדים וחצי Ibid. 7)11 all these things will come to an end.” He further asks, “What then?” He is told, “The things must remain sealed till the time of the end (עד עת קץ Ibid. 9), when the wise and good (משכלים) will understand them.” The vision ends with the words addressed to Daniel: “But thou go toward the end, and thou wilt rest, and rise for thy lot at the end of the days” (xii. 13).
Ezra, עזרא—The Book of Ezra relates the first return of the Jews under Zerubbabel from Babylon to Palestine by the permission of King Cyrus (כורש) of Persia, the construction of the altar, the foundation and the building of the Temple by permission of King Darius. It also describes the second settlement of Jews from Babylon in Palestine under Ezra, the Scribe, in the reign of Artaxerxes, and his energy in purifying the community from intermarriages with heathen people. The book is written in Hebrew, with the exception of iv. 8–vii. 27, which includes several documents written in Chaldee by the Persian kings. The author of the book is probably Ezra; he speaks of himself in the first person (vii. 28; viii. 1, &c.); he is also named as the author of the book in the Babylonian Talmud; and lastly, the name of the book is Ezra, although Ezra is only mentioned in the second half of the book. The special merit of Ezra was the promotion of the study of the Law; his name is followed by the title, “A ready scribe of the Law of Moses” (סופר מהיר בתורת ה׳ vii. 6), and “Scribe of the words of the commandments of the Lord and His statutes for Israel” (ספר דברי מצות ה׳ וחקיו על ישראל vii. 11); the task he set to himself was “to study the Law of God (לדרוש את תורת ה׳), and to practise it, and to teach in Israel Law and judgment” (vii. 10).
Nehemiah, נחמיה—The heading probably indicates the author, “Words of Nehemiah, son of Hachaliah.” 12 The book contains the history of Nehemiah’s visit to Jerusalem by the permission of King Artaxerxes, and the building of the walls of Jerusalem under Nehemiah’s supervision, in spite of the opposition of Sanballat and Tobiah the Ammonite; his example of disinterestedness and of liberality towards the poor, which is followed by the princes and the rich; the reading and expounding of the Law by Ezra; the celebration of the festival of the first of Tishri and of Tabernacles; the renewal of the covenant “to walk in the Law of God, which was given through Moses the servant of God,” to keep Sabbath, to abstain from intermarrying with the heathen, and to contribute towards maintaining the Sanctuary; the provision for filling Jerusalem with inhabitants by selecting by lot one-tenth of the general population to dwell in the holy city; the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem; and Nehemiah’s energy in enforcing the laws of Sabbath and of marriages. The two books Ezra and Nehemiah are also called by some “two books of Ezra,” and by some “the book of Ezra.” Nehemiah is written in Hebrew.
The Chronicles, דברי הימים—The two books of Chronicles contain the following three parts: (1) Genealogical tables (I., i.–ix.); (2) the history of the death of King Saul, the history of David and Solomon (I., x.–II., ix.); (3) the history of the kingdom of Judah from Rehoboam till the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (II., x.–xxxvi.). Special attention has been given by the author to the arrangements made at various periods for the Temple-service, by King David (I., xxiii. sqq.), King Hezekiah (II., xxix.), and King Josiah (II., xxxiv., xxxv.).
The author is not named in the book; according to the tradition it is Ezra. As the genealogical tables give six generations after Zerubbabel (I., iii. 19–24), we may assume that the author wrote about fifty years after Zerubbabel; that is, the last years of Ezra and Nehemiah.
The sources from which the author derived his information were, besides the Biblical books, the following:—The book of the kings of Judah; the book of the kings of Israel, registers probably kept in the Temple archives; the histories of Samuel the Seer, Nathan the prophet, and Gad the Seer; the prophecy of Ahijah of Shilo; the visions of Jedo; the Midrash of the prophet Iddo; the history of Jehu, son of Hanani; the history of Isaiah, son of Amoz, and the history of Hozai.
This is the last book of the series of Holy Writings. Books that were written later, whatever their intrinsic value may be, were not considered holy, and were not received into this collection. There are a number of books known as Apocrypha (גנוזים), lit. “Hidden things” or “put aside,” that is, kept separate from the Holy Scriptures. They were not considered as genuine, as they consisted of a mixture of fact and fiction, truth and error. They were, however, not suppressed or forbidden; in the Talmud several quotations from these books are met with. The following are the principal books belonging to the Apocrypha:—
(1.) The Book of Wisdom, or the Wisdom of Solomon. Wisdom based on the fear of God, and guided by it, is the source of man’s true happiness, and if wisdom and virtue are not rewarded by success in mundane affairs, the reward is sure to come in the future world. This is the quintessence of the lessons taught in this book. The kings and potentates of the earth are frequently exhorted to be just and kind towards their people, and to remember that they are but human beings, weak and mortal, like the rest of mankind; wisdom alone can raise them to higher perfection and happiness.
“For the very true beginning of her is the desire of discipline, and the care of discipline is love. And love is the keeping of her laws; and the giving heed unto her laws is the assurance of incorruption. And incorruption maketh us near God. Therefore the desire of wisdom bringeth to a kingdom. If your delight be then in thrones and sceptres, O ye kings of the people, honour wisdom, that ye may reign for evermore” (vi. 17–21).
“For regarding not wisdom, they got not only this hurt, that they knew not the things which were good, but also left behind them to the world a memorial of their foolishness, so that in the things wherein they offended they could not so much as be hid. But wisdom delivered from pain those that attended upon her. When the righteous fled from his brother’s wrath, she guided him into right paths, shewed him the kingdom of God, and gave him knowledge of holy things that made him rich in his travels, and multiplied the fruit of his labours” (x. 8–10).
(2.) The Wisdom of Jesus, son of Sirach.—Proverbs, maxims, and moral lessons collected by Joshua (Jesus), son of Sirach of Jerusalem. After having studied the Law, the Prophets, and the other Holy Writings, he thought it advisable to write a book on knowledge and wisdom for those who seek instruction, in order to lead them to greater obedience to the Law. Joshua’s grandson migrated from Palestine to Egypt, and translated the work of his grandfather into Greek for those who could not read the Hebrew original. The translation was made in the thirty-eighth year of King Euergetes II. of Egypt (3888 A.M.).
The contents of the book are similar to those of the Proverbs of Solomon: the author recommends the acquisition of wisdom, patience, faith in God, meekness, obedience of children to parents, charity, cautiousness in the use of the tongue, temperance, honesty, and the like. As models of piety and wisdom the principal heroes in the Bible, from Adam to Joshua, son of Jehozadak, are named, and in addition to these Simon the high priest.
“My son, if thou come to serve the Lord, prepare thy soul for temptation. Set thy heart aright, and constantly endure, and make not haste in time of trouble. Cleave unto him, and depart not away, that thou mayest be increased at thy last end. Whatsoever is brought upon thee take cheerfully, and be patient when thou art changed to a low estate. For gold is tried in the fire, and acceptable men in the furnace of adversity. Believe in him, and he will help thee: order thy way aright, and trust in him” (ii. 1–6).
“But he that giveth his mind to the law of the Most High, and is occupied in the meditation thereof, will seek out the wisdom of the most ancient, and be occupied in prophecies. He will keep the sayings of most renowned men, and where subtle parables are, He will be there also. He will seek out the secrets of grave sentences, and be conversant in dark parables” (xxxix. 1–3).
(3.) Baruch.—The book may be divided into two parts. In the first part Baruch, son of Nerijah, the amanuensis of the prophet Jeremiah, addresses, in Babylon, Jehoiachin, the captive king of Judah, and the other captive Jews; they send money to Jerusalem for sacrifices, with a letter exhorting their brethren to return to God, and comforting them with the prospect of a glorious future. The second part contains a letter of Jeremiah to his brethren in Jerusalem denouncing idolatry.
The letters are probably not genuine, not being in harmony with the facts related in the books of Jeremiah and Kings.
(4.) The Book of Tobit.—Tobit, of the tribe of Naphtali, a good and pious man, was one of those who were carried away into the Assyrian captivity. One of the charitable acts to which he devoted himself with special zeal was the burying of the dead. Twice was misfortune brought upon him for practising this deed of piety. Once he had to flee, and to remain away from his family in misery and want, and a second time something fell into his eyes, and he became blind. In both cases he was saved out of his trouble, and was greatly rewarded for his patience, his faith in God, and his perseverance in the performance of the Divine commandments. The author of the book is not known.
(5.) Judith.—An incident of Jewish history during the Persian rule. Judith is set forth as an ideal of piety, beauty, courage, and chastity. Holofernes, a general in the service of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Assyria, conquers many lands, but meets with vigorous resistance in Judea; he besieges Bethulia and endeavours to suppress the Jewish religion. He falls by the hands of Judith. Thus the stratagem and the courage of the Jewish heroine, combined with the plans of Divine justice, frustrated the wicked plans of the heathen conqueror, and delivered the besieged city.
(6.) Additions to the Books of Daniel and Ezra, containing—
(a.) The song of the three men in the furnace (Dan. iii.).
(b.) The false charges brought against Susanna, and her deliverance through Daniel.
(c.) Bel and the Dragon. Cyrus, the Persian, worshipped these idols, but was convinced by Daniel that they had no claim whatever to man’s worship.
(d.) The apocryphal Book of Esdras, containing portions of the Books of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah; only chaps. iii. and iv. being original. In these it is related how Zerubbabel distinguished himself before King Darius in describing Woman and Truth as the mightiest rulers of mankind, and thus obtained permission to return to Palestine and rebuild the Temple. A second apocryphal Book of Esdras is named, in which Ezra is represented as a prophet addressing his brethren in the name of God, and telling them the visions he had.
(7.) The Books of the Maccabees.—Three books containing the history of the Maccabees, and various episodes of the wars against the Syrian oppressors, both legendary and historical.
Sixth Principle.—“I firmly believe that all the words of the Prophets are true.”
By “the Prophets” the prophets thus designated in the Bible are to be understood who have proved themselves to be the true messengers of God, and were accepted as such by the people. They either counselled the people what to do under various circumstances, in times of peace and in times of war, in times of security and in times of danger, or they announced the coming catastrophe as a punishment sent by the Almighty for disobedience, and foretold future happiness and prosperity in case of improvement and return to God. Those prophecies that referred to the proximate future have been verified by subsequent events, and so also will those prophecies that refer to the remote future and have not yet been fulfilled.
“A prophet out of thy midst, of thy brethren, like unto me, will the Lord thy God raise up unto thee; unto him ye shall hearken” (Deut. xviii. 15). “The former things, behold, they are come to pass, and new things do I declare; before they will spring forth, I shall let you hear” (Isa. xlii. 9). “I have also spoken unto the prophets, and I have multiplied visions, and by the ministry of the prophets have I used similitudes” (Hosea xii. 11). “And by a prophet the Lord brought Israel out of Egypt, and by a prophet was he preserved” (Ibid. 14).
In the sixth article we declare our belief in the fact that the Almighty has communicated His Will to human beings, although we are incapable of forming a clear and definite idea of the manner in which such communication took place. The selection of the individual for the office of a prophet, as well as of the time, the place, and the object of the Divine communication, is dependent solely on the Will of God, whose Wisdom and Plan no mortals are able to fathom. We know only the fact that Malachi closed the series of Prophets, but are ignorant of the reason why since Malachi no human being has “found a vision from the Lord.” Mankind is, however, not altogether deprived of the benefit of prophecy; the holy book need only be opened, and the message of the prophets is heard once more.
Seventh Principle.—“I firmly believe that the prophecy of Moses was a direct prophecy, and that Moses was the chief of the prophets, both of those who preceded him and of those who followed him.”
All that has been said with regard to the sixth article applies to the prophecy of Moses. There is, however, this distinction between the words of Moses and the words of other prophets:—whilst other prophets chiefly addressed their own generation, blaming their brethren for disobedience to the Divine Law, threatening with punishments and comforting with blessings of which experience was to be made in the remote future, Moses addresses all times and generations, communicating to them laws “for all generations,” “everlasting statutes,” “the things which have been revealed for us and our children for ever.” He is therefore proclaimed by the Almighty as the greatest prophet. When Miriam and Aaron had spoken against Moses, God rebuked them, saying, “If there be among you a prophet of the Lord, I will make myself known unto him in a vision, I will speak with him in a dream. My servant Moses is not so; he is faithful in all my house; with him will I speak mouth to mouth, even manifestly, and not in dark speeches; and the form of the Lord shall he behold” (Num. xii. 6–8). The Torah concludes with the praise of Moses, as follows: “And there hath not arisen a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face: in all the signs and the wonders, which the Lord sent him to do in the land of Egypt, to Pharaoh, and to all his servants, and to all his land; and in all the mighty hand, and in all the great terror, which Moses wrought in the sight of all Israel” (Deut. xxxiv. 10–12).
The phrase “knew God face to face,” or “I will speak with him mouth to mouth,” and the like, denotes figuratively “the clearest, most direct, and most simple communication,” the figure being taken from the way in which men communicate to each other things when they desire to be clearly understood, and to leave no doubt as to the truth and the meaning of the communication.
Eighth Principle.—“I firmly believe that the Law which we possess now is the same which has been given to Moses on Sinai.”
The whole Torah, including both history and precepts, is of Divine origin; nothing is contained in the Torah that was not revealed to Moses by the Almighty, although we do not know in what manner Moses received the information. The history of preceding generations was probably handed down to his time by tradition; in part it may have been contained in documents then extant, as is likely to have been the case with the various genealogies mentioned in the Pentateuch. But it was by Divine inspiration that Moses knew to distinguish between truth and error, between fiction and reality. The events recorded in the Pentateuch are to demonstrate and to keep constantly before our eyes the fact that there is a higher Power that ordains the fate of men and nations according to their deeds. Everything is described in a simple and objective manner. Although the whole Torah is the work of Moses, the great prophet speaks of himself everywhere in the third person, except in the Book of Deuteronomy, in which he records his addresses to the people in the last year of his life.
The last few verses, which describe the death of Moses, the mourning of the Israelites for the death of their teacher, and his exaltation above all other prophets, have been added to the Torah by Joshua the son of Nun, the leader of the Israelites after the death of Moses. Thus, from that day until the present the Torah, in its integrity, has been in the hands of the children of Israel. It was guarded as the most valuable national treasure, and although there have been not a few generations which were corrupt and idolatrous, Israel has never been entirely bereaved of pious and faithful worshippers of the true God; and when in one generation or period the study and the practice of the Torah were neglected, they were resumed with greater vigour and zeal in the next.
There is a tradition recorded in the Talmud that after the Babylonian exile Ezra, the Scribe, replaced the ancient Hebrew characters in which the Torah had originally been written by the square characters still in use. Nothing, however, was omitted from or added to the contents of the Torah, when the present forms of the letters were introduced by Ezra. In the scrolls of the Law the letters were not provided with vowel-points and accents; the manner in which the words, phrases, and sentences were to be read was a subject of oral teaching. Also many explanations and details of the laws were supplemented by oral teaching; they were handed down by word of mouth from generation to generation, and only after the destruction of the second Temple were they committed to writing. The latter are, nevertheless, called Oral Law (תורה שבעל פה), as distinguished from the Torah or Written Law (תורה שבכתב), which from the first was committed to writing. Those oral laws which were revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai are called הלכה למשה מסיני “Laws given to Moses on Mount Sinai.” There are several passages in the Bible from which it appears that a certain unwritten law must have supplemented the written Law; e.g., when a man was found in the wilderness gathering sticks on the Sabbath-day, the persons who discovered him brought him to Moses. They must have been taught before, that the gathering of sticks constituted a מלאכה, labour prohibited on the Sabbath-day, although this had not been distinctly stated in the written Sabbath-laws. Had this not been the case the Sabbath-breaker could not have been put to death, since he would have committed the sin in ignorance. The same can be said of the man who cursed the name of God; he must have known that cursing the name of God was a capital crime; for he would not have been put to death if the Israelites had not yet been taught that death would be inflicted for such an act. The question which the prophet Haggai (ii. 11) addressed to the priests, and the answers which the priests gave, lead to the conclusion that the details of the laws on uncleanness and cleanness (טומאה וטהרה) must have been known to the priests and the prophets to a greater extent than has been explained in the written Law. Besides, there were many precepts that came at once into force. These must have been fully explained to the people, who were anxious to obey the word of God.
All these explanations and the detailed rules with regard to the written Divine precepts of the Pentateuch, together with laws and institutions established in the course of time by the highest authorities of the nation in obedience to the dictates of the Pentateuch, form the contents of the Oral Law.
The Oral Law or the Tradition has been handed down in two different forms: (a) in the form of a running Commentary on the Pentateuch; such Commentaries were called Midrashim; (b) arranged according to the different subjects, and treated independently of the text of the Torah. This is done in the Talmud (“lesson,” “tradition”).
The principal Midrashim are: Mechilta (lit. “measure”) on Exodus; Sifra (“book”) on Leviticus; Sifre (“books”) on Numbers and Deuteronomy. Rabboth on the Pentateuch and the five Megilloth. Yalkut (“collection”) on all the books of the Bible.
The Talmud—which exists in two different recensions, viz., the Jerusalem Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud—consists of two elements, which have to each other the relation of text and commentary, and are called Mishnah (משנה “learnt by heart”), and Gemara (גמרא lit. “completion,” “a thing settled”); the former contains the traditional laws mostly without argumentation; in the latter these laws are further discussed, examined, and finally settled. Following the example of the Pentateuch, the Talmud includes two elements: laws and narratives, or Halachah (הלכה) and Agada (אגדה); the latter, the Agada, contains history, fables, allegory, meditations, prayers, reflections, philosophical and religious discussions, and a large number of moral sayings. The Midrashim likewise include these two elements.
The Mishnah is divided into the following six orders or sections (סדרים):13—
1. זרעים “Seeds.” Laws referring to agriculture; preceded by laws on Divine Worship.
2. מועד “Seasons.” On Sabbath and Festivals.
3. נשים “Women.” Marriage Laws.
4. נזיקין “Damages.” Civil and criminal legislation; the Government.
5. קדשים “Holy things.” On Sacrifices.
6. טהרות “Purity.” On the distinction between clean and unclean.
The laws taught in the Talmud are: (i) those which are directly or indirectly derived from the text of the Pentateuch; they are called “laws derived from the Torah” (מן התורה or מדאורייתא); (2) those which trace their origin to the time of Moses, or, in general, to the remote past; they are called הלכה למשה מסיני “Law given to Moses on Sinai;” (3) those laws which originated between the period of the Pentateuch and the close of the Bible; they are called דברי קבלה (“words of tradition”); (4) those which have been introduced in post-Biblical times; they are laws מדרבנן “laws introduced by our teachers.” These are either preventives against breaking any of the Divine precepts, and are then called or סיג “a fence,” or tekanoth (תקנות “institutions” or “regulations”) made in order to ensure obedience to the Law and improvement of conduct, to remove abuses and prevent error and misunderstanding; (5) Minhag, “Custom” (מנהג); religious practices which have not been introduced by any authority or based on a particular Biblical text, but in consequence of long usage have become as sacred as a law established by the proper authority.
These laws, as finally settled, were again codified, in various works, the most important of which are the following two: (1) Mishneh-torah (משנה תורה or יד החזקה14 lit. “Copy of the Law,” or “Strong Hand”), by Moses Maimonides (twelfth century) in fourteen books; (2) Shulchan-aruch (שלחן ערוך, lit. “Table-arranged”), by Rabbi Joseph Caro (sixteenth century).
Ninth Principle.—“I firmly believe that this Law will not be changed, and that there will not be any other Law given by the Creator, blessed be His Name.”
In this article we pronounce our belief in the immutability of the Law. Over and over again the phrase “an everlasting statute” (חקת עולם) occurs in the Pentateuch. It is true that the Hebrew term עולם is used in the Bible in the sense of “a very long time,” but in the phrase חקת עולם the word cannot have that meaning. Some indication would have been necessary to inform the people when the laws would cease to be in force. On the contrary, the test of a prophet addressing his brethren in the name of God, as a Divine messenger, consists in the harmony of his words with the precepts of the Pentateuch. A prophet who, speaking in the name of God, abrogates any of the laws of the Pentateuch is a false prophet. “If there arise in the midst of thee a prophet or a dreamer of dreams, and he give thee a sign or a wonder, and the sign or wonder come to pass whereof he spake unto thee, saying, Let us go after other gods which thou hast not known, and let us serve them: thou shalt not hearken unto the words of that prophet or unto that dreamer of dreams.… Ye shall walk after the Lord your God, and fear him, and keep his commandments, and obey his voice, and ye shall serve him, and cleave unto him. And that prophet or that dreamer of dreams shall be put to death; because he hath spoken rebellion against the Lord your God, which brought you out of the land of Egypt, … to draw thee aside out of the way which the Lord thy God commanded thee to walk in” (Deut. xiii. 2–6). Moses distinctly says, “The things that are revealed belong unto us and to our children for ever, that we may do all the words of this law” (Ibid. xxix. 28).
There is also an express commandment given: “Ye shall not add unto the word which I command you, neither shall you diminish from it, that ye may keep the commandments of the Lord your God which I command you” (Ibid. iv. 2). In two ways this law may appear to have been disregarded: there are certain sections of the Law which are at present not in force; and, on the other hand, there are many apparently new precepts at present in force which have been introduced in the course of time by the religious authorities of the nation. But these are only apparent exceptions; in reality they are entirely in harmony with the Pentateuch.
As to the first class, there are many of the Divine commandments the fulfilment of which depends on certain conditions; e.g., the existence of the Tabernacle or of the Temple and its service, the possession of Palestine by the Israelites, the independence of the Jewish State. In the absence of these conditions such laws cannot be fulfilled. The laws of sacrifices belong to this class. We are, in reference to these laws, in the same condition as a person who is physically prevented from doing what he is commanded to do, and what he is actually longing to do. The Law is not altered; our circumstances demand a temporary suspense of such laws and not their abrogation.
The second class contains all those precepts which are known as מצות דרבנן “Rabbinical precepts,” תקנות and מנהגים “Institutions” and “Customs.” But these imply no addition to the Torah; they are merely byelaws and regulations as regards the method of carrying out the laws of the Pentateuch, and are designed to facilitate or ensure their fulfilment, and to prevent ourselves from forgetting or disregarding them. Our teachers, the Rabbis, made it a matter of conscience to describe their own regulations as דרבנן non-Pentateuchical, and throughout the Oral Law and the entire Talmudic literature the distinction between דרבנן and מן התורה is noted and scrupulously upheld.
It is useless to investigate whether it would be in harmony with the immutability of the Divine Being to change the laws or any of them, or to grant a new revelation. Certainly the words “I, the Lord, have not changed” (Mal. iii. 6) have great weight; so also, “For God is not a son of man that he should change his mind” (Num. xxiii. 19). But the fact that the laws were given by God as “an everlasting statute for all generations” makes all philosophical speculation on that point superfluous. Persons who address us in the name of God as His messengers, and bid us turn away from any of the laws commanded in the Pentateuch, are in our eyes impostors, who, knowingly or unknowingly, give forth their own opinions as Divine inspirations.