Appendix
Velocity Table
The following is a tabular form showing the velocities of moving bodies as given by Peschel:
| Feet per second. | ||
| Rivers | 3–4 | |
| Very rapid stream | 13 | |
| Wind (ordinary) | 10 | |
| Storm | 54 | |
| Hurricane | 80–120 | |
| Sound (through air) | 1100 | |
| Sound (through metal) | 12,000 | |
| Air in vacuum | 1280 | |
| Ball from air-gun Air condensed 100 times | 697 | |
| Musket ball | 1280 | |
| Rifle ball (at most) | 1600 | |
| Cannon ball (24-pounder) | 2450 | |
| Earth’s rotation (at equator) | 1525 | |
| Earth’s centre in its orbit | 101,061 | |
| Miles per hour. | ||
| Racehorse | 60 | |
| Pigeon | 20–30 | |
| Peregrine falcon | 120 | |
| Ocean steamers | 21 | |
| River steamers | 22 | |
| Railway train | 80 | |
| Sailing vessel | 10 | |
| Malay proa | 20 | |
| Miles per second. | ||
| Light | 200,000 | |
| Electricity | 576,000 | |
Weight of a Superficial Foot of Plate or Sheet Iron
| No. of the wire guage. | Thickness in inches. | Weight in pounds. | No. of the wire guage. | Thickness in inches. | Weight in pounds. | No. of the wire guage. | Thickness in inches. | Weight in pounds. |
| 1 | 40 | 5 | 8·74 | 18 | 1·86 | |||
| ⅞ | 35 | 6 | 8·12 | 19 | 1·70 | |||
| ¾ | 30 | 7 | 3⁄16 | 7·5 | 20 | 1·54 | ||
| 11⁄16 | 27·5 | 8 | 6·86 | 21 | 1·40 | |||
| ⅝ | 25 | 9 | 6·24 | 22 | 1⁄32 | 1·25 | ||
| 9⁄16 | 22·5 | 10 | 5·62 | 23 | 1·12 | |||
| ½ | 20 | 11 | ⅛ | 5 | 24 | 1 | ||
| 7⁄16 | 17·5 | 12 | 4·38 | 25 | 0·9 | |||
| ⅜ | 15 | 13 | 3·75 | 26 | 0·8 | |||
| 1 | 5⁄16 | 12·5 | 14 | 3·12 | 27 | 0·72 | ||
| 2 | 12 | 15 | 2·82 | 28 | 1⁄64 | 0·64 | ||
| 3 | 11 | 16 | 1⁄16 | 2·50 | 29 | 0·65 | ||
| 4 | ¼ | 10 | 17 | 2·18 | 30 | 0·50 |
Weight in Pounds of One Cubic Foot of the Following Substances
| lbs. | lbs. | |||
| Cast iron | 450 | Water | 62·5 | |
| Wrought iron | 486 | Air | 0·075 | |
| Steel | 489 | Steam | 0·036 | |
| Pine wood | 29·5 | |||
Weight of Rod Iron One Foot in Length of the Following Dimensions
| Square Iron. | Round Iron. | Flat Iron. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Inch. | Pounds. | Inch. | Pounds. | Inch. | Pounds. |
| ¼ | 0·2 | ¼ | 0·14 | ¼ × 1 | 0·8 |
| ⅜ | 0·5 | ⅜ | 0·4 | ⅜ × 1 | 1·3 |
| ½ | 0·8 | ½ | 0·7 | ½ × 1 | 1·7 |
| ⅝ | 1·3 | ⅝ | 1 | ⅝ × 1 | 2·1 |
| ¾ | 1·9 | ¾ | 1·5 | ¾ × 1 | 2·5 |
| ⅞ | 2·6 | ⅞ | 2 | ¼ × 2 | 1·7 |
| 1 | 3·4 | 1 | 2·7 | ⅜ × 2 | 2·5 |
| 1⅛ | 4·3 | 1⅛ | 3·4 | ½ × 2 | 3·4 |
| 1¼ | 5·3 | 1¼ | 4·2 | ⅝ × 2 | 4·2 |
| 1⅜ | 6·4 | 1⅜ | 5 | ¾ × 2 | 5·1 |
| 1½ | 7·6 | 1½ | 6 | ¼ × 3 | 2·5 |
| 1⅝ | 8·9 | 1⅝ | 7 | ⅜ × 3 | 3·8 |
| 1¾ | 10·4 | 1¾ | 8·1 | ½ × 3 | 5·1 |
| 1⅞ | 11·9 | 1⅞ | 9·3 | ⅝ × 3 | 6·3 |
| 2 | 13·5 | 2 | 10·6 | ¾ × 3 | 7·6 |
| 2¼ | 17·1 | 2½ | 13·5 | ¼ × 4 | 3·4 |
| 2½ | 21·1 | 2½ | 16·7 | ⅜ × 4 | 5·1 |
| 2¾ | 25·6 | 2¾ | 20·1 | ½ × 4 | 6·8 |
| 3 | 30·4 | 3 | 23·9 | ⅝ × 4 | 8·4 |
| 3½ | 41·4 | 3½ | 32·5 | ¾ × 4 | 10·1 |
| 4 | 54·1 | 4 | 42·5 | ¼ × 5 | 4·2 |
| 5 | 84·5 | 5 | 66·8 | ⅜ × 5 | 6·3 |
| 6 | 121·7 | 6 | 95·6 | ½ × 5 | 8·4 |
| 7 | 165·6 | 7 | 130 | ⅝ × 5 | 10·6 |
| 8 | 216·3 | 8 | 169·9 | ¾ × 5 | 12·7 |
Relative Heat-conducting Power of Different Bodies
| Gold | 1000 | Fire brick | 11 |
| Platinum | 981 | Fire clay | 11.4 |
| Silver | 973 | With Water as a Standard. | |
| Copper | 898 | Water | 10 |
| Iron | 574 | Pine | 39 |
| Zinc | 363 | Lime | 39 |
| Tin | 304 | Oak | 33 |
| Lead | 180 | Ash | 31 |
| Marble | 24 | Apple | 28 |
| Porcelain | 12·2 | Ebony | 22 |
Relative Conducting Power of Different Substances Compared With Each Other
| Hare’s fur | 1·315 | Cotton | 1·046 |
| Eider down | 1·305 | Lint | 1·032 |
| Beaver’s fur | 1·296 | Charcoal | ·937 |
| Raw silk | 1·284 | Ashes (wood) | ·927 |
| Wool | 1·118 | Sewing silk | ·917 |
| Lamp black | 1·117 | Air | ·576 |
Relative Conducting Power of Fluids
| Mercury | 1·000 | Proof spirit | ·312 |
| Water | ·357 | Alcohol (pure) | ·232 |
Radiating Power of Different Bodies
| Water | 100 | Blackened tin | 100 |
| Lamp black | 100 | Clean tin | 12 |
| Writing paper | 100 | Scraped tin | 16 |
| Glass | 90 | Ice | 85 |
| Indian ink | 88 | Mercury | 20 |
| Bright lead | 19 | Polished iron | 15 |
| Silver | 12 | Copper | 12 |
The Stone Weight
The term “stone” is often used to indicate weight, but some confusion is apt to arise if the nature of the object or substance to be weighed is not clearly indicated; thus, in weighing men according to what is known as “horseman’s weight,” 14lb. avoirdupois are made use of; in weighing butcher’s meat, 8lb.; iron, 14lb.; glass, 5lb.; hemp, 32lb.; cheese, 16lb.
The Qualities of Gold
Very few terms are more loosely used than that of “gold,” and it is therefore necessary that the traveller should make himself fully acquainted with the nature of the alloy made use of under the name of gold in the various countries he may chance to visit. Let him not suppose that, because the glittering chain or ring displayed in an English jeweller’s window is marked in conspicuous letters “Warranted fine gold,” the ornament is as a matter of course composed of pure gold, or he will buy experience dearly. Fine gold means nothing further than that an alloy of some kind containing some gold is for sale. It is well, therefore, to insist on the exact quality of the article (in carats—18 carats, 22 carats, or whatever it is represented to be) being stated on the vendor’s bill of charge.
The nature of gold alloy differs materially in various countries. We have, therefore, thought it well to provide the reader with the following useful tables compiled by Mr. E. W. Streeter and used in his “Hints to Purchasers of Jewellery.”
Qualities of Gold manufactured in different Parts of the World.
| £ | s. | d. | £ | s. | d. | |||||||||
| England | From | 1 | carat, worth | 0 | 3 | 6 | to | 22 | carats, worth | 3 | 17 | 10½ | ||
| France | ″ | 18 | carat, | 3 | 3 | 8½ | only common by special permission. | |||||||
| Denmark | ″ | 18 | ″ ″ | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ||||||||
| Baden | ″ | 14 | ″ ″ | 2 | 9 | 6½ | ||||||||
| Germany (all States) | ″ | 12 | ″ ″ | 2 | 2 | 5½ | to | 15 | carats, worth | 2 | 13 | 1 | ||
| Russia | ″ | 15 | ″ ″ | 2 | 13 | 1 | to | 22 | ″ ″ | 3 | 17 | 10½ | ||
| Austria | ″ | 10 | ″ ″ | 1 | 15 | 4¼ | to | 18 | ″ ″ | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ||
| Italy | ″ | 12 | ″ ″ | 2 | 2 | 5½ | to | 22 | ″ ″ | 3 | 17 | 10½ | ||
| Holland | ″ | 4 | ″ ″ | 0 | 14 | 2 | to | 22 | ″ ″ | 3 | 17 | 10½ | ||
| Africa | ″ | 23 | ″ ″ | 4 | 3 | 1½ | ||||||||
| India | ″ | 4 | ″ ″ | 3 | 17 | 10½ | to | 23½ | ″ ″ | 4 | 3 | 1½ | ||
| Rome | All | 18 | ″ ″ | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ||||||||
| U. States of America | From | 1 | ″ ″ | 0 | 3 | 6 | to | 18 | ″ ″ | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ||
| Norway and Sweden | All | 18 | ″ ″ | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ||||||||
| Belgium | From | 18 | ″ ″ | 3 | 3 | 8½ | to | 22 | ″ ″ | 3 | 17 | 10½ | ||
| Spain | All | 18 | ″ ″ | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ||||||||
| Switzerland | All | 18 | ″ ″ | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ||||||||
| Geneva | From | 14 | carat, | 2 | 9 | 6½ | Watch cases only. | |||||||
| China | From | 16 | ″ ″ | 2 | 16 | 7½ | to | 23¾ | carats, worth | 4 | 4 | 0 | ||
| Japan | From | 18 | ″ ″ | 3 | 3 | 8½ | to | 23¾ | ″ ″ | 4 | 4 | 0 | ||
| Brazil | All | 18 | carat, | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ||||||||
| Hamburg | From | 13½ | ″ ″ | 2 | 11 | 3½ | to | 18 | ″ ″ | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ||
| Turkey | ″ | 18 | carat, | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ||||||||
| Greece | ″ | 10 | ″ ″ | 1 | 15 | 4¼ | to | 16 | ″ ″ | 2 | 16 | 7½ | ||
| Persia | ″ | 3 | ″ ″ | 0 | 10 | 7½ | to | 23½ | ″ ″ | 4 | 3 | 1½ | ||
| Egypt | ″ | 18 | carat, | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ||||||||
| Rio Janeiro | Imported from 1 carat | 0 | 3 | 6 | to | 22 | ″ ″ | 3 | 17 | 10½ | ||||
| Chili | ″ ″ | 0 | 3 | 6 | to | 22 | ″ ″ | 3 | 17 | 10½ | ||||
| Peru | ″ ″ | 0 | 3 | 6 | to | 22 | ″ ″ | 3 | 17 | 10½ | ||||
| Siam | Nearly pure, fine work. | |||||||||||||
| Australia | Same as England, except that made up from the diggings. | |||||||||||||
| Mexico | Principal manufacture fine. | |||||||||||||
| Any quality is allowed to be imported into these countries. | ||||||||||||||
The following table by the same author will serve to show in a condensed form, the value of different gold alloys relatively, and also the extremely low standard at which so called “gold articles” are manufactured in this country.
Gold Value Table.
| £ | s. | d. | |||
| 22-carat gold is worth | 3 | 17 | 10½ | per oz. | |
| 18 | ″ ″ | 3 | 3 | 8½ | ″ |
| 16 | ″ ″ | 2 | 16 | 7½ | ″ |
| 14 | ″ ″ | 2 | 9 | 6½ | ″ |
| 10 | ″ ″ | 1 | 15 | 4¼ | ″ |
| 9 | ″ ″ | 1 | 11 | 10 | ″ |
| 8 | ″ ″ | 1 | 8 | 3¾ | ″ |
| 6 | ″ ″ | 1 | 1 | 2½ | ″ |
| 4 | ″ ″ | 0 | 14 | 2 | ″ |
| 2 | ″ ″ | 0 | 7 | 1 | ″ |
| 1 | ″ ″ | 0 | 3 | 6 | ″ |
Since writing the early portion of this work, we have found it requisite, in order to supply a manifest want, to have manufactured a small leather case (on the exact model of our own), containing all the tests and appliances requisite for the identification of precious metals or precious stones.D
We have also caused to be constructed, from our own pattern, a small triple branch of gold of different degrees of alloy. Each branch, when rubbed on the touch stone, and treated with nitric acid, will leave a characteristic streak, which may be compared with one formed by rubbing the article to be tested, and treating it with acid in the same manner; the nature of the alloy will thus be found by comparison.E
Emerson’s Table of Strengths, showing the Load that can be safely borne by a square inch Rod of each of the following Substances:
| lbs. avoir. | |
| Iron rod, 1in. square, will bear | 76,400 |
| Brass | 35,600 |
| Ivory | 15,700 |
| Oak, box, yew, plum-tree | 7,850 |
| Elm, ash, beech | 6,070 |
| Walnut, red fir, holly, elder, plane, crab | 5,000 |
| Cherry, hazel | 4,760 |
| Alder, asp, birch, willow | 5,000 |
| Lead | 430 |
| Freestone | 914 |
Emerson’s rule is, that a cylinder, the diameter of which is d inches, loaded to one fourth of its absolute strength, will carry as follows:
| cwt. | |
| Iron | 135 × d² |
| Good rope | 22 × d² |
| Oak | 14 × d² |
| Fir | 9 × d² |
Another of his rules is that a cylindrical rod of well-seasoned clean-grown fir of an inch circumference drawn in length will bear at its extremity 400lbs. and a spar of fir 2in. in diameter will bear about 7 tons, but not more. A well-made and carefully-kept hemp rope of one inch in circumference, will bear 1000lbs. being at its extremity.
Mr. Barlow has formed the following table as a mean resulting from experiments on the strength of direct cohesion on a square inch of the following substances:
| lbs. | |
| Box | 20,000 |
| Ash | 17,000 |
| Teak | 15,000 |
| Fir | 12,000 |
| Beech | 11,500 |
| Oak | 10,000 |
| Pear | 9,800 |
| Mahogany | 8,000 |
He also states as follows regarding the transverse strength of beams, &c. Mr. Weale thus quotes from Mr. Barlow’s essay: “The transverse strength of rectangular beams, or the resistance which they offer to fracture, is as the breadth and square of the depth; therefore, if two rectangular beams have the same depth, their strengths are to each other as their breadths, but if their breadths are the same, then their strengths are to each other as the square of their depths. The transverse strengths of square beams are as the cubes of the breadths or depths. Also in cylindrical beams the transverse strengths are as the cubes of the diameters. Thus, if a beam which is one foot broad and one foot deep support a given weight, then a beam of the same depth and two feet broad will support double the weight; but if a beam be one foot broad and two feet deep it will support four times as much as a beam one foot broad and one foot deep. If a beam one foot square support a given weight, then a beam two feet square will support eight times as much. Also a cylinder of two inches in diameter will support eight times as much as a cylinder one inch in diameter. The appended table gives data bearing on the subject.
| Teak | 2·462 | Elm | 1·013 |
| English oak | 1·672 | Pitch pine | 1·632 |
| Canadian oak | 1·766 | Red pine | 1·341 |
| Dantzic oak | 1·457 | New England fir | 1·102 |
| Adriatic | 1·383 | Riga fir | 1·108 |
| Ash | 2·026 | Mar Forest fir | 1·262 |
| Beech | 1·556 | Larch | 1·127 |
Footnotes
A Singing in the ears.
B On the platform.—(Ed.)
C The only preservative needed is a diluted wash of arsenical soap inside the pill boxes, which, as in all other cases when soap is used, must be well dried afterwards before the boxes are filled.
D This, together with its accompanying instruction book, can be obtained at the explorer’s room, established by S. W. Silver & Co., 66 & 67, Cornhill.
E This test branch can be obtained either at the explorer’s room, or from Mr. E. Streeter, Conduit-street, Bond-street.