A Voyage to the East Indies

Geographical Index

A.

Adirampushe, a place on the coast of Malabar where the ginger grows. 163.

Agra, one of the places of residence formerly of the Great Mogul, or emperor of India. 38.

Alangatta, a river and city with a very large church. By the Portuguese it is called very improperly Mangalte. The river discharges itself into the sea near Aycotta, or Tschuvocad. 104, 137.

Allahabad, a considerable city at the confluence of the Yamuna and the Ganges. (See Palibothra.) It is in the possession of the English. 37, 39.

Alapushe, a place on the coast of Malabar, where a canal has been dug for the convenience of conveying goods on board ships lying on the sea-coast. Excellent pepper, in particular, may be procured here. 81, 120, 136.

Allakandara, a river in the northern part of India, on which lies Sirinagur, formerly called Nischadapuri, Nisa, or Dionysiopolis. It is named also Allaknanda, or Allaknandara. 37.

Ambàdi. See Modhura. 37.

Ambalacòtta, a village on the coast of Malabar, where the Jesuits formerly had a convent and seminary. At present it is in a state of decline. 138.

Ambelapusha, a celebrated temple dedicated to Shiva. 119.

Andipatti, a city in the interior part of the province of Madura, which formerly sent, and still sends, various articles of merchandise to the coast of Malabar. 56.

Angamàli, an old city on the coast of Malabar, in which there are three Christian congregations, and where the bishop of the Christians of St. Thomas formerly resided. It was burnt and plundered by Tippoo Saib. 116, 138.

Angenga, a city on the coast of Malabar, in the kingdom of Travancor, in possession of the English. It is called also Angiutenga. The river Modelaposcha discharges itself there into the sea. 103.

Angicaimal, a place in the neighbourhood of Cochin, on the coast of Malabar, which the river Feira d’Alva flows past. 104.

Angiutenga. See Angenga. 114.

Aragoshe, a place with a Christian church at the bottom of the Gauts, in the forests, near which are found wild elephants, buffaloes, tygers, deer, apes, and parrots. 125.

Arampalli, said to be the Argyropolis of the ancients, from which the Bay of Manar is called Sinus Argaricus. It lies at the distance of three leagues from Cape Comari, and as far up the country from Covalam. 56, 110.

Arcate, or Arcati, but properly Arrucati, a fortified city in the kingdom of Carnàta, or Carnate, the nabob of which is frequently called the nabob of Arcate, or Arcot. It lies on the river Palur. 28, 64.

Ariancopan, a place to the south of Pondicheri, where the bishop of the Catholic Christians in that district resides, and where there is also a seminary. 25, 65.

Arrucate, Arrucati. See Arcate. 28, 60, 64, 89.

Arshtamiciare, a place belonging to the king of Cochin. 135.

Artunkel, a place on the sea-coast to the south of Cochin. 121.

Atur (Attur), a fortified place in the territories of the nabob of Carnate, lying on the river Gudalam. This river falls into the Valaru, which discharges itself into the sea at Porto-Nuovo. 28, 63.

Attinga, a city called also Attancal, which is the residence of the queen, that is to say, of the eldest sister of the king of Travancor, as the king’s consort can never become queen. 114.

Aur, a place in the kingdom of Madura, where the Jesuits had formerly a congregation. 64.

Aurungabad, a city in the south-west part of the Soubah of the Deccan. Near it lies Ellur, or Dauletabad, where there is a temple, which has been described by Thevenot. 38.

Ayambel, a place in the kingdom of Madura, where the Jesuits had formerly a congregation. 64.

Aybica, a village where the river, on which merchandise is transported from the Gauts to Culam or Collam, discharges itself into the sea. 117.

Aycotta, called also Tschuvocat, a place in Malabar near which the river Alangatta falls into the sea. 104, 137.

Ayodhya, a very old Indian city on the river Deva, or Gagra, the residence of the first conquerors of India. Faizabad is situated on the spot where Ayodhya, or Audh, stood formerly. 37.

B.

Badagare. There are two places of this name: the first lies in Madura, and sends merchandise to the coast of Malabar. It has a Christian church, and is situated close to the large forests at the foot of the Gauts, where wild elephants are found in great abundance. The second is called also Vaypin, and lies on the sea-coast to the north of Cochin. 56, 125, 137.

Badeati, lies eastward from Diamper and Cochin, and was formerly the residence of the court of Travancor. It is called also in the English maps, by Rennel and by La Rochette, Barrate. 123.

Balancada, a fortress in the kingdom of Carnate, which, like a great many others, is of a square form. 63.

Baliapatnam, one of the rivers in the district of Calicut, on the Malabar coast, which take their rise in the Gauts, and form an innumerable multitude of islands. A city also near Mount Illy, on the above river, has the same name. 104.

Barcale, a village, mountain, and celebrated spring, together with a temple, to the south of Culam or Collam. 115.

Benares, called also Venares and Kasi, the Cassidia of the ancients, has a celebrated temple, a Brahmanic academy or school, and an observatory. 37.

Bengalùr, formerly the residence of the Sultan Hayder Ali Khan. It is strongly fortified, and its name signifies the white land. 32.

Bisnagari, a city which had formerly a prince of its own, but became subject to the Great Mogul, and belonged to the district of Sanor. It was afterwards conquered by Hayder Ali. It was called also Narasinha. 63.

Bombay, an English colony in an island to the north of Goa. It has an excellent harbour, and is the seat of a presidency. 107, 114.

Budhapadi, a city in the territories of Tippoo Sultan in Maissur. On the maps it is called Budhapari. Its name signifies the town of Budha. 32.

C.

Cabul. See Kabul. 35.

Cadaturuti, a place on the coast of Malabar which produces abundance of ginger. 123, 163.

Cagnarapalli, a town celebrated for its trade with the province of Madura. In the neighbouring districts of the Gauts, mountain-snakes thirty or forty feet in length are found. 55, 118, 248.

Calapada, a place between Pondichery and Sadras. 71.

Calianatur, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. Its name signifies the town of joy. 28, 63.

Calianapuri, a maritime city on the coast of Malabar near Mount Illy. Foreign ships obtained here cargoes of the productions of the country. 56.

Calicurici, a fortified city in Carnate. 63.

Calicut, a maritime city on the coast of Malabar, destroyed by Tippoo Sultan. 8, 103, 140.

Calcutta, the capital of the province of Bengal, where the English have established the seat of their chief presidency. 39.

Calini (Caliny), a river, at the influx of which into the Ganges lies the city of Canoaschi, in lat. 27°. 38.

Callare, a city which the river Collam flows past. 117.

Callupare, a place on the coast of Malabar inhabited by Jacobite Christians. 118.

Catturiàda, a place on the coast of Malabar, where, on account of its wet situation, a great deal of rice is cultivated. It is therefore called the storehouse of Malabar. 118, 186.

Camanaichenpalti, one of the places in the kingdom of Madura where the Jesuits formerly established considerable congregations. 65.

Cambam, a city in the interior part of Madura, which, like many other cities, sent merchandise formerly to the coast of Malabar. 56.

Canarà, a principality on the coast of Malabar, which, towards the south, borders on Mount Illy, 103.

Canantora, a town in the kingdom of Travancor. 113.

Cannanùr, a maritime city in Malabar, which exports merchandise sent thither from the interior parts. It has a fortress belonging to queen Collatiri, called by the Europeans Collastri. 56, 144.

Canatur, a place in the Jaghire of the British on the coast of Coromandel, or what the English possess in the neighbourhood of Madras. 73.

Candenàda, a place which belongs to the king of Cochin, a petty prince on the coast of Malabar. It is called also Candanale. 135.

Cangimaram (Congimaram), a place called in the English maps Congimer, lying on the sea-coast between Pondichery and Sadias. 71.

Cangipuri, or Congipuram, a place in Carnate; called also Cangivaron, which signifies the city of gold. 28.

Caniarata, a place on the coast of Malabar, not far from Angenga. 114.

Canigia, the seat of the governor of Coahin. 192.

Canudi. See Calini. 38.

Cariapatnam, one of the many rivers by which the coast of Malabar is intersected. 103.

Caricattur, a city in the interior part of Madura, which formerly sent merchandise to the coast of Malabar. 56.

Carimbanàda, a place in the kingdom of Travancor, which is inhabited by Pagans and Christians, and carries on a great trade in pepper and cardamoms. 117.

Carnada (Carnate), a kingdom or province on the coast of Malabar, which is under the government of a nabob. 8, 59.

Carpuncolam, a place between Pondichery and Sadras. 71.

Caschemir. See Kaschemir. 35.

Cattur, a fishing village on the coast of Malabar, near Cochin. 119, 121.

Caveri, one of the most considerable rivers on the coast of Coromandel, which, by a number of mouths, discharges itself into the sea, in the kingdom of Tanjaur. 48, 54, 231.

Caveripac, a fortified town in Carnate, 63.

Cayamcollam (Cayancollam), a city on the coast of Malabar. 8.

Celicotam, a place in the kingdom of Tanjaur, called by the Europeans Celicolon. 30.

Cencotta, a city in Madura, which formerly sent merchandise to the coast of Malabar. 56.

Cennòtta, a place on the river Alangatta, which belongs to the king of Cochin. 104, 135.

Cerenga, a place on the coast of Malabar, which the river Modelaposcha flows past. 103.

Certele, a town on the coast of Malabar, with a celebrated temple of Bhagavadi, the spouse of Shiva. 121.

Ceruvatti, a city in Madura, which formerly sent merchandise to the coast of Malabar. 56.

Cettiyatti, a place on the coast of Malabar with a Christian church. 129.

Cettupeli, a fortified place in Carnate, 63.

Cettur, a fortified place in the interior part of Madura. 56.

Cettuva, one of the numerous rivers which flow from the Gauts through Malabar into the sea. 104, 138.

Ceylon, one of the largest islands in the Indian ocean, the coasts of which were formerly in the possession of the Dutch; at present they are in the hands of the British. 57.

Chidàcolam, a place on the coast of Malabar, which the river Paru flows past. 103.

Chonenbar (Chonanbar), the name of a river called properly Chiovanàru, on the coast of Coromandel, which flows to the south of Pondichery. 26.

Ciacrapuri (Ciacrapuram), a city in Carnate, the name of which has been corrupted into Cacrapur. 28.

Cialembron, Cilamburam, Cillumlaram, Cilumbrum, a celebrated pagoda between Porto-nuovo and Devycotta. 61.

Ciandrapati, a place in the kingdom of Maïssur. 33.

Ciangaceri, the residence of a petty prince, who, in 1746, was defeated and taken prisoner by Vira Martanda the king of Travancor, and several other petty sovereigns. 115.

Cianganacèri, a village surrounded by rice fields on the coast of Malabar. 120.

Ciangracoil, a temple in the kingdom of Madura. 31.

Ciangucotta, a city in the province of Marava, on the coast of Coromandel. 45.

Ciavacàda, a maritime place on the coast of Malabar. 138.

Cinnabellapuram, a city in the kingdom of Maïssur. 33.

Cinnapatnam, a small city on the coast of Coromandel, which the English, in the year 1645, obtained from king Narsinha, or Bisnagari, and on the spot where it stood built Fort St. George at Madras. 77.

Ciòlaburam, a city in the province of Marava. 45.

Ciòlamandala (Coromandel), signifies the land of millet; because that grain (Holcus sorghum, and Durra), are cultivated there in abundance. 3.

Ciovanàru. See Chonenbar. 26.

Ciovare, a place on the coast of Malabar, which the Feira D’Alva runs past. 104, 134, 135.

Cirangam (Cheringam), in the kingdom of Tanjaur, not far from Tricinnapali. 29, 61.

Cirangapatnam (Seringapatam), the capital of the kingdom of Maïssur, where Tippoo Saib resided. 32, 114.

Cirumuttu, a very fruitful district, which belonged to the old kingdom of Cottaracare, and is situated near Cape Comari, not far from Collam. 117.

Ciuncam, a place between Maïssur and Cochin, which carries on trade with both. 125.

Ciundrapandi, a city in the interior part of the kingdom of Madura, which formerly sent merchandise to the coast of Malabar. 56.

Cocci, a city on the coast of Malabar, which exports merchandise obtained from the inland parts. Not far from this city there is a river of the same name. 56.

Cochin, a place with a citadel on the coast of Malabar, lying nearly under 10 degrees of north latitude. It belonged to the Dutch; but is now in the possession of the British. 103, 104, 121, 126, 130.

Cochinchina, a kingdom on the eastern side of India, beyond the Ganges, towards China. 21.

Codamalur, a place on the coast of Malabar, where ginger grows.

Codamangalam, one of the Malabar cities which still carry on trade, as formerly, with Madura. 56, 220.

Codolur lies in the large forests of the Gauts. 220.

Codungalur (Cudungalur, Cranganor), a fortress on the river Allangatte, which was demolished, in 1790, by Lally, Tippoo Saib’s general. 56, 104, 120, 136.

Cognur, a place not far from Cochin, which is washed by the river Feira D’Ava. 104.

Colarru (Colaru), that is the river of swine; it is commonly written Coleroon. It flows through the kingdom of Tanjaur. See Caveri. 48, 231.

Collam (Collamedu), a place where the merchandise of the coast of Malabar is shipped. 56, 147.

Còlanàda, the capital of the kingdom of Cannanur, in 11° 50′ N. Lat. 144.

Coleci, a place not far from Cape Comari, or Comorin, with a small but safe harbour, which by Strabo is called Colias. 56, 103, 112.

Colicòtta, a place not far from Cape Comari, which sends on board foreign ships the merchandise of the country. 56.

Comari (Canyamuri), the extreme point of India, on this side the Ganges, where the ridge of mountains called the Gauts ends. 3, 103, 110, 111.

Concao, a kingdom in the neighbourhood of Bombay, on the eastern bank of the Ganges, called properly Concan. 8.

Congimaram. See Cangimaram. Conoam, a place in the neighbourhood of the kingdom of Travancor. 139.

Corolongatta, a town in Travancor, where a bishop of the Jacobites has his residence. 121, 123.

Còttàracare, formerly a principality conquered by the king of Tranquelar. 115, 117.

Cottàram (Cottàte), a place in Travancor, which in the time of the Greeks and the Romans was called Cottana, or Cottiara. 8, 112.

Covalam, called also Coulam, was the Colis or Colias of the ancients. 56, 57, 74, 94, 110.

Coytòtta, a place lying east from Cochin, which carries on a considerable trade. 117.

Cudnegalur (Crangalor, Cranganor), a place on the sea-coast, to the north of Cochin. 46.

Cudur, one of the places in Madura which formerly sent merchandise to Malabar. 56.

Curiapalli, the magazine and arsenal of the king of Travancor. 137.

Curumpana, a place on the sea-coast, nearly in the latitude of 8° North. 112.

D.

Dakshima, or Dekam, a kingdom situated in the southern part of Indostan. 42.

Dely (Delhi), formerly the residence of the emperor of India. 38, 42, 43.

Dèva (Devi), a river formerly called also Gagra. It is known likewise by the names Vipascha and Vipal. 37, 39, 232.

Dharàburam (Dharapuram), a city in the kingdom of Maïssur, at the bottom of the Gauts, and in the district of Coimbetur. 32.

Dhermapuri, a city in Maïssur, called also Dhermapura. 32, 60.

Divicotta (Divyacotta), a castle at the mouth of the Coleroon or Colaru. 29, 48.

Douletabad. See Aurungabad. 38.

E.

Edapalli, a place in the kingdom of Travancor, called also Rambali and Rapolim. There is a temple and palace here of the king of the Brahmans. 124, 137.

Elagnïl, a place in the Gauts, with a Christian church. 125.

Elephantis (Elephanta), an island near Bombay, which contains one of the oldest Indian temples. 22.

Eloura (Ellur). See Aurungabad. 38.

Elluvancotta, a city in the province of Marava. 45.

Ettumanur, a celebrated temple of Vishnu, on the coast of Malabar. 121.

F.

Faizabad. See Ayedhya. 37.

Feira D’Alva, a stream on the coast of Malabar, which falls into the sea near Cochin. 104.

G.

Ganga (the Ganges). 39.

Gauts, a ridge of mountains which divides the peninsula of India from north to south. 3, 12.

George (St.). See Cinnapasnam. 77.

Gingi, a fortified city in the territories of the nabob of Carnate, lying on a river of the same name north-west from Pondichery. 10, 64.

Golconda, formerly a kingdom in India, conquered by Shah Geban. 42, 60.

Gocula. See Modhura. 38.

Goculator, a place in the kingdom of Maïssur. 32.

Govalam, called also Covalam, the Colis or Colias of the ancients. 28, 32.

Gudelùr, or Kudalor, a place on the coast of Coromandel, between Porto-nuovo and Pondichery. 60.

H.

Harani, a fortified city in Carnate. 63.

Hastinapuri, in the Samscred Hastinagari, called at present Aschnagur, one of the oldest cities of India, lying under the latitude of 32°. 35.

Hima (Himala), the name of a mountain where the river Sarayouva, which is probably the Imaus of the ancients, has its source. 232, 233.

I.

Jamunà, a river called also the Jumma. It has several other names; and, in all probability, is the Jomanes of the ancients. 231.

Illi, a mountain which separates the kingdom of Canara from Malabar. 103, 145.

Illoura. See Elloura. 38.

Ilpiur, a place in the kingdom of Madura, where the Jesuits established formerly a Christian congregation. 64.

Iratuge (Iratùshe), a city in Malabar, at the bottom of the Gauts, which carries on trade with Madura. 55, 121.

K.

Kabul, the capital of a province on the eastern boundaries of Persia, near the river Behat or Sirbin. 35.

Karincalla, called also Carical, a place which the French obtained from the king of Tanjaur in 1638, but which at present is in the hands of the English. 49.

Kaschemir (Cachemir), a province surrounded by mountains, which was formerly subdued by the Mogul conquerors, and taken from its own princes. The capital is called also Kaschemir. At present it is named Sirinegur or Sirinagar. 35.

Kasi. See Benares. 37.

Kavaricotta, a city in Marava. 45.

Kidacolam, a place on the coast of Malabar. 222.

Koledimalà, a mountain in the neighbourhood of the Gauts. 141.

Kottàracare, the name of a very ancient small kingdom on the coast of Malabar. 117.

Krishnapuram, a town on the coast of Malabar, which carries on a great trade. 117.

Krishnavaram, a town in Carnate, which on the maps is called Quichenavaron. 28.

L.

Lahor, a province in the north-west extremity of India, with a capital of the same name. 43.

M.

Mabalicarè (Mavelicarè), a populous city in the kingdom of Travancor. 118.

Màdèvipatnam, a considerable city in the kingdom of Travancor. 47.

Madraspatnam, the present seat of the British government on the eastern coast of India. 5, 12, 27, 60, 76.

Madura, an ancient kingdom, with a capital of the same name, called formerly Methora. 25, 31, 44, 46, 65, 103.

Magnapre, a place in the Gauts, where the author saw wild elephants tamed. 213.

Mahe (Mahi), the name of a river, and of a fortress not far from Calicut, in Malabar, which formerly belonged to the French, but is now in the hands of the English. 104, 143.

Mailacomba, a place in the forests at the bottom of the Gauts. 125.

Mailapuram (Maïlapuri), called also Mailiapur, or St. Thomas, near Madras. 27, 60, 65, 75.

Mainàda, a town on the coast of Malabar which the river Paru flows past. 103.

Maïssur, the name of a kingdom, with its capital, lying between the coast of Malabar, Carnate, and Madura. 8, 32, 64.

Malabar, called properly Malayalam, the land of mountains. 102.

Malanàda, Malangàra, other appellations for Malabar. 102.

Maleatur, a place in Malabar which the Feira D’Alva flows past. 104.

Maleyalam (Malayala). See Malabar. 3, 102.

Mampulli, a town on the coast of Malabar, not far from Angenga. 114.

Mannacòri, a place on the coast of Malabar. 121.

Mannacodam, the same. 121.

Mannacudi, a place on the coast of Malabar, where there are still to be seen the ruins of a palace belonging to the king of Travancor. 112.

Mannapara, a place on the coast of Pescaria, not far from Tutucurim. 31.

Manclùr, a town in the kingdom of Madura. 31.

Mangalur, a city in Carnate. 28.

Manimàla, one of the places in Madura which formerly sent merchandise to the coast of Malabar. 56.

Mantòpo (Mantòpu), a town in Madura. 31.

Marava, a province on the coast of Coromandel. 44.

Mattanceri (Mattincèra), not far from Cochin, belongs to a small kingdom of the same name. 130, 134.

Modelacodata, a province in the forests of the Gauts, where wild elephants are found. 212.

Modelaposha, a river in Malabar, which flows past Angenga. 103.

Modhura (Moturapuri), on the river Yaume, the Modura Deorum of Pliny, called also Moturapuri. On the map by La Rochette and Mannert it is called Mathra, and on that of Rennel Matura. It lies in the latitude of 27°, and is known by the names likewise of Gocùla and Ambàdi. 37, 54, 55.

Mohatugè (Mohatushe), one of the places in the interior part of Malabar which still continue to carry on trade with Madura and Maïssur. 55, 126.

Molicolam, a Christian congregation in the interior part of the Gauts. 201.

Monguiri (Monghir), a place in the possession of the English, on the Ganges, in the province of Bahar. 39.

Mont-Grand, a fortified garden belonging to the East-India Company’s government at Madras, not far from St. Thomas. 49.

Mullaventurutti, one of the places which the Dutch suffered to remain in the hands of the king of Cochin. 135.

Multan (Moltan), one of the eastern provinces of the ancient kingdom of Hindostan, on both sides of the Sind or Hindus, the capital of which is called Multan also. 43.

Muttam, one of the places on the coast of Malabar which procured the productions of the inland parts for foreign ships. 56.

Muttiera, a place in the kingdom of Cochin, where there is a church belonging to the Christians of St. Thomas. 123.

N.

Nàgapatnam (Nagapatana, Nègapatnam), called by the Greeks Nigamos and Nigama Metropolis, a city in the kingdom of Tanjaur, at the mouth of an arm of the Coleroon; belonged formerly to the Dutch, but is now in the possession of the English. 29, 48, 49.

Naidshadabur. See Allakandara. 36.

Narasinha. See Bisnagari. 60, 63.

Naur, Nàvur, and Nagur, a place between Negapatnam and Carical, at the mouth of an arm of the Coleroon. 29, 53.

Nerenam, a considerable town in the kingdom of Cochin, where the bishop of the Jacobites resides. 120.

Nharakel, a place in the kingdom of Cochin, with a Christian congregation. 127.

Nhàrica, one of the places which the Dutch have left in the hands of the king of Cochin. On the maps it is called also Gnàrica. 135.

Nishadabury. See Naishadabur. 36.

O.

Odeaguiri, a fortified place and arsenal of the king of Travancor. 113.

Orixa (Orissa), a large province to the south-west of Bengal. 54.

Ottocutta, that is, the solitary city. It is situated in Carnate. 47.

P.

Padmanàburam, a castle not far from Travancor or Tiruvancoda, where the king resides and keeps his treasure. 8, 113.

Palacaticieri, a celebrated city and fortress on the river Paniani in the Gauts, called also Policat. 139, 175.

Palancotta, a fortified place in Tanjaur. 30, 63.

Palarru (Paler), a river which flows through Carnate from the Gauts, and falls into the sea near Sadras. 60, 89, 97.

Paliacata. See Valiacadà. 60.

Paliamcotta, a strong fortified place in the kingdom of Madura, near Tinivelly, and on the river Tunmerbury. 58.

Palipuram, a place with a Christian congregation, not far from Cochin. 137.

Pallibothra, a place known to the Greeks and Romans; at present a town called Palipatur, at the confluence of the Ganges and the Jamuna, near Allahabad. 37.

Pallicaré, a place which the Dutch left in the hands of the king of Cochin. 135.

Palur, a fortified Town in Carnate, on the sea-coast. 63, 138.

Pandi, one of the names formerly given to the kingdom of Madura; and for this reason it was called also Pandimandala, from king Pandi, (in Pliny, Pandion.) 45.

Paniani, one of the small streams which fall down from the mountains. 104, 138.

Paravur, a considerable town not far from Cochin, which was destroyed by the troops of Tippoo Sultan. 137.

Paru, a river, and a place situated on it, not far from Cochin. 103, 115.

Patna (Patnam), a celebrated city on the Ganges, in the province of Bahar. 39.

Pattucòtta, a city in Tanjaur. 47.

Pegu, a kingdom on the coast of India, beyond the Ganges. 57.

Penatur, one of the fortified places in Carnate. 63.

Periaculam, one of the placed which formerly sent merchandise from Madura to the coast of Malabar. 56.

Perimanur, a place like Pallicaré. 135.

Perimatorà, a place on the coast of Malabar, not far from Angenga. 114.

Perumaculam, one of the fortified places in Carnate. 63.

Perumanel, one of the places which formerly sent merchandise from Madura to the coast of Malabar. 56.

Perumnàda, a place to the east of Collam, which belonged to the very ancient kingdom of Cottaracara. 117.

Pescaria. The coast of Pescaria lies between Cape Mannapàr and Adam’s Bridge, where the pearl islands are. 103.

Pondamala (Pondamalay), a high mountain with a fortress, called by the Europeans Mont Grand, not far from Mailiapur. 27, 93.

Ponnaru (Pannar), that is, the gold river. It takes its rise in the Gauts, not far from Dhermapuri in Maïssur, and falls into the sea near Cudalur. 60.

Porca (Porrocada), one of the places which send inland merchandise to the coast of Malabar. 56, 81, 115, 118.

Porolta, a small river on the coast of Malabar. 104.

Porto-nuovo, a place in Carnate, at which the river Velarru discharges itself into the sea. 60.

Pucòtta, a place which the Dutch left in the hands of the king of Cochin. 135.

Puduceri, called commonly Pondicheri, lies on the coast of Coromandel, and was the capital of the French possessions in India: at present it is in the hands of the English. 1, 7, 12, 18, 24, 25, 64.

Puducurici, a place on the coast of Malabar, not far from Angenga. 114.

Pugnoda, one of the places on the coast of Malabar which still carry on trade with Madura. 55.

Pugnatil, a place where formerly, according to the account of Ptolemy, beryls were found. 118.

Pullingunne, a considerable town on the coast of Malabar, where there are a great many rice-fields. 120.

Pulluvalley Bingiam, a new harbour caused to be constructed by the king of Travancor. 113.

Puntora, a place on the coast of Malabar,. 113, 120.

Puradacudi, one of the Christian congregations established by the Jesuits in the kingdom of Madura. 64.

Puttencara (Puttencèra). See Pallicaré. 117, 135, 138.

Puttenpalli, a place lying at a great distance in the forests of the Gauts, where there are a great many Christian congregations. 201.

Puttentopo, a place on the coast of Malabar not far from Angenga. 114.

Q.

Quichenavaron. See Krishnavaram. 28.

R.

Rajacolla mangalam, a city where there are still to be seen the remains of a palace belonging to the king of Travancor. 112.

Ràmanàthapuram, on the coast of Pescaria. 31, 45.

Ràmapurata, a place in the Gauts. 125.

Rèva, a river which takes its rise in the mountain Vindhia. It is called also Ravi. 232.

Rotasgar, a place on the river Son. 39.

S.

Sadras, a place with a castle in the British Jaghire, on the coast of Coromandel, at the mouth of the Palir or Palarru. 60, 72, 73, 96.

Sanhya, the name of a mountain where the Deva has its rise. 233.

Sarasvadi, the name of a river. 231.

Sarayouvà, the name of a river. See Déva. 39.

Satara, a province on the coast of Coromandel. 42.

Saude, a place on the coast of Malabar, not far from Cochin. 121.

Sharavadi, the name of a river. 231.

Shelon, a fortified place in Carnate. 63.

Shivagari, a place in Madura. 56.

Shrinagari. See Allakandara. 36.

Siam, a kingdom in the peninsula beyond the Ganges. 21.

Sina, or China. 21.

Sindacalla, a place in Madura. 56.

Sindhu, the western great river of India, which is commonly, but improperly, called the Indus. 231.

Sirgani, a place in Tanjaur. 65.

Son, a river in Hindostan, which discharges itself into the Ganges. 39.

Sultanpatnam, a place on the coast of Malabar which Tippoo Sultan caused to be spared. It is called also Vaypur or Baypur. 139.

Suran, a place in Tanjaur. 65.

Sushindram, a town with a celebrated temple of the god Kámadèva, on the coast of Malabar. 112.

T.

Tacaculam, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

Taliceri, a city on the coast of Malabar, a mile north from Mahe. It belongs to the English, and is an arsenal for the coast of Malabar. 143.

Tanghi, a place on the sea-coast not far from Cochin. 121.

Tangut, a kingdom in the interior part of Asia, lying north-west from China, which was conquered in 1202 by Gengis Khan. 40.

Tanjaur, the name of a kingdom with its capital lying between the two arms of the Caveri. 7, 12, 29, 48, 65.

Tannur, a place on the coast of Malabar, called also Tanor, between Paniani and Calicut. 138.

Tatagari, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

Tatta (Taitanagur), a city at that part of the Sindhu where it divides itself into several branches, called formerly Pattalone or Pattala. 35.

Tèdanàda, a place in the interior part of Madura. 56.

Tengacetti, a place on the coast of Malabar, not far from Sadras. 72.

Terpunatre, the residence of the nominal king of Cochin. 134.

Tevàram, a place in Madura. 56.

Tevelacare, a place on the coast of Malabar which exports a great deal of pepper and cardamoms. 117.

Timeri, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

Tindacalla (Tinducalla), in Madura, probably the Tindis of Arrian and Ptolemy. 31.

Tindivanam, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

Tirucolur, the same. 63.

Tirumala, the same. 63.

Tirumaladùvasam, that is, the temple of the god of the holy mountain. The Europeans call it Tiremalevasen. It lies in Tanjaur. 29.

Tirumanur, called also Tremmanur, lies in Tanjaur. 29, 47.

Tirunamalà, corrupted into Tirnemalet, a place in Carnate. 28, 61.

Tirunaveli (Tirnaveli), a place in the interior part of Madura. 31, 56, 58, 65.

Tirupati (Tirapati), a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 28, 61, 63.

Tirupalur, a place on the coast of Coromandel, not far from Sadras. 73.

Tiruvalur, a place with a beautiful pagoda in the kingdom of Tanjaur. 47, 61.

Tiruvananganur, a fortress on the borders of Tanjaur, belonging to Marava. 47.

Tiruvamatur, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

Tiruvancàda (Tiruvancor, Travancor), a place on the coast of Malabar. 45, 58, 112.

Tiruvandaburam (Tiruvandaram), the summer residence of the king of Travancor. 113.

Tiruvandapuram, a place on the coast of Malabar. 8.

Tiruvanelur, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

Tiruvatur, a fortified place in the same kingdom. 63.

Tovàla, a fortified place in Travancor, on the boundaries of Marava. 59, 103, 111.

Tremanour. See Tirumanur. 29.

Tricinnapalli, a city on the Caveri. 47.

Triciur, a town and district on the Malabar coast, where the Brahmans have a celebrated seminary. 138.

Tricolur, that is, the town of the three ponds, in Tanjaur. 30, 60.

Trividi, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

Tshandranagar or Schandranagor, lying to the north of Calcutta in Bengal; belonged formerly to the French, but at present is in the hands of the English. 39.

Tumbanur, a place on the coast of Malabar, which exports a great deal of pepper and cardamoms. 117.

Tumbòli, a fishing village on the coast of Malabar, inhabited by Catholic Christians. 119, 121.

Tunquin, a kingdom in the peninsula beyond the Ganges. 21.

Turangaburam (Toràngapuri, also Tranquebar), the water-city, or horse-city; the factory of the Danes on the coast of Coromandel, and the chief place of the Danish missions. 29, 48, 65.

Tutucuri (Tùtucudi), a place on the coast of Pescaria. 31.

Tuvàrencurici, a place in the kingdom of Madura. 56.

Tuyam, a place washed by a river which flows into the sea on the coast of Malabar near Cybika. 117.

U.

Udiamper (Diemper), a place where the celebrated synod was held in the year 1599 against the Indian Nestorians. 123.

Uttamalùr, corrupted into Utmalar, a place in Carnate. 28.

Uttampàleam, a place in Madura. 31, 56.

Uttamatur, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

V.

Vadakencolam, a city in Pescaria. 31.

Vaikam (Vaikatta), a place and district belonging to the Brahmans near Cochin, with a seminary and a celebrated temple. 122.

Vaitravadi (Vetravadi), one of the largest rivers in India. 231.

Valavaley, the name of a river and place on the coast of Malabar, not far from Cape Comari. 103, 112.

Valdur, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

Valiacada (Paliacate), a place lying on the sea-coast to the north of Madras. 60.

Valiapatnam, a place on the coast of Malabar. 144.

Valiotora, a town on the coast of Travancor. 113.

Vallam, a considerable city in Tanjaur, called also Vellum. 47.

Vandavagi, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

Varugápatti, a place in Tanjaur. 65.

Vayparra, that is, the three great rocks, a town near these rocks in Pescaria. 31.

Vaypi, a small island formed on the north side of Cochin in 1341 by an eruption of the sea. 126, 127.

Vaypur (Baypur). See Sultanpatnam. 104, 118, 138.

Velarru, a river in Carnate, which falls into the sea near Portonuovo. 59.

Veli. See Canantora. 113.

Velùr, a city in Carnate. 28, 42, 60.

Veluváracotta, a place in the kingdom of Madura. 56.

Venares. See Benares. 37.

Vencàttiguiri (Vencàtighiri), a place in Carnate, where the Jesuits formerly had a residence. 28, 64.

Vepur, an insignificant place not far from Sadras. 72.

Verapole (Verapoli), a town with a monastery on the coast of Malabar. 15, 128, 137.

Vettiacòtta, an inland fortress in the kingdom of Travancor. 138.

Veyarru, a large river which flows through the kingdom of Madura and Marava. 44, 54.

Vicravandi, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

Villamur, a fortified place in the kingdom of Carnate. 63.

Villanur (Villenur), in Carnate. 28.

Vindhia (Vindhya), a mountain in which the river Rèvà has its source. 232, 234.

Virapatnam, a town not far from Pondicheri. 18.

Visapur (Visiapur, Betjapur), formerly a kingdom which, together with Velur and Golconda, was conquered by Aureng-Zeb in 1686. 42.

Y.

Yamuna, a river which takes its rise in Sirinagur, and falls into the Ganges near Allahabad. It is called also the Jumna and Dschumna. 37.

Yindacalla, a place in Madura. 64.

The End

Footnotes:

1 The title of it is: Viaggio alle Indie Orientali, umiliato alla Santità di N. S. Papa Pio Sesto, Pontefice Massimo, da Fra Paolino da S. Bartolomeo, Carmelitano Scalzo. Roma presso Antonio Fulgoni. L’anno 1796.

2 Sidharùbam, seu Grammatica Samscredamica. Romæ, 1790.—He is the author also of the following works: Systema Brahmanicum; and, India Orientalis Christiana, continens fundationes ecclesiarum, seriem episcoporum, missiones, schismata, persecutiones, viros illustres. Romæ, 1794.

3 Pondichery—Respecting the author’s orthography of names I have said a few words in the preface, to which the reader is referred. F.

4 The passage, from England or France, to India is commonly reckoned to be six months; but it depends upon circumstances whether the voyage will be longer or shorter, and particularly on the season of the year and the situation of the place to which the ship is bound. As the monsoons, or mussongs, change every half year in the Indian seas, vessels bound to a certain place must often take a long circuitous course in order to fall in with the wind proper for conducting them to it. The change of the monsoons is always attended with violent storms, by which ships in the open sea often sustain great damage. The passage to India must, of course, be often prolonged. I, however, know instances of ships going thither from Europe in five months. F.

5 In the original there is here an error, either of the author or of the press; for throughout the whole work this coast is always called afterwards Ciòlamandala (Tscholamandala). F.

6 The southern extremity of India is, in all the European maps, called Cape Comorin; the author, however, gives it the proper Indian name, Comari. F.

7 The eastern part is, without doubt, called the land of millet, because the Indians cultivate, in their fields, various kinds of that grain, such as the Holcus Sorghum, Holcus Durra, &c. F.

8 When Bougainville returned from his voyage round the world, some conceited Parisian ladies asked him how the Chinese women were dressed. On his replying that he had never been in that country, they were much astonished, and could not comprehend how it was possible to sail round the globe without being in China. Questions have been asked me and my son George, at which we could not help laughing, at least afterwards. F.

9 On the flat coast of Coromandel there are no harbours; and, for that reason, neither people nor goods can be conveyed on shore from ships, but in these shilingas. This labour is very dangerous even for such small vessels, as the flatness of the coast for so great an extent renders the breakers extremely violent. The English, in all their wars, have lost many of their ships for want of a harbour on the eastern coast; and therefore it is of the utmost importance to them to have possession of the excellent, safe, and spacious harbour of Trinconomale, on the east side of the island of Ceylon. F.

10 See Sonnerat, Voyages aux Indes, vol. i. p. 1. p. 13. Sonnerat, who was an excellent draftsman, and possessed some knowledge of natural history, came very young to India, and was hotheaded because he conceived himself to be a man of importance on account of these talents.—Law de Lauriston was a descendant or relation of Law who made himself known by his speculations under the regency of the Duke of Orleans. F.

11 We have here a striking instance of the truth of the observation, that travelling in distant countries, among people of different manners, customs, and religious opinions, tends to inspire men with more liberal sentiments, and to render them more tolerant. F.

12 The fiction respecting Hayder Aly’s mean extraction, &c. has been long ago refuted. See Sprengel’s Hyder Ali, in the preface, p. 6. F.

13 The most modern and authentic history of India shews that all the European East India Companies followed the example of the Dutch, and of merchants became warriors. F.

14 See on this subject Guyon’s Histoire de l’Indostan, vol. iii. p. 220-224, and Recherches hist. et geograph. par Anquetil du Perron, part i. p. 174.—The author here delineates the state of the French trade with strong and ugly colours; but, it cannot be denied, with a considerable degree of truth. F.

15 These animals are called improperly white ants. The appellation termites, from the Latin systematic name termes, is better. There are various kinds of them, but only in warm countries, which are all equally destructive, and occasion great devaluation, not only in sugar plantations, but also among furniture and clothes in habitations. F.

16 About 2s. 6d. sterling.

17 It is certain that the religion of Brahma has not the least similarity to the true Christian religion; it is also of such antiquity that it could not have borrowed any thing from it. Both are essentially different from each other: the principal object of the Christian religion is the moral formation and improvement of man, and it is totally spiritual; the doctrine of Brahma renders the first ideas of religion familiar to the senses by images, and allows to its followers a number of things which Christianity forbids. It cannot, however, be denied, that many of the old doctrines and practices generally adopted, particularly in the East, were received into the Catholic religion; such, for example, as the worshipping of images, solemn processions, monachism, the pretended great sanctity and the different degrees of the clergy, external pomp and magnificence, &c. The idea of the Pagan Indians, therefore, mentioned in the text, is extremely natural. F.

18 It has been remarked by English travellers, who resided in India, that these falsehoods have been believed and taught by ignorant missionaries. But are there not people, even at Rome, who consider the Indians as Manicheans, and their religion as corrupted Christianity? It may, however, be readily comprehended, that such hypothesis-mongers never saw India, or studied the religion of the Indians. See, on this subject, the Asiatic Researches, printed at Calcutta in 1788, vol. I. p. 127, and Herbelot, Bibl. Orient., p. 203, where such ridiculous assertions are sufficiently refuted. A.

19 They bear such marks in honour of Brahma, on the forehead; in honour of Vishnu, on the breast; and in honour of Shiva, on the arms. These are the three rulers of the elements—earth, water, and fire. In commemoration of the earth having been created by these three deities, and by means of these three elements, the Indians, in their lustrations, besprinkle themselves with three fingers. They take water also in the hollow of the hand, raise it upwards, and, in honour of the eight superior protecting spirits, sprinkle it towards the eight quarters of the world: they then throw it towards the heavens in honour of the Sun, whom they consider as the supreme divinity. These ablutions, with the marks on the forehead, are called Shudhamayaga; that is, purification, purity. The Bhasma, or colour with which the sacred marks are made, is supposed to represent the earth, from which the whole world, and consequently these colours, were produced. In this respect, however, the systems differ. A.

20 The latitude is not always accurately determined, even by the moderns. Thus John Hamilton Moore, in his Practical Navigator, places Puduceri, or Pondichery, in 11° 56′ N. lat.; but M. De la Tour places it in 12° N. lat. and 68° of E. lon. De l’Isle and D’Anville also differ from each other in their maps. This difference arises partly from the expertness requisite in determining the latitude by means of a quadrant, partly from the greater or less acuteness of the observer’s eye, and partly from the perfection or imperfection of the astronomical instruments employed. A.

21 See, on this subject, the second volume of Nieubuhr’s Travels, where the idols in the pagoda on the island of Elephanta are described.

22 Responsa privatis dat (Apis) e manu consulentium cibum capiendo. Germanici Cæfaris manum aversatus est, haud multo post extincti.

23 Whether the worship of the Egyptian Apis came from India, or the sacred ox of the Indians was carried from Egypt, cannot, as far as I am able to judge, be determined. The mode of worship in both countries has without doubt a great deal of similarity, though in many things different. The sacred ox of the Indians, for example, remains only three years in life; whereas that of the Egyptians, according to Plutarch, remained twenty-five, after which he was drowned, then embalmed and deposited in a subterranean burying-place destined for that purpose near the village of Abusir, the ancient Busiris, not far from Memphis. The coffin of the Apis ox was found there by Paul Lucas and Wortley Montague, the latter of whom carried away a stone with sculpture on it representing the embalming of Apis. This stone may be seen in the British Museum, to the keepers of which I first explained it. F.

24 The temple at Cirangam, in the island Ciranga, which lies in the river Colaru, or Colram, and in M. De la Tour’s map is placed in 10° 45′ N. lat. and 76° 45′ E. lon. is a real master-piece of Indian architecture. This temple is surrounded by seven walls, each of a square form, which together inclose the whole edifice. They are entirely constructed of hewn stone; are twenty-five feet in height, and each is 350 feet distant from the other in a parallel direction. Each wall has four gates, and over each gate is a gobura, or high tower, which rests on the middle of the wall, and is at an equal distance from both ends. These gates and towers, which stand exactly opposite to each other, looking towards the four cardinal points, are ornamented with columns thirty-five feet in length, and five in thickness. In the centre of this temple, that is the sanctuary, stands the image of Vishnu, to whom it is dedicated. On the gates, towers, and walls may be seen various figures of men and animals, which all have a symbolical meaning. This temple is at least 2000 years old, and serves to shew how far advanced the ancient Indians were in the arts of architecture and sculpture. The learned Chevalier d’Agincourt at Rome has in his possession a drawing of this magnificent edifice, which was presented to him by M. Law de Lauriston, the governor of Pondichery. As this temple has been already described by English travellers, I shall say nothing further of it at present, than to call the reader’s attention to the mystic number seven, which is signified by the seven inclosures. A.

25 The Egyptians, however, assert, that their king Sesostris, who lived about the time of Moses, or 1500 years before the birth of Christ, penetrated as far as India; but this is not probable. F.

26 Cachemir is a beautiful province or lordship conquered by the Moguls. The capital, at the time Bernier was in India, between 1663 and 1668, was known also by the name of Cachemir; but at present it is called, as well as the whole province, Siri-Negor. The old Caspirus is not Cachemir, but a city lying nearer to Persia; perhaps Ghazna or Ghazmin. F.

27 Cabul, one of the most northern cities of India, probably the old Argyræum. F.

28 Hastinapuri, or Hastinagari, at present Ashnagur, was formerly the chief city of the Assakani, an ancient people of India. It is not improbable that the Assyrian and Persian kings may have extended their dominions thither. F.

29 In the eighth part of his works, p. 210-218, according to the Venetian edition.

30 The Greeks were accustomed to compare with their own all the divinities of the most distant foreign nations; and a similarity in the name, or in any thing else, made them immediately find in them Grecian deities. Thus the Deva-Nishi was Dionysius; the Neith of the Egyptians, Minerva or Athene; their Serapis, Jupiter; their Horus, Apollo, &c.—The river Allakantara in La Rochette’s map of 1788 is called Allaknanda, and in Mannert’s map Allaknandra. F.

31 The village of Pallipatur lies quite close to Allahabad, the name of which is Persian, and which is of a much later origin. F.

32 A description of this observatory may be found in the Philosophical Transactions.

33 Above three millions sterling.

34 It can, however, be proved, that the English draw much more from their Indian possessions than the author says. For, in the first place, oppression is not so general as the author pretends; and besides, many abuses were rectified by the marquis of Cornwallis. 2dly, In Bengal, from which the English derive their greatest incomes, there has properly been no war for a long time. 3dly, The East India Company has issued orders and formed regulations for reviving agriculture and manufactures. 4thly, The monopoly is not very prejudicial, as it extends only to a few articles. 5thly, The specie exported to China and England has been in part made good by the large sums which Tippoo Saib has been obliged to pay to the East India Company. In a word, the English, by their late conquests in India, Ceylon, Malacca, Amboina, Banda, &c. have considerably enlarged their revenue. F.

35 Sir William Jones, in one of his anniversary discourses, says, “It seems agreed that the singular people called Egyptians, and by corruption Gypsies, passed the Mediterranean immediately from Egypt: and their motely language, of which Mr. Grellman exhibits a copious vocabulary, contains so many Sanscrit words, that their Indian origin can hardly be doubted. The authenticity of that vocabulary seems established by a multitude of Gypsy words; as angár, charcoal; cásth, wood; pár, a bank; bhû, earth; and a hundred more, for which the collector of them could find no parallel in the vulgar dialect of Hindostan, though we know them to be pure Sanscrit, scarcely changed in a single letter. A very ingenious friend, to whom this remarkable fact was imparted, suggested to me that those very words might have been taken from old Egyptian, and that the Gypsies were Troglodytes from the rocks near Thebes, where a race of banditti still resemble them in their habits and features; but, as we have no other evidence of so strong an affinity between the popular dialects of old Egypt and India, it seems more probable that the Gypsies, whom the Italians call Zingaros and Zinganos, were no other than Zinganians, as M. D’Anville also writes the word, who might, in some piratical expedition, have landed on the coast of Arabia or Africa, whence they might have rambled to Egypt, and at length might have migrated or been driven into Europe.” Asiatic Researches, vol. iii. p. 8. E. Trans.

36 See Montesquieu’s Works. London 1777, vol. i. p. 180.

37 This nabob of Arcate or Arcot, is merely a nominal prince. His whole territories are beset with English troops; and he is suffered to exist, as is the case with many others, merely that it may appear as if the country were actually ruled by native Indian or at least Oriental princes. F.

38 The author here means, without doubt, Mr. Christian Frederick Schwarz, missionary at Tanjaur, sent thither by the English Society for promoting Christian knowledge. This missionary, in the 51st part of the New History of the Evangelic Missionary Establishments in India, p. 275-284, has defended the newly-converted Christians there against the illiberal accusations of Secretary Montgomery Campbell, and clearly shewn that the avaricious British commissaries, by their oppression and extortion, are the cause of the poverty of the country and of the wretched state of agriculture.—The author calls Mr. Schwarz a Dane. He has probably been led into this mistake by his connection with the Danish missionaries at Tranquebar; for, as far as I know, Mr. Schwarz is a German. F.

39 Tapissendis is a general name given to the cotton stuffs procured from India. They are partly painted and partly printed with wooden blocks. Gingam is properly the name given to those cotton stuffs which come from Bengal and the coast of Coromandel. They are distinguished by this particular circumstance, that a thread made from the bark of a tree is interwoven with the cotton. A.

This information respecting the difference between the Tapissendis and Gingams is new. It is, however, a pity that the author did not give the name of the tree which produces the bark employed in manufacturing the latter. Had he made it known, he would have deserved thanks from all naturalists and technologists.—In Madagascar, the inhabitants of the sea-coast manufacture, from the long leaves of a tree called by them Vattulala, but which is no farther known to botanists, a kind of very strong stuffs, sometimes as fine as the best camblet, and frequently employed by the women at the Cape of Good Hope to make under-petticoats. F.

40 Tirunaveli, near the fortress Palamotta, is called also, on the modern maps, Tinivelly. F.

41 It was a part of the political system of the ancient Indian kings, that they never entered the territories of their neighbours in a hostile manner but upon the most urgent occasions. If they could not possibly avoid it, they at least suffered the people employed in agriculture to remain at peace, and molested neither their temples nor their priests. We are told so by Strabo, and by Adrian in his History of Alexander’s Expedition to India. The policy of the Mahometan conquerors and their allies in India has, on the contrary, been, as far as they were able, to reduce the mightiest sovereigns and kingdoms to obedience, and to endeavour to govern the latter themselves; to leave on the throne only the weakest princes, and to render them tributary; to foment quarrels between them, or bring about a reconciliation according as it suited their interest; never to undertake more than one war at a time; to allow religious liberty in its full extent only to their allies, and to suffer them alone to retain their ancient usages and customs; to take part always with one or other of two contending parties, and in that manner to increase their power; lastly, to furnish their allies with officers to command their troops. Ossa vides regum vacuis exhausta medullis. In this manner they suck the very marrow from the bones of kings, says Juvenal in his eighth satire. A.

42 The kingdom of Carnate must certainly have enjoyed a long state of peaceful prosperity under its native kings. This we have reason to conclude from the extensive pagodas, regularly built with art and a sort of magnificence, which are found in it; and also from the many old castles and fortified towns on the borders of the kingdom, and in the passes which conduct through the mountains called the Gauts. The duration of the ancient buildings, for so many centuries, may be explained by the nature of the mortar used in India, which is a mixture of oil and viscous substances, and by the dry warm climate. The Mahometan princes first brought poverty into this country, formerly so fortunate; and what they began the Europeans completed, by carrying thither as soldiers the refuse of all nations. F.

43 See the bull of Clement VIII. of the year 1600, which begins thus: In supremo militantis ecclesiæ solio. Also that of Clement X. issued on the 7th of June 1674. A.

44 This estimation of the number of the Roman Catholic Christians (48,000) is certainly too high, even if we should forget how the missionaries of the Romish church behave in regard to their so called converts. They insinuate themselves as physicians into the houses of the Indians; draw a wet cloth over the head and forehead of a sick person, even when at the point of death; mutter privately to themselves the baptism service; and think they have then made one Christian more, who is immediately added to their list.—The protestant missionaries have in the course of nineteen years baptised 19,340 persons. See Neuere Geschichte der evangelischen Missions-anstalten, 51st part, Halle 1797, 4to. p. 187. F.

45 In warm countries sensuality is more active, and the imagination more lively; and therefore the usages of the Catholic church must have greater effect on the Indians, who, when they become members of it, imagine that they only leave one idolatrous worship to embrace another. F.

46 The Tschuderies, or resting-places in India, are indeed beneficent establishments, but not to be compared with the large and elegant caravanseries in Persia and Turkey. Each, however, are suited to the nature of the country in which they are found. India is extremely populous, whereas in Persia and Turkey there are immense wilds and deserts, totally destitute of inhabitants. In the latter countries, merchants, for the sake of security, must travel in large bodies, and therefore require for themselves, their merchandize and cattle, resting-places of greater extent. F.

47 I must, however, confess that I have been sometimes robbed: but the Kuli, or other poor Indians, never took any thing else from me than liquor or provisions, which they found necessary for their support. As they are always satisfied with little, it may be readily comprehended that what they purloined was of no great value. During a residence of thirteen or fourteen years in India I never heard of any traveller being robbed or murdered on the highway. A.——Travelling is not equally secure in every part of India. In the peninsula on this side the Ganges, Bengal and Oude, as far as the power of the English extends, there is nothing to be feared; but in the mountains, and farther towards the north-west, the same safety does not prevail. F.

48 The Caida, or Kayda, is the Kenra of Forskäl, or the Pandamùs odoratissima of Linnæus. On account of the similarity in the leaves, it has been called also Bromelia. The natives of Otaheite cover their houses with it. The farina of the male flowers is used as a perfume. F.

49 The Indians divide good works into Gnana and Karma: Under the former appellation they comprehend wisdom, meditation, and internal spiritual employment. Karma, on the other hand, signifies practice, external exercise. Meditation and spiritual works are the occupation of the philosophers, particularly the Budhists. The Karma, however, or external good works, such as prayer, lustrations, offerings, and the like, are confined by the Brahman priests merely to the common people. A.

50 According to Stevens the Tical is equal to a Rupee. E. T.
51 This sovereign died 56 years before the birth of Christ. A.
52 A Paolo is worth about 6d. sterling; and ten Bajocchi make a Paolo.

53 The author’s information respecting the coins, measures and weights in the different parts of India is without doubt useful, and of great importance to those who wish to be acquainted with the Indian trade; but a fuller account of them may be found in Stephen’s Guide to the Trade of India, and, if I am not mistaken, in a volume of the Transactions of the Batavian Society. F.

54 It is very singular to find people in the eighteenth century bringing forward evidence to prove that the apostle Thomas was stoned to death and interred, seventeen hundred years ago, at Mailapuri or St. Thomas. The Mar Thomas, of whom there are so many traditionary accounts in India, was probably Thomas Cana, an Armenian, who must have gone to India before the sixth century, and have there diffused the doctrines of Christianity among his own followers. In the year 822 two Nestorian priests from Syria, called Mar Sapor and Mar Parges, went from Babylon to India, and landed at Coulan. The Indian princes granted extensive privileges to the Christians of Mar Thomas, and to the two priests from Babylon, by which they were raised above the Nairs, or Malabar nobility. These privileges were engraven on plates of copper, and it is believed were not long ago extant somewhere in India. The archbishop of Goa, Alexis de Menezes, a despotic enthusiast, endeavoured, in 1599, in a synod at Diamper, to unite the Nestorian Christians with the Romish church, and burnt all their books and papers; but they still exist as a distinct sect. See La Crozes View of the State of the Church in India. The German translation is fuller than the French original, because the author supplied the translator with a great many important improvements and additions. F.

55 Some curious particulars respecting this practice may be seen in a paper on the duties of a faithful Hindu widow, by Henry Colebroke, Esq. in the 4th vol. of Dissertations and Miscellaneous Pieces relating to the History, Antiquities, &c. of Asia, reprinted for Vernor and Hood, 1798. E. T.

56 See a full account of these sculptures and ruins by William Chambers, Esq. in the first volume Asiatic Researches, reprinted for Vernor and Hood, 1798. E. T.

57 The oldest pagodas in India, and a great many of the ancient Egyptian temples, are cut out in the solid rock. This mode of architecture, peculiar to the oldest nations, was derived from the nature of their own dwellings. It is probable that the first men lived in mountainous districts, and that holes or cavities in the earth, partly natural and partly formed by art, were their earliest habitations. The Troglodytes, that is, the inhabiters of holes, dug out places of the like kind for performing their religious worship. At later periods they ventured to quit the mountains to reside on low hills and plains; and, that they might not suffer from inundations, to build houses and towns on artificial eminences, and to dig canals and ditches in order to procure earth for making these artificial mounts. In places destitute of stones they built habitations of brick dried in the sun, which they cemented together by means of lime, bitumen, and other substances. It was not till periods much later that burnt bricks and cut stone began to be employed for building temples and palaces. F.

58 All rivers which have their sources in high mountainous districts generally flow with great impetuosity after heavy rains, so that it is sometimes dangerous, if not impossible, to cross them. Various instances of the truth of this observation may be found in Vaillant’s Travels into the interior Parts of Africa. F.

59 It is, indeed, worthy of remark, that the many petty princes on the Malabar coast have maintained their independence, notwithstanding the great revolutions by which the whole face of India has been changed, and though each singly was not sufficiently powerful to withstand a formidable enemy, and though they are seldom in such a state of friendship with each other as to oppose with united forces any antagonist that might attack them from the north and the east. The author explains this phenomenon very properly. The conquest of these small states is, however, possible: 1st, by fomenting quarrels between the princes, and then espousing the cause of one of the parties: 2d, by establishing strong posts and erecting fortresses in the defiles of the mountains and places where the rivers are fordable: 3d, by employing artillery and troops acquainted with the European discipline. The last method was employed by Tippoo Saib, in order to reduce some places on the sea coast. F.

60 The Mahometan Arabs, who, under the Caliph Valid, established themselves on the coast of Malabar, and in the northern part of India, are at present commonly called Moors. The Patans, or, as they are otherwise called, Afgans or Afguans, have nothing in common with these Arabs but their religion. They are a branch of the Albanians from Mount Caucasus, as has been already remarked by Gœrber and Dr. Reineggs, or Ehlich. The Armenians cannot pronounce the letter l in the middle of a word, and therefore they call the Albans or Alwans Aghwans. These aborigines of the Caucasian territories were known to the ancient writers, Strabo, Pliny, Ammianus Marcellinus, and Dio Cassius. According to the last-mentioned author they extended themselves from the Tanais (Don) to the Ganges. These people, who had thus wandered as far as India, were subdued by the Saracens, and converted to the Mahometan Religion by the sword, but they afterwards recovered their independence. Some of these Patan chiefs founded in the neighbourhood of Delhi small principalities; others penetrated into the Decan, and made themselves masters of small provinces, which have been since taken from them by Nizam Aly, the Marattas, and Tippoo Saib. Even the Rohillas are a race descended from the Patans. See Edwards’s Memoir of a Map comprehending the countries between the Black Sea and the Caspian. London 1788, p. 6. and M. C. Sprengel’s Allgem. Hist. Taschenbuch. Berlin 1786. F.

61 This account of the Jews on the Malabar coast is partly incomplete, and partly doubtful. We know something more certain respecting the Jews at Cochin, by M. Adrian Moens, governor and director of the Dutch East India Company on that coast, which has been published in Busching’s Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 123-154. The Jews on the Malabar coast are distinguished into two kinds, white and black. The former, in their synagogue near Cochin, have two oblong square plates of copper, containing old Malabar writing in lines that run across them, and in a mixed dialect of the Malabar, Tamulic, and Tulengic languages. The subject of this writing is a charter granted to Isup Rabbaan at Cranganor, by Erawi Wanmara emperor of Malabar, in the year from Kalijogam 3481 (that is 426 after the birth of Christ), and in the thirty-sixth year of his reign, in virtue of which he confirmed to Isup Rabbaan (Joseph Rabbi) the same privileges as had been before enjoyed by the petty Malabar viceroys. “He and the seventy-two families (related probably to each other) were to enjoy them as long as the sun should illuminate the earth; but all other Jews and their descendants were to be obedient to his commands, and to those of his successors.”—In a Portuguese book, Notisias dos Judeos de Cochim, printed at Amsterdam in 1681, it is said: In the year of the world 4130, according to the Jewish mode of computation (that is 369 years after the birth of Christ), seventy or eighty thousand Jews were landed from the kingdom of Majorca on the coast of Malabar. Now, as the Balearic islands were subdued by the Vandals exactly in the year 425 after the birth of Christ, it is probable that the Jews who were settled there removed to Jerusalem and Egypt; and being supported by their Jewish brethren, were conveyed thence by sea to India, in the year 426 of the Christian æra. Their number, however, may perhaps not have been so great. These Jews established themselves in Cranganor and the neighbouring districts, and founded a small kingdom. They purchased slaves, particularly black ones, and converted them, as well as several more of the natives, to their religion. These new converts gave rise to the black Jews, who wished to enjoy the same privileges as the white, and to unite themselves with them by intermarriages. As their claims were not allowed, they disowned the authority of the white Jews and of their king; and a war was the consequence, in which the latter were almost destroyed. They were, however, assisted by the prince of the country, and the black Jews were again reduced to obedience. After that period the black and white Jews had distinct synagogues, and lived apart from each other. Two brothers of the royal race ruled in common; but they afterwards separated, and the native princes raised a violent persecution against the Jews. They were so much oppressed by the Portuguese at Cranganor, that they were obliged, in 1565, to solicit the protection of the king of Cochin, near which city they still reside. The ancient royal race, and the descendants of those who went to India before the year 1371, are totally extinct. The white Jews, who reside near Cochin at present, went to India at later periods, from Palestine, Persia, Constantinople, Bagdad and Egypt, and even from England, Poland, Germany, Spain and Holland. The black Jews are the descendants of the ancient race above mentioned. Their books are according to the Spanish ritual, and they procure them from Amsterdam. They have nine synagogues, and consist of about 460 families, who amount perhaps to 3000 or 4000 persons. F.

62 A full account of the migration, incursions, wars, revolutions, laws and manners of those foreign nations who established themselves in India, may be seen in the writings of Hyde, Texeira, Renaudot, Barros, the Abbe Guyon, Raynal, St. Lubin, Anquetil du Perron, and in the lives of Tamerlane and Thamas Kuli Khan; also in the Persian books Vakiat-Babri, Monte-Keb-el-Tarik, Akbar Nama, and Magir-Gehan Guiri, which are to be found partly in the library at Paris, and partly in that of Mr. Samuel Guise. A.

63 These philosophers are called properly Joqui; from Joga, community; under which name is understood people who have every thing in common. In the Samscred they are named Gòsuàmi, from Go a cow, and Suami a lord; consequently lords of the cow: for they are accustomed to besprinkle and paint their bodies with dried cow’s dung. They are known also by a more ancient Samscred name, viz. Samanà or Shamanà, that is, the Mild; for they kill no animal, cut no plants, and never eat fish, but feed merely on rice, wild herbs, roots and fruit. They live together in company, under a common chief or teacher, who in the Samscred is called Guru. As true gymnosophists, they go quite naked, and sleep on the ground, having nothing under them but mats made of palm leaves interwoven with each other. They avoid all intercourse with the world; study philosophy, theogony, botany and astronomy, and have written a great many treatises on these sciences in the Indian languages. They are real stoics, and often impose upon themselves the severest penances. They are mentioned by Cicero, Plutarch, Clemens of Alexandria, and Arrian. The last author says, besides other things respecting them, that they were accustomed to walk down into the sea at Cape Comari, in order to purify themselves;—a custom which they have retained to this day. A.——These Dschoqui or Jogui are therefore the followers of the old Indian philosophers called Samanæi. Because they went naked, they were called by the Greeks gymnosophists, that is, naked philosophers. F.

64 This conduct of Fra Paolino seems rather unevangelical and harsh, and to have been somewhat in the style of a Boanerges, or those sons of thunder who wished to call down fire immediately from heaven. Our zealous monk procured full power from the magistrate in order to execute his inquisitorial sentence. This, no doubt, cost him a considerable sum of money, and must have been charged under the head of secret service. Instead of advice and admonition, the monk administered a sound beating! This may properly be called obeying the command: Compelle illos intrare! The other means by which the Indians are converted to the Catholic religion, are no doubt of the same kind as this church discipline. F.

65 An account of the violent measures as well as arts employed by the Romish Church to make the Nestorians in India unite themselves to it, may be seen in the work published by the ingenious and learned La Croze on the state of Christianity in that country. The above-mentioned synod at Diemper or Udiamper, at which the violent, enthusiastic, and despotic Alexis de Menezes effected a pretended union of the Christians of St. Thomas, is a real and lasting monument of shame for the Romish Church. It is impossible to read the history of it without the most affecting sensations, and without being sensible that the spirit of enthusiasm is always combined with ignorance and the most striking barbarity. Since the reformation the Romish Church has exhibited very little of its former violence, and some of its members have learned to know the importance of ancient monuments, particularly those of Eastern Christianity. This is sufficiently shewn by Assemanni and Renaudot in their writings, and by the valuable collections of the noble Cardinal Borgia at Velitri. F.

66 The decline of the Nestorian monasteries on the coast of Malabar was not occasioned merely by the establishment of the Portuguese in that country, but by the furious persecuting spirit and the violent conduct of the Portuguese clergy. The mild beneficent teachers of the Christians of St. Thomas were either compelled to join the Romish Church, or suffered to become extinct; as it was impossible for new ecclesiastics or monks to go to India from Persia, or the Persian gulph, where the Portuguese at that time had great power. Afterwards, indeed, when the Dutch got the better of the Portuguese, Syrian and Nestorian ecclesiastics went from Persia and Antioch to India; but these priests, who belonged to different sects, were always at variance with each other. See Relatio historica ad Epistolam Syriacam a Maha Thome, i. e. Magna Thoma Indo, antiquorum Syrorum in India Episcopo, ex Chaddenad in Malabaria scriptam ad Ignatium Patriarcham Antiochenum, et ipsa illa Episcopi Indi Epistola Syriaca, cum Versione Latina, &c. accurante Carolo Schaaf. Lugduni Batavorum, 1714. 4to. F.

67 The two kinds of potatoes here mentioned by the author do not probably belong to the real species of the potatoe, solanum, but to some other vegetable production of the like kind, such as the Dioscorea alata L., the exterior skin of which is black, but the internal pulpy part, when roasted in the ashes, is white, or of a purple colour. The round potatoes may be a kind of the Spanish potatoes, Convolvulus Batatas, or the gold-coloured root of the Convolvulus Chrysorrhizus, which is not only cultivated, but grows wild also in the islands of the South Sea, and which has been described by my son George in his Treatise De Plantis Esculentis Insularum Maris Pacifici. The Convolvulus Batatas was carried from America by the Spaniards to the Philippines and neighbouring islands; and on that account the plant there is called Castile, because it was first introduced by the Castilians or Spaniards. F.

68 That in the impenetrable forests of the Gauts there are wild elephants, is well known; but the people on the sea-coast content themselves with those of Ceylon, which are more docile, and easier to be tamed.—It may be readily seen by the wild buffaloes that this is the original country of these animals, which were first brought from India ta Italy in the time of Agilulph king of Lombardy, between the years 591 and 616.—The deer mentioned by the author form probably more than one kind. India produces, 1st, the Cervus Axis L. or the spotted deer, which is somewhat larger than our fallow deer. 2d, The porcine deer, Cervus Porcinus L. brown with round white spots, and from two feet four inches to three feet and a half in height. 3d, The elk, Cervus Alce L. Professor Zimmerman, however, in his Zoological Geography, does not allow the elk, or rein-deer, to be an inhabitant beyond the 50th degree of north latitude; but the former has been bold enough to overstep the boundaries which he has drawn on his chart, and has penetrated to the woody, marshy, solitary valleys of India. See Essais philosophiques sur les Moeurs de divers Animaux étrangers, par Foucher D’Obsonville, p. 115. In the same work much information may be obtained respecting the black and white kinds of apes, which inhabit the Indian forests in flocks of thousands.—The real Indian striped (not spotted) tyger, which is from nine to ten feet in length, and from four to four and a half in height, is not common even in India, and is to be found only in the thickest forests. He gives place to no animals but the lion, elephant, and rhinoceros.—The Indian parrots are, in a literal sense, almost innumerable, for every traveller brings home new kinds to Europe. The old Grecian name ψιττακη, seems to be of Egyptian origin: Π-ϹΙΤΤΑΚΗ. The Π is an article: the Germans, therefore, have omitted it, and converted the word into Sittich. F.

69 Many instances may be found, both in ancient and modern history, of great changes having been produced on the surface of the earth, and on the coasts of the ocean, by hurricanes and earthquakes, as well as by the waters of the sea and by rivers. That piece of water, known by the name of the Dead Sea, arose by a fiery eruption from the earth; and in Egypt, along the northern bank of the Delta, and on both sides, there are large lakes, particularly the lakes Mœris and Serbau, which were indebted for their origin to storms, earthquakes, and inundations of the Nile. In Peloponnesus, or the present Morea, the cities of Helice, Bura, and some others in Achaia, were swallowed up by the sea, two years before the battle of Leuctra. Even in the eighteenth century, Callao in Peru was overwhelmed, and, with all its houses, inhabitants, and the ships in the harbour, became a prey to the waves of the ocean. The great changes effected by the earthquake in Calabria, are still fresh in the memory of every one: during that horrid catastrophe whole mountains and rocks were precipitated into the sea. F.

70 The low inundated land at the bottom of the Gauts, which consists of marl or clay and strata of chalk, together with the higher strata where the mountains are steep towards the sea, being violently torn away in the rainy season by the streams and currents collected in the mountains, form, at their influx into the sea, banks and accumulations which are still raised higher, and are driven back by the sea towards the land. In this manner are formed plains, islands, and little hills; the origin of which can, in this manner, be very naturally explained. F.

71 In the time of the Romans a freedman of Annius Plocanus experienced a similar fate. See Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. vi. c. 22. A.

72 More information respecting Cochin may be found in Philip Baldæus’s Description of the Coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, Amsterdam 1672, fol. p. 111-136; Francis Valentin’s Beschryving van’t Nederlandsch Comptoir op de Kust van Malabar, Amst. 1726. fol. in the fifth part of his Oude en Niewe Oost-Indien; and in Hamilton’s New Account of the East Indies, from 1688 to 1723. Lond. vol. I. and II, 1739. 8vo. p. 321, &c. F.

73 The reproaches thrown out by the Protestants against the celibacy of the Catholic clergy is so far right, as that state gives rise to immoral conduct and dissipation, of which too many instances may be found, both among the higher and lower clergy of the Romish church. The immorality, however, of the English and Dutch is no less worthy of censure. F.

74 See Istoria della Vita e Fatti illustri del Ven. Monsign. Giuseppe di S. Maria de’ Sebastiani. Roma 1719. l. xi. p. 254. where these excesses are particularly described. A.

75 In the map published by Faden, in 1788, entitled The Southern Countries of India from Madras to Cape Comorin, by Capt. Wersebe, this place is called Tripunctare.

76 It is no wonder that the native princes should endeavour to lay the trade open to foreign nations, when the merchants of the neighbouring factories raise the price of their own goods, and pay as little as they can for those of India. These monopolies must, in the end, induce the petty princes of India to adopt wiser regulations, more conducive to the prosperity of their dominions. The English even, though so powerful at present in that country, must excite the hatred of the natives and princes if they do not alter their conduct. F.

77 Respecting the ancient state of Cranganor, the reader may consult the before-mentioned works of Baldæus, Valentin, and Hamilton. In regard to its present condition, I know as little as the author. F.

78 On the before-mentioned map of Capt. Wersebe this place is called Gnareca. F.

79 On Wersebe’s map Palipuram is called Paliporto; Aycotta, Aicotta, or Chuvocat; and Paravur is named Parour. F.

80 We know from various accounts, published by the English and the missionaries, with what cruelty the followers of the Brahman religion were treated by the inhuman Tippoo Sultan, and in what manner he endeavoured by the rack and famine to make them embrace the Mahometan faith. He was, however, deprived of a full third of his dominions, which he had enlarged by robbery; and he is now closely watched, to prevent him from entering into any treaty of alliance with the other Indian powers, or from disturbing the tranquillity of India. F.

81 That pirates formerly resided in the neighbourhood of Mount Illi, which is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of ΕΛΑΓΚΩΝ, or EΛIΓKΩΝ, as an emporium, or place of trade, and that even in the present century the pirate Angria had established himself on this coast, is well known. For an account of Angria, see Clement Downing’s History of the Indian Wars, with an Account of Angria the Pyrate. London 1737, 8vo. The appellation of Molandis given to these sea-robbers is to me entirely new. F.

82 All the Indian languages and characters used on this side the Ganges, seem to be derived from the Samscred: and even the religious ideas of the natives are only here and there modified in a different manner. The Indian literature, branched out into so many languages, merely on account of the great extent of the country, was introduced at the same time as its religious worship. F.

83 That the post has been introduced into India, and distinguished by the name of Angelà, was before unknown. A kind of post was established formerly in Persia. Certain persons, employed by the king for carrying letters, small articles, and dispatches, and who were called Αγγαροι (Angari), had a right to require of all those whom they met to remove out of their way; to take from them horses, ships, and carriages, &c.; and to compel the owners themselves to carry burdens. This compulsive service the Greeks distinguished by the name of Αγγαρειον, a word derived from the Persian, which is to be found in the New Testament, Matth. xxvii. This old Persian word, Angaros, seems to have an affinity to the Indian word Angelà; and it is not improbable that the Persians borrowed their establishment of the post from the Indians, or the latter theirs from the Persians. I am almost inclined to think that it was first introduced among the Indians. The above-mentioned couriers are called in Persia, at present, Tschaptar, that is, those who ride on a full gallop. F.

84 This population, in a country so small as the coast of Malabar, or Malayala, is undoubtedly very great. About forty coss or Malabar miles make a degree. This coast, therefore, contains at most 450 geographical square miles, and to each of these there are consequently almost 3703 persons. In other parts of India a far greater number of persons live on a square mile; but we must take into consideration the mountains, forests, lakes and rivers in Malabar, and also the devastation occasioned in the country by the merciless Tippoo Saib. F.

85 The author ought not to have called milk, butter and coco-nut oil food easy of digestion. The continual use of milk renders it at length very heavy for the stomachs of most people. The fat parts of butter and coco-nut oil are indigestible; and as the acid parts of fat separate from it, this acid attacks the stomach and the bowels. Now the Indians use no flesh, which contains abundance of alkaline parts, and therefore the acid cannot be neutralised by these parts. It is, however, true in general, that the great moderation of the Indians, though indeed often occasioned by want, contributes greatly to their healthfulness. That such moderation promotes the generative powers is very doubtful. F.

86 Monogamy, the great care employed by parents to get their daughters married, the want of nunneries, the great honour in which marriage is held in India, and the little expence required for educating and clothing children, are the real causes of the increase of population in that country. Even among us the middle and lower classes would produce more children were they not afraid of the expences of education. F.

87 I have, in general, observed, that the small-pox are malignant where the body, in order to prevent perspiration, is frequently rubbed over with fat or oily substances. Dirtiness, immoderation, or luxury in eating and drinking, and particularly the use of heating things, greatly increase the malignity of the disease. A confirmation of what I have here asserted, may be found in America, at the Cape of Good Hope, in Africa among the Negroes, and among the Calmucks in Russia. Among people who employ the warm bath, as the Russians, Turks, Persians, &c. the small-pox are less malignant. F.

88 That the polygamy of the Mahometans and Indians of higher rank does not contribute to population is certain: for, 1st, polygamy deprives many a male of a female; 2d, it occasions more female children to be born, and consequently destroys the true proportion so well suited to monogamy.—Perhaps the polyandria of the women among the Nayrs causes more males to be brought into the world, and thus supplies the deficiency.

89 It is well known, that the ancient Greek authors have observed, in regard to the Indian literati and persons of rank, that they lived in woods, and places planted with palm-trees.—The intelligent reader will here recollect Otaheite, where those who are under no necessity of exposing themselves to the sun and the sea air, have a pale-brown colour, inclining to yellow; and where the complexion of the most beautiful women approaches nearer to the colour of the Europeans than that of the men, so that an agreeable ruddiness can be seen to flush in their cheeks when they are animated. The Tautaus, or labouring class, are much browner; so that one might believe they belong to another race. F.

90 Bruce also, during his travels through Arabia, observed that the women soon acquired every mark of old age, and that they left off child-bearing at an early period. This, perhaps, has given rise to polygamy in Arabia. F.

91 There are various reasons which prevent the Indians from imitating the household furniture and cooking utensils of the Europeans. The poorer sort of people cannot do it, on account of their circumstances; and the rich will not, because they hate and detest the whites, by whom they are oppressed. Besides, many of the European customs, articles of furniture, &c. are not suited to the climate of India. The attachment of the Indians to every thing handed down to them by their ancestors, arises from that pride prevalent among all little cultivated nations, who, like the Chinese for example, consider what they themselves possess as the best in the world. F.

92 The object of agriculture in India is almost exclusively rice, and that kind of it the growth and increase of which are particularly promoted by inundating the fields. As the chief point is to devise proper means for watering the land, the large rivers have been divided into small streams, and conducted by ditches and canals to the nearest plains. When the rivers are not swelled up by abundant rains, so as to overflow their banks, the water is raised by machines put in motion by men or oxen; or large reservoirs are formed, which the Europeans call Tangs or Tanks. In these reservoirs the rain water, which pours down in torrents during the time of the monsoons, is collected, and afterwards conveyed through different channels to the rice fields. A great deal of sesamum is sown on account of its oil; and poppies, particularly in Bengal, are cultivated, in order to produce opium. Millet, maize, and the kind of rice which grows in dry soil, are less generally cultivated. Rice, when freed from the husk, is called Nella. Every Indian has in his house a wooden mortar and pestle for reducing it to that state.—Horticulture, in India, consists only in planting certain portions of ground with palms and different kinds of fruit trees. The fruits are figs, oranges, lemons, pomegranates, &c. The coco, areca, and butter-palms are the trees most common in gardens: roses, jasmin, and different kinds of lilies, are reared on account of their smell.—Botany is comprehended only in the Upaveda books, written in the earliest periods, in the Samscred language; one division of which, the Adschurveda, gives an account of the uses of the Indian plants, together with the method of cultivating them. This part of the sacred books is, however, studied by very few of the learned Brahmans. It is not improbable that it contains a number of observations carefully made and collected in the most remote ages, though it may readily be supposed that a great deal of useless and superstitious matter must be interspersed throughout them; for every plant and flower is dedicated to one or more of the Indian deities. Lovers in India have the art, as may be seen in the play called Sacontala, to express various ideas by flowers, and by the method of arranging them, or interweaving them into garlands; and this art is, no doubt, taught in the before-mentioned work.—Hunting is the occupation of great men and princes, who employ, for that purpose, tamed leopards (Tschittahs), falcons, dogs, nets, and a great number of attendants.—Fishing is the employment only of the Mucoas, or persons of the meanest and lowest classes.—The architecture of the Indians, in their large public buildings, and particularly those devoted to religious worship, or the sciences, such for example as observatories, is far from being contemptible. Their cement, with which they mix oil, is durable, and almost indestructible. Their style in their oldest edifices, such as the temple of Elephanta at Bombay, has a great likeness to the Egyptian. Whether the Indians were taught architecture by the Egyptians, or the Egyptians by the Indians, will always remain doubtful, until better and more decisive proofs are produced to determine the question. F.

93 The Teka wood (Tectona grandis Linn. Gmel.) employed in India for building houses and ships, is indeed strong and durable; but the dry climate of that country is one of the chief causes why edifices constructed of such timber stand so long. The common people in India build houses of mud and loam, the walls of which are infested by centipedes (Scolopendræ), scorpions, and snakes; so that it is not only unpleasant, but dangerous, to reside in them. F.

94 Such readers as are acquainted with the different voyages to the South Seas, will here be struck with the similarity between the Indian manners and those of the natives of Otaheite. F.

95 The great respect paid to superiors and preceptors among the Indian nations, shows that they possess a certain degree of cultivation, and a delicate sense of moral obligation and gratitude. F.

96 Since the English have taken from the Dutch the island of Ceylon (Singhala), and got possession of the real cinnamon tree, Laurus cinnamomum Linn. they will make little or no use of the Malabar cinnamon, Laurus cassia Linn. which is perhaps only a variety of that of Ceylon. The Malabar cinnamon will in time be totally forgotten and banished from commerce; as the real cinnamon tree, as well as those which produce nutmegs and cloves, have been raised from the seed, and planted several years ago in the isles of Reunion and France (Bourbon and Mauritius), and also in the Sechelle isles, Guadaloupe, Jamaica, and the northern Circars. This much is certain, that the Malabar cinnamon has not so aromatic a smell, and does not contain so many particles of ethereal oil, as that of Ceylon. The former, hitherto, has been imported to England only through necessity, in order to prevent the sale of the latter. F.

97 A lack amounts to about 12,500 l. sterling.

98 Kings of the first, rank were, the Samuri, and Perumpadapil, or the king of Cochin. To the second rank belonged the kings of Tannur, Codungalur, Parpurangàri, Airur, Cannanur, Edapallì or Rapolim, Cajamcollam, Temàli, Parur, Punettur, Alangatta, Angamàli, and Ayanicurra, Those of the third rank were called Karttàva, that is, princes or lords. Such were the Karttàva of Panamucatta, Nandielette, Ciangracòtta, Puducòtta, Maprànam, Muriata, Cunateri, Codacèri, Cettatur, Puttenpidia, Curumbilaga, and Cettuà. Several of these petty princes and lords still existed at the time I arrived in Malabar. A.

99 This information is of the utmost importance to the modern history of India; and the author is entitled to thanks for having communicated it to the public. F.

100 It is here evident, that confounding the different casts was assigned as a reason by the Roman Catholic clergy, why women of the inferior casts, who differed themselves to be kept as concubines, by Nayrs of the higher casts, ought to be punished. By these means they supported a Pagan custom, totally inconsistent with the spirit of true Christianity, which considers all mankind as children of the same father. This syncretism of the Pagan and the Christian religion has at all times been allowed by the church of Rome. In China, for example, the Jesuits declared the heavens to be a divinity, and permitted their adherents to worship it, as well as allowed different kinds of oblations. F.

101 That the Christians on the coast of Malabar received their first teachers, as well as their religious notions, customs and expressions from the Syrio-Nestorian Christians at Bagdad and Basra (Bassora), has been fully proved by La Croze, in his State of the Indian Church. The deviations from the Roman Catholic Church, here mentioned, may serve to shew how many innovations it has gradually made in the Christian worship without the least necessity. F.

102 Of this Alexis de Menesez, or Menezes, I have already spoken in the note, p. 91. The acts of the council of Udiamper, which are extremely scarce, clearly shew that this archbishop was a violent overbearing man. It cannot excite any surprise, that people united by force to the Romish church should make themselves independent as soon as they could. F.

103 This conduct, in regard to the re-admission of excommunicated persons into the Church, is extremely partial. Those who are rich, are merely fined. A great many of the Roman Catholic clergy, who are as avaricious as they are fond of power, behave in the same manner. F.

104 These Agapæ have been retained also in the Greek church, and Christians of other sects are readily admitted to them. F.

105 Making provision for young women in poor circumstances is indeed praise-worthy. Were this conduct imitated by the Christians of the west, many a destitute girl would be saved from prostitution. F.

106 The Romish Church is acquainted with no other means than force to retain men in its bosom. If the clergy do not possess this force themselves, they procure by money or flattery the support of the Pagan priests, in order to punish those who think too freely or see too clearly. F.

107 It is a very just observation, that since the establishment of Christianity, nothing has contributed so much to its propagation, as the singing of sacred hymns and songs. Even in the New Testament, Eph. v. 19. we find some traces of church-singing; and Pliny the younger, in one of his letters to the emperor Trajan, informs him that the Christians sung hymns in their religious assemblies. Arius, by his talent for composing harmonious verses, and his tender pathetic songs, gained over many Christians to his party. It is also well known, that the Moravian brethren, or Hernhuters, as they are called, gain many partisans by their soft and agreeable melody. This circumstance may be easily accounted for by the effects produced on the greater part of mankind by music. F.

108 In this method of converting the Pagan Indians there is not much to be condemned: the secrecy employed is, in my opinion, the only objectionable part. The reader will hereafter see, that to convert these people is a transgression of the laws of the country; and the missionaries ought by all means to be bound by them. F.

109 The Protestant missionaries in India boast also of having brought over many Catholic Christians to their church. This, however, is no proof in favour of either party. F.

110 The appellation Tupasi is derived from the Samscred word Duibhasbi. Dui signifies two, and Bhasbi a man who speaks two languages; an interpreter. This name, indeed, may with propriety be given to the Tupasi; for, besides their mother tongue, they speak some one of the European languages, either English, French, Dutch, or Portuguese. At Cochin they are called Gens de chapeau, because they wear a Topi or small hat; whereas the other Indians, not descended from Europeans, make use of the Romali, that is, a white turban of the finest muslin. These people have the upper part of their bodies quite naked; but bind round their loins a piece of white linen, which is called Bastra. As long as this cloth is new, it is named Codi. If it has interwoven in it red stripes, it is called Sòmen, Tòmen, and Pudava. If such stripes are painted on this linen, it is called Tùvaden or Toren. If it consists of yellow or red silk, it is named Pattupudava.—Ciatta or Penncupayan is the name of a jacket lying close to the body, worn by Malabar female Christians when they appear in public. It reaches no lower than the girdle, to which the Pudava is fastened, and which they wear as well as the men. On the head they have no ornament whatever, but turn up their hair smooth behind, and fasten it in a roll on the crown. How much would these Indian dames be astonished at the ornamented head-dresses of our European ladies! A.

111 In the above observations may be found one of the reasons why neither Hayder Aly nor Tippoo Sultan could maintain their ground against the English and the king of Travancor, on the coast of Malabar. The great number of Christians residing there, whom Hayder and his son every where persecuted, and often compelled by violence to embrace Mahometanism, always took part with the English. T.

112 This will serve to explain the cause of the before-mentioned secrecy observed in regard to conversion. It is, indeed, very improper that the Pagan princes should assume power over the consciences of their subjects, and over their freedom of thought; but many of the Christians act no better, in being attached to the foolish prejudice that the voice of truth can be silenced by prohibitions. F.

113 The assertion, that all the Arabian and Persian horses are small, I do not consider as just. I have seen several Arab horses, particularly a stallion and mare of considerable size in the stud of Lord Grosvenor. Both these animals had been brought to England by the way of India. F.

114 Cheese made of buffaloes milk is highly esteemed by the Italians, notwithstanding their celebrated Parmesan (Lodesan.) It is called Caccio di cavallo. F.

115 The veterinary art of the Indians highly deserves to be studied by the Europeans who apply to the Samscred language. It no doubt contains good prescriptions founded on experience. F.

116 The red colour of these goats relates to something of a like kind in Egypt, traces of which may be found in the writings of Moses. F.

117 The fine shawls made in Cachemir, and sold chiefly to the Indians, are, as far as I know, made of sheep’s wool, and not of the hair of wild goats. F.

118 The flesh of animals used as food is totally changed by their way of feeding; and therefore it may be very true that the flesh of the tame swine, which feed on pilchards near the sea-coast in Malabar, may be ill tasted and unhealthful. It is well known, that the hams brought from Bayonne are firmer and better tasted, because the swine are fed at the bottom of the Pyrenees on chestnuts. F.

119 In Coschotey, between the latitude of 40° and 30° north, there are wild camels with two bunches on their backs; but I never heard of any other wild kind of these animals. F.

120 The above-mentioned wild urus, ten feet in height, with large horns, and ash-grey silver-coloured hair, belongs probably to the same kind as that in the northern forests of India, which rove about in large herds. The latter, however, are fourteen feet in height; weigh from 3000 to 4000 pounds; are of a perfect black colour, except a tuft of red hair between the horns; and in the northern part of India are called Arni. Skulls of these monstrous oxen are found in Russia among the bones of the elephant and rhinoceros. See Dr. Anderson’s Bee for December 1792, and Pallas’s Nordische Beiträge, vol. vi.

121 Whether the animal here mentioned belongs to the species of the wolf, or the hyæna, cannot with certainty be determined. The wolf, in general, is not such a terrible animal; whereas the hyæna, of which there are two or three kinds in Asia and Africa, is exceedingly fierce, and will even attack men. F.

122 The striped tyger is properly the real tyger (Felis Tigris L.). The Puli is not the Kuguar, which is a ravenous animal in South America of the cat species, but the real Leopard (Felis Leopardus L.). The third kind, of a chestnut colour, and striped also, seems to be a species not yet known to zoologists, and very inaccurately defined. The fourth kind, of a white colour, with black spots, (Felis Uncia L.) is represented by Schreber in Tab. C.—The animals of the cat genus, both of the old and new world, are in general not yet defined and described with so much accuracy as might have been expected from the progress lately made in zoology. The Europeans, whom avarice induces to visit India, being engaged in trade or war, have neither time nor inclination for the study of natural history, which in the end would be productive of riches were it sufficiently cultivated. F.

123 The squirrel here described is different from the Taguan, the Sciurus petaurista of Pallas, and the S. sagitta of Nordgren. It appears to be a kind not yet known; for the northern S. volans, S. volucella, and S. Hudsonius, are none of them so large. F.

124 The Malabar Marapatti is by no means the Serval of the naturalists. The latter, as is well known, is a kind of lynx; whereas the Marapatti is an Indian variety of the Viverra ichneumon, for it is improper to make a distinct kind of the Mungo.—The ichneumon climbs up the palm-trees and eats the fruit of them, as well as cats, mice, and particularly snakes, but especially the poisonous kind, Naja, called in the Portuguese Cobra de Cabelo. F.

125 The antelopes have never yet been systematically known in a proper manner, notwithstanding the trouble which Pallas has taken, in his excellent works, to give an accurate description of them. The first here mentioned, black or brown, with crooked twisted horns, seems to be the Orcas L. found at the Cape of Good Hope. The second, if it be the A. cervicapra, has not red but yellow hair, and is larger than a goat, or about the size of the fallow-deer. F.

126 The bezoar goat, Antelope Gazella L.—Which of the antelopes of the ancients this Kuran Antelope is, cannot with certainty be determined. F.

127 The civet cat is the Viverra Zibetha, and V. Civetta L. for I am convinced that these two varieties have been unnecessarily made distinct species.—The Kirri is the small variety of the Viverra Ichneumon L. and the above-mentioned Marapatti is a larger. The red variety, mentioned afterwards, belongs also to this species. F.

128 Of the two kinds of squirrel, here mentioned, one probably is the Sciurus maximus L. a figure of which is given in Sonnerat’s Voyage aux Indes, vol. ii. tab. 87. The second seems to be a new animal not yet known. F.

129 These species of the mouse, according to the imperfect account here given of them, are not to be found in the system. F.

130 It is well known that the European cats do not attack the Norway rat, Mus decumanus L. F.

131 This kind of hedge-hog is the hystrix, or Erinaceus Malaccensis. The bezoar procured from this species of animal is that called by the Portuguese Piedra del porco, which was formerly sold at a dear rate, but at present is of little value. F.

132 The above-mentioned Coringuranga is without doubt the S. Silenus L. or the Ouanderou of Buffon. The other apes mentioned by the author, for want of a more accurate description, cannot be referred to their proper place in the system. F.

133 The Adibe, or Adive, is the jackal, well known in every part of the East. These animals rove about in flocks; and when one of them sets up a cry at a distance, he is imitated by all the rest who hear him. In the book of Judges, ch. xv. v. 4. the hyæna is called Schualim. F.

134 The Cenna (Tschenna), with red hair, which the author here describes as a wolf, may perhaps be a yellowish coloured kind of that animal, as his Adibe is the real hyæna.—The mountain civet cat, Malaweruva, and the Naypulla, are without doubt varieties of the common civet cat. A few differences in colour and spots are not sufficient to make new species. F.

135 See the note, p. 212. Lucullus caused large ponds to be dug, and to be filled with sea-water, in order to keep in them conger-eels. Some of the Romans fed these fish with the flesh of their slaves. Ducks, which eat nothing but fish, acquire a fishy taste; but when they have been again fed for some time with corn, and other things of the like kind, their flesh becomes excellent. F.

136 India and Ceylon are the real native country of the common peacock. There can be nothing more beautiful than a flock of these animals flying in the sun-shine. This spectacle I have often seen. John Blackburne, Esq. of Oxford Hall, near Warrington, had a great number of peacocks in a park, which was at least two miles from his house, yet they often flew thither. F.

137 The wild cock, found in the Gauts, and the neighbouring forests, has been fully described by Sonnerat in his Voyage to India, vol. ii. p. 116-125. A very good engraving of it may be seen also in plate 94. One of these birds stuffed is preserved in the Royal Cabinet of Natural Curiosities at Halle. It is a great rarity, and its feathers are remarkably beautiful. F.

138 The falcon and sparrow-hawk were in Egypt consecrated to Horus.—As the Nayrs, or warriors, in the time of peace, lead a very indolent life, they commonly employ themselves in hunting, to which they train falcons. It is not improbable, therefore, that the art of falconry was conveyed from India to the Saracens. The emperor Frederic II. learned it from the Saracens and his Arabian subjects in Sicily during the time of the crusades, and wrote a book on it, entitled, Ars venandi cum avibus, which was continued by his son Manfredus, and which the learned Professor Schneider published at Leipsic, in 1788 and 1789, in two parts, 4to; because the first edition, in 8vo, of Augsburg, was out of print. The most valuable part of this work are the additions and illustrations of that learned naturalist; but one cannot help being surprised that the above-mentioned emperor should have possessed so much knowledge, and even of anatomy.—It is impossible to determine to what class the Kaka and Cembòtta belong, but the Wesbambel is the large Asiatic pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus.) F.

139 The Magnakli is probably the Oriolus galbula L. or our golden thrush, which is found every where in the old world; but the Indian bird is a variety. That the small bird of paradise, Paradisea regia L. is to be found in the Gauts, is an observation entirely new, which requires to be confirmed by eye-witnesses; for, as far as is yet known, all the different kinds of the bird of paradise are to be found only in New Guinea, and the neighbouring islands, particularly Aru. F.

140 Without doubt Buffon’s Poule sultane (Fulica porphyrio L.) a very beautiful bird. F.

141 It is rather singular that the author should class bats among the birds merely because they can fly, when they are mammalia. Those here mentioned are probably the same as Buffon’s Roussette (Vespertilio vampyrus, or, according to Blumenbach, V. caninus.) They live entirely on fruits, and are not blood-thirsty, as we might be induced to believe from Gmelin’s assertion in Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii. In this respect they are confounded with the real Vampyre of Surinam (Vesp. Spectrum). This Vampyre exhales a very disagreeable smell, and is not eatable; but the former may be eaten, and are used as food by the natives of New Holland. They are accustomed to suspend themselves in the day time by the large hooks of their wings from the Casuarina trees. I brought down six of them at one shot in the island of Amsterdam (Tonga-Tabu), and several more remained dead on the tree; for there was an immense multitude of them together. F.

142 This black-bird is the so called Mayno, or Mayna (Gracula religiosa L.). Numbers of them may be seen in England, particularly in London. They are brought from India and the Philippines, because they pipe exceedingly pretty; are easily taught; learn whole tunes, and even imitate words. F.

143 See a description of this bird in the Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. p. 109.

144 The Bajà or Berbera is the gross-beak of the Philippines (Loxia Philippina L.) already described by Brission. A great many of these nests are brought to Europe. F.

145 The Indian crocodile (Lacerta Gangetica,) has very long narrow jaw-bones, and is easily tamed. It is very remarkable that the crocodile is held sacred in India, as it formerly was in Egypt. Some of the Malays, for instance, at Batavia, are so superstitious as to imagine that such a crocodile is their brother or sister. They endeavour, therefore, to save some of their provisions, that they may every day carry food to the crocodile, which approaches at their call. F.

146 These Candimarams are, by the English sailors, called Catamarans. Some of the islanders in the South Sea venture out to fish in another manner. Two long bundles of the boughs of trees supply the place of a log of wood, and some tie into bundles of the like kind canes or reeds. Several of these are united together in strata placed cross-wise; and sometimes the person who directs this frail vessel ventures to add to it a mast, and a sail formed of a mat. All vessels of this kind the English distinguish by the corrupted Indian word Catamarans. F.

147 All uncultivated nations formerly built, and still build their ships without employing sometimes a single nail. Vessels of this kind are still constructed at Archangel. In Arabia the planks of ships were sewed together. See Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xxiv. c. 40. and Arriani mare Erythræum. The latter calls these ships Madarate. Niebuhr saw a ship of this kind from Oman, which was called Tarad. These vessels and their name have been therefore preserved these 1700 years; for the syllable ma is a formativum nominis, and Darate and Tarad have a great affinity, or are the same word. In Otaheite also, and the neighbouring islands, all the ships, or rather large war-boats, have their planks sewed together, and the seams are filled up with the fibres which surround the coco-nut, in the same manner as our ships are caulked with oakum. Among the dissolved gums with which the seams between the planks are daubed over in India, we are no doubt to reckon resin. As far, however, as I know, the Tschinam, which consists of coco-nut oil, fresh lime burnt from muscle shells, and other ingredients, is principally used for this purpose. It is well known, that, for some time past, large ships have been sheathed with copper, to prevent them from being pierced by the sea-worm (Teredo navalis L.) or the bottoms of them are daubed over with a particular mixture of tar and pounded glass. It has lately been discovered in England, that tar made from pit-coal is the best for withstanding the sea-worm. Oil of pilchards is here recommended for the same purpose; and indeed it would be worth while for some of the maritime nations of Europe to make experiments with it. F.

148 The Souffleur is the Delphinus Orca L. Because it is often seen at the northern Cape of Europe, the fishermen gave it the name of the Nordkaper. A figure and description of it may be found in the Phil. Trans. vol. lxxvii. p. ii. tab. 16, 17. I am rather surprised that the author should have been so soon acquainted with Professor Schneider’s work which did not appear till 1795, and that he makes no mention of John Hunter, whose observations on whales were translated from the Philosophical Transactions by my learned countryman Schneider, who added to them very valuable and useful notes. F.

149 The author seems not to have known that the salting of provisions, and particularly fish, in hot climates, is attended with great difficulties. The fishermen are often detained at sea by the wind and tide; their fish, in that case, are injured by the heat of the sun, and, if salted, spoil much sooner. Besides, salt not mixed with too much cathartic salt is necessary, and that is not at all times to be procured. F.

150 I have seen these so called elephant feet more than once in Otaheite and the neighbouring islands. They were hard to the touch, and sometimes red, though they were often of the natural colour, and like the rest of the body. The patients were able to walk without feeling much pain from the swelling. I had not an opportunity of observing whether this disease originated from the water. I am, however, of opinion, that it was occasioned by catching cold after violent heats, and by intemperance in eating; for the principal Erihs only were attacked by it. F.

151 The snake, respecting which the author here says so much, is the well-known spectacle-snake, Coluber Naja L. called in the Portuguese, Cobra de Capello. An account was published, some time ago, in the Philosophical Transactions, by an Englishman, that he had cured several persons, bitten by the Naja, with volatile alkali. In five minutes after a person has been bitten, a locked jaw takes place. From 30 to 40 drops of spirit of hartshorn must, therefore, be immediately administered in water; the mouth must be forced open, if necessary, and the dose, in the course of a little time, must be doubled. Death ensues in two or three hours if no remedy be applied, and all the limbs become stiff, as the author says. I, however, doubt whether the Naja be the aspis of the ancients. F.

152 The Amphisbæna of the system has not two heads, but is of equal thickness at the head and tail; so that it appears as if it could advance both ways. There are, however, real two-headed snakes; at any rate, some of that kind have been seen in America. This monstrosity is perhaps transmitted by generation, as the monstra per excessum in the families of Ruhe and Calleja, whose descendants have more than five fingers and toes. It can be determined only by accurate anatomical and physiological examination, whether these two-headed snakes form a particular genus. F.

153 Rowe’s Translation, book ix. v. 1366.

154 An account of the different methods employed to entice snakes from their holes, and to catch them, may be found in the Philosophical Transactions. For the tricks which they are taught see Kæmpfer’s Amœnitates exoticæ. F.

155 It is impossible that Pythagoras could have been the preceptor of Plato. The latter was born at Ægina 431 years before the birth of Christ, and the former was killed 471 years before that period, in a battle between the Syracusans and Agrigentines. F.

156 This goddess Lakshmi is, by Sonnerat, called Latschimi. See his voyage, vol. I. p. 132. She is the goddess of riches, and, according to the Indian mythology, married Vishnu, and with him produced Manmodi the god of love. In Fra Paolino’s Latin work, a German translation of which was published at Gotha, in 1797, with engravings, may be seen, Plate XII., three figures of Lakshmi, taken from brass images, preserved in the Museum at Velitri. In that work she is called the wife of Vishnu: and all the names given to her by the Indians are there enumerated. Among these are: the goddess of good fortune, the woman in labour, the mother of the world. Here the author calls her the fruitfulness of the earth, and, a little farther, the goddess of riches. It will be, in general, necessary in reading this part of the author’s book, to compare with it Sonnerat’s Voyage to India; also the Code of the Hindoos, or the Ordinances of Menu, by Jones and Hüttner, Weimar, 1797; and, lastly, the Gentoo Laws, by Raspe, Hamburgh 1778. These works contain many things which will serve to illustrate what is here said by the author. F.

157 The Indian legislators seem to have been early acquainted with their climate, and its influence on the health. In a word, they evidently seem to have been men of prudence and sound judgement; since in order to give their laws respecting cleanliness and health more importance and force, they took care to interweave them with their religious system. F.

158 The climate of India permits new-born children to be laid quite naked on a mat, and to be washed, as above, with cold water; whereas in the north it is necessary they should be defended from the cold. The mild Indian women, accustomed to obedience, may and must suckle their children themselves; but among us, where the women indulge sometimes in the most violent passions, heat themselves with dancing, and then expose themselves to the cold, and use sour, sweet, and salt food at the same time, many mothers when they suckle give their children poison, and therefore a sound nurse, subject to few passions, is better. F.

159 This is a new proof that the Indian legislators were well acquainted with the art of combining many things with their religion. The astrology, and other superstitions intermixed with it, can be readily overlooked in a people of so much mildness and softness. F.

160 The Kaida of Rhude Hort. Malab. as well as the Keura athrodactylus, and the Pandanus odoratissima is not a wild ananas, but a plant, the male flowers of which have a farina of an exceedingly agreeable smell. In Arabia and India people bestrew their heads with it, as we do ours with perfumed powder. F.

161 Youth destined to be Brahmans, must spend ten years within the precincts of the temple at Triciur, and avoid all intercourse with the female sex. They are obliged also to observe the strictest silence, which continues five years. This is the first degree of philosophy. A.

It thence appears, that Pythagoras must have borrowed his philosophy in part from the Indian philosophers, or others whose doctrine was similar, for his scholars were subjected to silence during the same number of years. See Diogenes Laertius, lib. viii. 10. and Aul. Gellius, Noct. Att. lib. i. 9. F.

162 Sir William Jones is much prepossessed in favour of the Brahmans at Benares, and the Pagan practices usual in Bengal. In that country, however, greater revolutions have certainly taken place than on the coast of Malabar; and we have consequently just reason to suspect, that the customs prevalent in the former have lost much more of their original purity than those in the latter. On this subject see D’Anville’s Antiquités Géographiques de l’Inde, Paris 1775, where it is said, among other things, p. 117. Le Malabar defendu par les Ghattes a été moins sujèt à des vicissitudes que d’autres parties de l’Inde, &c. At Cangiburam in Carnate there is still a celebrated Brahman school, which, according to the testimony of Ptolemy, existed in the first century of the Christian æra; and its members are certainly equal in celebrity to the Brahmans of Vanares or Benares. The academy of Triciur, on the coast of Malabar, is also in great repute throughout the whole southern part of India. A.

The ceremonies by which marriage, according to the laws of the Indians, is solemnized and rendered indissoluble, serve as a new proof of the wisdom of their first legislators. These men clearly saw that chaste love and good education have a great and useful influence on a state, and the general happiness of its members. F.

163 In the original, at the beginning of this chapter, there is an historical and critical dissertation on the antiquity of the Vèda, which occupies no fewer than ten quarto pages. The author there controverts the opinion of the celebrated Sir William Jones, who asserted that this book of laws existed 1000 if not 1500 years before the birth of Christ. When Sir William heard that Fra Paolino was of a contrary opinion, he was so angry that he called him Homo trium litterarum; and the latter, in return, called him Homo unius litteræ. So far the two champions were on a level. But we are not impressed with so favourable an opinion of our author, when, after a panygyric on Sir William Jones, whose early death he laments, he concludes by saying: “He wished to explain every thing, but unfortunately left every thing in the dark.” After such an assertion, the intelligent reader, it is hoped, will hardly regret that the translator has left this dissertation in the dark also. F.

164 P. 28. and 29.

165 Dialog. iv. De Legibus.

166 The English, since extending their conquests in India, have found means to gain the friendship of many of the most learned and most judicious Brahmans. Some of their Literati have now in their possession complete collections of the sacred books of the Indians, and have made themselves so well acquainted with the languages in which they are written as to be able to translate several of them. Thus the laws of Menu were translated by Sir William Jones; and the Bhagwat-Dschitah (Geetah), together with Hitopades, was translated by Mr. Wilkins: the Ezur-Vedam has been translated into French. It is not improbable that in the course of time we shall have translations of the principal and most useful part of the Indian writings. F.

167 This is a Portuguese word.

168 Whether king Menu be the same person as the Noah of the Jews, is still very doubtful. In general, many of the modern Literati lay too much stress on etymology. Thus Father Georgi, in his Alphabetum Tibetanum, has employed a great deal of learning to no purpose. Even Sir William Jones, in his papers on the people of Asia, has committed the same fault. F.

169 A German translation of this Systema Brahmanicum was published at Gotha in 1797, with thirty copper-plates, under the title of Darstellung der Brahmanisch-Indischen Götterlehre. F.

170 These philosophers are not properly priests, nor do they belong to the family of the Brahmans, who, however, cause themselves to be received into all these four classes; yet they have nothing in common with the Gymnosophists, Samanæi, Yoguis and Gosua, who never eat with them, nor enter their pagodas or temples. The last-mentioned form also four different classes, for they consist of hermits; members who live in common, and possess certain portions of land; mendicants, or the gymnosophists properly so called; and Sanyasis (Senasseys), who all forsake their wives, and run about naked. All these philosophers, who, as already said, must not be confounded with the Brahmans, impose upon themselves penances which appear almost incredible. “Some of these people,” says Pallebot de Saint Lubin, vol. i. p. 25. “remain sitting on the ground so long that they are not able to move from the spot. Others keep their arms so long in an erect posture, that an anchilosis is formed between the joint of the arm and the shoulder-blade, and they are altogether incapable of holding their arm out straight. Some keep their hands always folded together; so that their nails grow through the flesh, and appear on the other side. Some drag after them monstrous chains; others support heavy beams in the air, and others roll themselves down from the tops of mountains, &c.” I myself saw one of these men who had a heavy chain suspended from his foreskin; another had stuck his head up to the neck in an iron cage, and a third had held his arm so long over the fire that it was entirely withered. The descendants of these philosophers have spread themselves to Tartary, where a great many of them are to be found: the Khutuktu of the Kalkasians, and the Dalai Lama of Thibet, belong to the same race. Besides the above-mentioned, there are also a great many other sects in India; such as the Pandaras, or Phallophori, of the ancients; who, at present, are known under the name of the Lingamists: also the Cabirs, Taders, Paramanghas, and others. These people are very improperly called Fakirs; for that word is not of Indian extraction, but derived either from the Arabic or Persian. A.

171 That the adherents of Bhudha have spread themselves in the east, north, and north-west from China, cannot be denied; but the periods assigned for the diffusion of the Bhudhist system are very different. According to Kæmpfer, in his History of Japan, the Japanese reckoned the year 1690 of the Christian æra to be the year 2234 after the Sonkarad, or death of Sammona-Khutama, who is called also Prah, and Budha; so that the first year must have corresponded with the year 544 before the birth of Christ. This æra of the Bhudhists seems, therefore, to fall about the time of Cyrus king of Persia, whereas the introduction of the Bhudhist system into the north was 600 years later. F.

172 Vol. I. l. 2. p. 153. Edit. Amstel.

173 The passage is as follows: “Gestant annulum et baculum (Brahmanes). Vestis eorum in superhumeralis formam composita est.” Photius, Cod. cxli. p. 999. Edit. Rothomag. 1653.

174 This external perfection was necessary in every priest also among the Jews. We cannot, however, thence conclude, that the one nation borrowed this custom from the other: it is rather probable that they both borrowed it from the Egyptians. It is nevertheless possible that the legislators of many ancient nations may have conceived the idea of excluding mutilated persons from the priesthood, as nations in their infancy hold up their priests as patterns of perfection, and mediators between the Deity and man. F.

175 P. 45, 46, 47.

176 There seems here to be some mistake. E. T.

177 See a short account of the Gentoos mode of collecting the revenues on the coast of Coromandel. Lond. 1783.

178 Many of the oriental languages are distinguished by this peculiarity, that a small variation in a character causes a new syllabic variation, with a different pronunciation. This is the case, for example, with the Ethiopic alphabet, which has twenty-six characters, and each of these is varied by seven vowel marks. There are also twenty different marks for the diphthongs; so that the whole alphabet consists of 202 marks and characters. The Amharic language, generally spoken in Ethiopia, has thirty-three characters, which are also varied by seven vowel and twenty diphthong marks; so that the whole alphabet contains 251 marks and characters. In the Transactions of the Academy of Petersburgh, vol. iii. and iv. the learned Theophilus Siegfried Bayer has given engravings of a great many of these Brahmanic characters. They amount at least to 525 variations, if not more. F.

179 The alphabet of the Barmans, in the kingdom of Ava, was published at Rome by the Congregation de propaganda fide, 1787. 8. I received a copy of it from the learned Cardinal Borgia, so zealous for promoting useful knowledge, together with other alphabets which I still wanted; so that at present I flatter myself I have in my possession a complete collection. F.

180 See Phoc. in Vit. Apoll. Tian. cod. cclii.—L. Vives Comment. in lib. xiv.—S. Aug. de Civitate Dei, p. 1734. edit. Paris.—Euseb. in Chron. p. 72. edit. Scalig.—and Philostrat. in Vita Apoll. lib. iii. cap. 6. and lib. iv. cap. 6. A.

The appellation Gymnosophists signifies, as is well known, naked philosophers. It does not, however, thence follow, that the people so called by the Greeks must have come from India. The warmth of the climate would make clothing superfluous to such men, even on the banks of the Nile. They led a contemplative life, and from that circumstance also were called gymnosophists; but they did not bring the mode of writing by characters from India to Ethiopia. F.

181 See Historischer Versuch über die Zigeuner, Göttingen, 1787. A.

182 The richness of a language must not be estimated in this manner. It is generally said, that the Arabic is a rich language, because it has I know not how many words to express a sword. The literal meaning of one of these words is the man-murderer. This, however, is only a metaphorical and figurative expression; and a number of these may be found in or compounded from every language which has attained to any degree of perfection. Thirty or more appellations of the Sun might be collected from the Greek poets; but no one ever considered this as a proof of the richness of the Greek language. F.

183 Such Samscred words occur not only in Ptolemy, but also in Arrian and Strabo. This, therefore, is an evident refutation of the conjecture of Mr. George Forster, that the Samscred language was not known to the Greeks, and has existed in India only since the birth of Christ. See Forster’s Notes to the Indian Play Sakontala, p. 333, and 334. A.

184 See on this subject the Asiatic Researches, p. 116-120. also my Systema Brahmanicum, p. 83, and 279, where this event is represented from an original Indian painting preserved in the Borgian Museum. A.

185 See the Asiatic Researches, vol. i. p. 160, and vol. ii. p. 123.

186 See, on this subject, my Samscred Grammar, p. 175.

187 These three apparitions are evidently a mystic veil, behind which the Indian philosophers have concealed the history of the flood, and of the fall of the wicked angels. The former was believed by all the ancient nations; and in regard to the latter, the book Mahábharáda contains the following remarkable passage: Asuranguel deivatuam codiciaver; that is, “The Asuri, or the wicked angels, contended with the utmost desire for deification.” This passage stands in the 13th page of the copy of the above book, which I have in my possession. Compare with it my Systema Brahmanicum, p. 279. A.

188 The goddess Adidi, or Didi, is the mother of the wicked dæmons, who in the Samscred are called Asuri, and who are exceedingly spiteful. See, on this subject, Father Hanxleden’s dictionary, under the articles Adidi and Asuri. Bali, who of all these Asuri was the most wicked, and possessed the most insupportable pride, made it his continual business to torment the gods and men. Vishnu therefore assumed the form of a dwarf, overcame him, and punished him as he deserved. Other writers consider the above apparitions as an allegory respecting the history of the first king of the Assyrians called Bel or Belus, who reigned at Babylon 1322 years before the birth of Christ, and caused himself to be worshipped as a deity. According to this opinion the Assyrians are to be here understood under the appellation Asuri. The author of the Masabhàràda, already often mentioned, relates, that Báli, or Mahàbàli, that is, Bali the Great, had a hundred sons, the first-born of which was Bánnen. A.

189 This manuscript is preserved in the Borgian Museum. A.

190 The most common forms of prayer addressed by the Indians to Shiva are: Shiva Shivaya namà, that is, Shiva, Shiva, adoration to thee!—and Maràvana namà, To thee, O Vishnu or Naràyana, be adoration! Particular names, as I have already said, are in general given to each god, and these names serve to express their attributes or properties. The Indians always repeat them three times in order, during their devotions; and as often as they pronounce one of them, they drop a bead of their rosary. A.

191 When the Pagans, during their ablutions, paint marks of this kind on their forehead, they always repeat certain forms of prayer, in honour of the deity to whom these marks are dedicated. At the time of public ablutions this business is performed by the priest, who paints with his finger the foreheads of all those who have already purified themselves. At private lustrations each person lays on the colours himself, without being under the necessity of offering up prayers. No Pagan can assist in any part of divine worship without being painted with the above marks. A.

192 Four different kinds of years occur in some of the ancient Grantham or Samscred books. One consists of 355, another of 365, the third of 360, and the fourth of 324 days. Besides these, there is also the year of Saturn, or Shani, which always completes its course in twenty-nine years and six months. Likewise the year of Jupiter, or Brahaspadi, which consists of 360 days, divided into ten months. In some of the Indian provinces the people still reckon by these years. This variety, in determining the revolutions of the planets, seems to shew that the Brahmans and Samanæi were diligent observers of the heavens in very ancient periods. The orbits of the planets are divided into a certain number of Yògiana, each of which is equal to a mile. A.

193 It is very remarkable, that the zodiac of the Indians contains the same signs as that of the Greeks and other western nations: that these signs were, in part, used by the Egyptians; and that the seven days of the week, which Dio Cassius, lib. xxxvii. speaks of as an ancient establishment of the Egyptians, are named after the same deities as among them. The Turks, Persians, Tartars and Chinese have in their zodiac a series of signs totally different, consequently must have derived their knowledge from a different source; but at the same time from a people who had observed the courses of the heavenly bodies, and who had endeavoured to compare the solar year with the lunar. I cannot help entertaining an idea that the people of Upper Egypt and Nubia, who were considered as Ethiopians, were the first who had a knowledge of the planets and heavenly bodies; and that their knowledge, was communicated to the Egyptians, Arabians, and Indians, and to the whole East. F.

194 Sandhi, or Sandhya, is the time when day and night border on each other, the morning and evening twilight, says Mr. Samuel Davis; to whose dissertation I am indebted for the above calculation. A.

195 See, on this subject, the Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. § 15, p. 225, On the Astronomical Computations of the Hindoos; and § 16, p. 289, On the Antiquity of the Indian Zodiack, by W. Jones; also Sonnerat, Voyages aux Indes, vol. ii. b. 3. p. 178. and p. 201. A.

196 The first astronomical observations in India were made in the year 1181 before the birth of Christ. It is evident, therefore, that the Indians are among the oldest astronomers. See the Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. p. 393. A.

197 Lib. viii. cap. 17.

198 See the Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. § xvi. p. 289.

199 Compare with the above the calendar of the Greeks and the Romans, published at Basle in 1545, by Lilio Gregorio Giraldo. It will there be seen that the calendar of the Brahmans has a striking similitude to the ancient calendar of the Greeks. A.

200 In page 317, the author enumerated several Indian words which have a great similarity to Latin words of the same signification; and here we have another instance in aghni, ignis, fire. I shall take this opportunity of remarking, that several Lithuanian words have a great affinity to the Latin. Thus awis, ovis, a sheep; Dièwas, Deus, God; dantis, dens, a tooth; senis, senex, an old man; arru, aro, I plough; wirs, vir, a man; gentis, gentilis, a relation; rossa, ros, dew; angis, anguis, a snake; lupus, lupus, a wolf; naktis, nox, noctis, the night; tu, tu, thou; trys, tres, three. Dus Diewas dantes, dus Diewas dunes; dat Deus dentes, dat Deus panem.

201 Compare with this observation a passage in Euseb. Præp. Evang. lib. iii. p. 102. which may serve as a proof that Orpheus and his cotemporaries entertained the like rude conceptions of the Deity. A.

202 Among the solemnities established by the Brahmans on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, the dedication of their temples, which is renewed every year, deserves also to be mentioned. On this occasion they are accustomed to ornament the goturas, or turrets, with a number of lights and lamps, in the same manner as is done in China during the feast of Lanterns. We may add, likewise, the festival of Ciangu, or the Horn, on which the god Vishnu always blows when Nature is about to renew the business of creation. A.

203 Shuga tarunni signifies, in the Samscred, the female papagay, the symbol of Sarasvadi, the goddess of eloquence. A.

204 These voices, it is probable, have an affinity to our treble, tenor, &c. That the reader may form some idea of the Indian singing, I have set to music the above Malabar song. A.

205 The instruments employed for an accompaniment to pastoral songs, are: the guitar (Vina), the spinet (Kinnara), the flute (Vàyanacol), and a particular kind of lyre called Ciura, which is described in the first volume of the Asiatic Researches. The Indian war songs correspond with our heroics, their pastoral songs with our lyrics, and their theatrical pieces with our dramatic poems; but there is an essential difference between them, as appears from the above specimens, both in regard to the taste and quantity. A.

206 One of the favourite pieces of the people is the Pàvakali, or so-called buffoon dance. This word is compounded of Pàva and Kàli, the former of which signifies a merry-andrew, and the latter a play or dance. The comedies, in which dancing is always introduced, are called Nàdaca or Nadya. The dance is called Nadana; a comedian, Nàden, or Nàdaken; a female dancer, Nrtagui; and theatric singing, Gàna, or Guita. A.

207 Mr. George Forster translated this play into German, from the English edition of Sir William Jones, and added to it notes which display talents and learning. It was published at Mentz in 1791. Sakontala, or more properly Shakuntala, was a daughter of Vishvamitra, and married to king Dushpanda. She had a son named Bharada, or Bharata, who may be ranked among the most celebrated of the Indian kings. More information on this subject may be found in the book Mahàbharada, which contains a circumstantial history of the heroine Shakuntala. If credit is to be given to this Mahabharada, and the poem Yudhishtira, the Indians, about the year 1600 before the birth of Christ, were engaged in a bloody war with the Gebers, or Gaurs; the consequence of which was, that the Gebers, under the command of one of their kings, fled to Persia, where they remained till they were expelled by the Mahometans. A.

208 Plato, Dial. III. de legibus; also Dial. II. de republica.

209 Every body knows that poetry, especially when assisted by music and singing, has a great influence over all men whose sensations are not entirely callous; and therefore it has often been used by the founders of religious systems, to enable them to accomplish their views. But mankind, unfortunately, have abused this noble gift of Heaven, sometimes to render the most sacred things ridiculous, and to serve as an incitement to the most sensual voluptuousness. At present, even people of respectable talents employ it no better purpose; and by these means disgrace their character in a moral point of view. F.

210 The Indians have been looked upon with contempt, not only by the vain Greeks, but even by the western nations of more modern times. Holwell first directed the attention of the Europeans to the writings of the Indians, and the excellent ideas they contain respecting the Deity, Providence, and Virtue. Since that period, Hastings, Sir William Jones, Halhed, Wilkins, and others, have made us acquainted with many fragments of the Indian wisdom of early times. F.

211 See, on this subject, Sonnerat Voyage aux Indes; Vol. II. chap. 4. where engravings are given of the principal pagodas on the coast of Coromandel. As the Brahmans divide themselves into two different sects, one of which worship fire, and the other water, as the principal deity, there are also two different kinds of temples. Tirunamala, Cialembron, and Tiruvalur, belong to the Shivanites: Tirupadi, Ciringam, and Cangipuram, to the Vishnuvites. The pagoda at Cialembron contains some ancient inscriptions with Indian characters: and these serve as a certain proof that the old Indians had characters peculiar to themselves; for the coast of Coromandel was never under the dominion of the Greeks. A.

212 1 Kings, ch. xv. ver. 13.

213 Vol. III. chap. 4. p. 36. It has been doubted whether the Venetian Doctor, Gemelli Careri, ever actually visited those countries which he has described; and it has been asserted, that having collected a great deal of information in Europe, partly from the missionaries and other travellers, partly from books, he then withdrew himself from society for several years, and composed his travels in his closet. This accusation, however, in my opinion, is entirely groundless. One needs only read with attention the description which he gives of the above subterranean temple, to be convinced that it could be written only by a person who had seen it. F.

214 Were these Greek characters, they might certainly be explained; but as that is not the case, it thence follows that neither the temple nor the statues are of Grecian workmanship. A.

215 What will be said to this by the critics, who assert that the Indians had no proper alphabet before the Christian æra? A.

216 Hist. Nat. lib. xxxvii. cap. 5.

217 I have never seen or heard that gems are polished in Europe on a flat stone; and that, during this operation, they are directed merely by the hand. On the contrary, the lapidaries employ a wheel, driven by the foot; and having affixed to it small bits of tin, daubed over with emery and diamond-powder. By these the stones are cut down till they acquire the necessary form. In the island of Ceylon the small gems, which are found chiefly in the sand of the rivers near Punto do Gale, are rubbed backwards and forwards between two boards of hard wood, one of which is fixed, with the powder of the Corundam stone, or so-called diamond-spar, found in great abundance in the Gauts, near Tirunavati, and at Cape Comorin or Comari, in the granite rocks, until they acquire that long round form under which they are brought to Europe. These Corundam stones are used also for polishing steel. F.

218 Dutens, in his book Des pierres precieuses et des pierres fines, p. 38, says, speaking of the emerald, that it is exclusively found in America, near Manta in Peru, or the valley of Tunka, in the mountains of New Granada and Popayan, and was not known to the ancients. The author of this voyage asserts, that he found emeralds in Ceylon, and I myself have obtained some of them from that island. The French jewellers, however, call these emeralds Peridots, which is the name they give to a bright green kind of stone, not very hard, found in Arabia, Persia, and India, the crystallisations of which have not yet been determined. I shall take this opportunity of observing, that in the British Museum there is a beautiful groupe of hexagonal smaragdine columns in quartz, which was procured from South America. Dutens, mentioned in the beginning of this note, the son of a jeweller in London, went to Turin as chaplain to the English ambassador at that court. He spoke exceedingly good French; because his father was a French refugee, and because he had himself resided a long time at Paris. F.

219 Lib. viii. cap. 10.

220 Hist. Indica, cap. 10.

221 See Herbelot. Bibl. Orient. p. 206 and 456. Oberlin. Litterarum omnis Ævi Fata. Argent. 1789. Tab. I. Traité des plus belles Bibliothèques de l’Europe, p. 33. and Sketches of the History, Religion and Learning of the Hindoos, p. 92 and 93.

222 A certain kind of white East Indian chintz.

223 It is indeed true, that a great part of the gold and silver brought from Brasil and Spanish America, passes first into the hands of the industrious Norlanders for timber, iron, flax, hemp, linen, and other merchandize; and then goes to China and the East Indies for articles of luxury, drugs, &c. But England, at any rate, does not lose much, as it draws large revenues from its extensive possessions in India, and has in its hands almost the whole trade of that part of the world. F.

224 Lib. vi. cap. 17, et 22.

225 This observation of the author does not display much penetration. Commerce is the bond which unites the most distant nations with each other. Without trade our artists and manufacturers would have much less employment; and much less opportunity would be afforded them for exercising their ingenuity and invention. Ignorance and want of mental culture prevail in all those countries which are contented with their own productions. Providence requires more general benevolence, and less selfishness among men; and the only means for accomplishing that end, are the arts and manufactures, navigation and trade. They are indeed shamefully abused; but the friends of humanity ought to cherish a hope, that good will one day arise from this evil. F.

226 In the observations with which the author begins this chapter, he hazards assertions very erroneous. The intense heat in the tropical regions is destructive both to men and to animals. At Calcutta, which lies at a considerable distance from the line, wild pigeons sometimes drop down dead at noon, while flying over the market-place. People who are then employed in any labour, such as writers in the service of the East India Company, whose correspondence often will not admit of delay, sit naked immersed up to the neck in large vessels, into which cold water is continually pumped by slaves from a well. Such a country cannot be favourable to health or longevity. What are properly called the northern regions, are also a wretched and melancholy residence for the human race. It is only a moderate climate, such as that of Greece, Italy, and other countries lying under the same latitude, that can exalt men’s ideas, and produce the utmost degree of happiness. These gave birth to those illuminating rays which have contributed to the improvement of the human mind; and which, diffused thence to colder climates, still exercise their beneficent influence. F.

227 How the Marsians, a people long settled in Italy, should be here introduced among the Cimbri, the Teutones and the Huns, is to me incomprehensible. They inhabited their country so long that they might be considered as the first people by whom it was cultivated. Their history may be seen in a very scarce book, entitled Mutii Phœbonii Marsi Historia Marsorum, Napoli 1678, 4to. F.

228 On this very just assertion of Hippocrates, which is confirmed by Camper, some of our modern philosophers have founded their system of different races; according to which, the negroes are incapable of possessing moral qualities, and exhibit certain proofs of it in their looks. I have, however, seen thousands of these men, against whom so partial a sentence has been passed, and could observe nothing of the kind in their countenances, which often displayed great benevolence. Climate, manner of life, clothing, food, and other circumstances alter the soft parts of the body, as well as the features of the face; and the solid parts even, from the same causes, assume gradually a different form. Thus whole tribes acquire a peculiar cast of visage; and the shape, size, and turn of the body become changed. But this cannot destroy the powers of the mind, the passions, and the moral qualities, which alone constitute the character and the valuable part of man. F.

229 The sedentary mode of life which prevailed among the higher classes of the Grecian women formerly occasioned diseases of the like kind. In the history of the Argives, about the time of Megapenthes, we find that their women, on account of their sedentary life, occasioned by their spinning, weaving, embroidering, and other labours of the like kind, and perhaps also by impure air in confined apartments, and by the use of wine, brought on disorders which had some resemblance to the real Tarantismus (not that occasioned by the bite of the tarantula). Bias, and Melampus the son of Amythares, were celebrated for curing this disease. Music and songs sung by handsome young men, kind treatment, and perhaps also dancing, brought back to Argos all the women, who had wandered to the forests and mountains. F.

230 See Lettre à M. Sonnerat à l’Isle de France, de l’Imprimerie Royale 1784, chap. vi. p. 102.

231 The Bangue is nothing else than our hemp, the leaves of which, when smoked, have an intoxicating quality. F.

232 See Tractatio medico-practica de Lue Venerea, Hermanni Boerhaave, Lugd. Bat. 1751.

233 From the name Malabar china, I suspect that the Vèppa is the Swietenia febrifuga, five rubra, lately made known by Dr. Roxburgh. F.

234 Perhaps the Averrhoa carambola Linn. F.
235 Perhaps the root of the Cissampelos pareira L.
236 This kind of plums are produced by the Phyllanthus Emblica L.

237 See Rheede Hort. Malabar. vol. i. t. 57. What the author here says is incorrect. The wild cinnamon is the bark of the Karuvà, and is the Laurus Cassia L. On the other hand, the true Cassia lignea is the Katou Karuà in the Hort. Malab. vol. v. t. 53, and the Laurus Malabathrum L. F.

238 In the Hort. Malab. vol. vi. p. 19. and in the System Guilandina Moringa L. F.

239 Amomum Curcuma Linn.
240 Perhaps the Melissa officinalis L. or our common balm. F.
241 This sensitive plant, according to every appearance, is a Mimosa casta Lin. F.

242 The Vayambu of Rheede, Hort. Malab. vol. xi. t. 60, is the Acorus calamus Lin. F.

243 Lib. xii. cap. 5.
244 Lib. xiv. cap. 38.
245 The author probably here means the order of Cincinnatus. F.
246 All these are now in the hands of the British government.

247 This kingdom, as well as the capital of the same name, was called by the old geographers Candia; but the more modern give it the name of Candy. The translator, however, has adhered to the orthography of the author.

248 Lib. vi. cap. 23.

249 An account of Thibet by Father Giuseppe, chief of the mission, may be found in the Asiatic Researches. There is also a letter on the same subject in the Philosophical Transactions. F.

250 This tree produces a singular kind of berries, which taste and smell as if a great number of spices were mixed together. A.

251 According to the author’s description we might be induced to believe that there were burning volcanoes among these mountains of Africa; but on the southern coast there are no volcanoes, and the flames seen by the author arose from the dry grass which the wild inhabitants of these districts are accustomed to set on fire. F.

252 As the whale is viviparous, and nourishes its young from the milk vessels which lie on each side of the matrix, the above substance cannot be the spawn of the whale. It is rather, as I know from my own researches, the embryo or eggs of the sea-nettle. F.

253 These fruits do not grow in the interior parts, but in districts which have been cultivated by the Europeans, particularly German and French settlers. The case is the same with the beautiful oranges and the vines from Schiras, which grow on the plantations of Constantia. F.

254 On the side of the island opposite to the harbour, where ships generally anchor, or E. by S. there is a high mountain, which, according to its external appearance, is of a calcareous nature, and which in the year 1775 I actually found so. It produces a few herbs, which afford a wretched support to the wild goats. In a valley on this mountain there is also a kind of spring, but it yields very little water. To the north east of the anchoring place there was also a spot amidst the volcanic flag, which was well covered with grass. F.

255 The man-of-war bird (Pelicanus Aquilus Linn.) These birds are so careful of their eggs and young, that, rather than desert them, they suffer themselves to be caught by the hand. F.

256 I much doubt that these burning holes in the northern mountains of India are real volcanoes. They appear much rather to proceed from some inflammable matter under the earth, like that at Baku on the Caspian Sea, arising from the remains of old volcanoes. F.

257 See Lettre à M. Sonnerat par Charpentier de Cossigny, à l’Isle de France, 1784, p. 58-60.

258 It is remarkable that the northern lights should be seen in so low a latitude as that of the Azores. I have seen them in Prussia and England, but never in any part of Europe so far to the south. F.