Applications to Horticulture
Section I.
548. The applications I propose to make are of two kinds: the one relating particularly to the arrangement of plants in gardens, according to the colour of the flowers; the other, to the method of distributing and planting ligneous plants in masses, which I suppose to have been previously planned. Doubtless, I need not have discussed the latter subject, but I have been led to it so naturally, and the rules which guided me are so positive and simple, that I have no doubt of their proving profitable to those of my readers who follow them in laying out plantations, &c.
The artist who conducts these operations is called a Gardener, or Landscape Gardener.
The Greatest Possible Advantage From the Colours of Their Flowers
ON THE ART OF ARRANGING ORNAMENTAL PLANTS IN GARDENS
SO AS TO DERIVE THE GREATEST POSSIBLE ADVANTAGE
FROM THE COLOURS OF THEIR FLOWERS.
549. Among the pleasures afforded us by the cultivation of choice plants, there are few so intense as the sight of a collection of flowers, varied in colour, form, size, and position. It is probably because we admire the plants individually, and become attached to them on account of the pains they cost us, that we have hitherto so generally neglected to dispose them in such a manner as to produce the best possible effect when their flowers are seen collectively.
Thus, no defect is more common than that of the proportion in which flowers of similar colours are distributed in a garden. Sometimes the eye is struck by blue or white, sometimes it is dazzled by yellow. Add to this defect of proportion, the ill effect produced by placing together many species of flowers, which, although of the same colour, are not of the same tint: for instance, in spring we see the leopard’s bane (doronica), of a brilliant golden yellow, side by side with the narcissus, which is of a pale greenish yellow; in autumn, the Indian pink beside the African marigold, dahlias of various reds grouped together, &c.
Such arrangements as these cause the eye, accustomed to appreciate the effects of contrast of colours, to feel sensations quite as disagreeable as those experienced by the musician whose ear is struck with discords.
550. Previously to my observations on simultaneous contrast, and the demonstration of the law which governs it, it was impossible to prescribe rules which, by instructing horticulturists to place, with certainty of success, flowers in proximity whose colours reciprocally enhance each other, enabled them to avoid either the monotony resulting from the grouping of flowers of the same colour, or the disagreeable effect of a collection of flowers whose hues are mutually injurious.
Assortments of Flowers
Where the Plants are apart.
552. White flowers accord more or less favourably with blue and orange flowers, already allied together; and perfectly with rose or red flowers, but not so well with yellow or violet flowers, already allied. White associates much less favourably when the latter is brighter or greener.
White flowers are the only ones that possess the advantage of heightening light tones of any colour, and of separating those whose colours are mutually injurious.
553. Yellow flowers, especially those which incline to orange, accord very well with blue ones.
Flowers of a yellow, more green than orange, have a very good effect with flowers of a red inclining to blue, rather than to orange.
Deep red flowers accord well with deep-blue flowers.
Orange flowers are not misplaced near violet flowers.
Assortments Relating to the Harmonies of Contrast of Hues
We must then separate
| Pink flowers | from those that | are either | Scarlet or Crimson. |
| Orange | ″ | ″ | Orange-yellow, |
| Yellow | ″ | ″ | Greenish-yellow, |
Where the Plants are indiscriminately mixed.
555. Flowers which only present contrasts of hues and which spring from seeds sown thickly in borders, or in beds, will not have the same objection as when the roots are planted at a distance from each other.
556. Flowers, presenting a disagreeable contrast of hues, may still produce a good effect, when their assortment makes part of an arrangement of contrasts of colours, strongly opposed; in this case being no longer seen isolated, they become in a manner the element of a picture.
Section II.
Assortments as to Harmony of Analogy
557. I only reckon shrubs susceptible of this harmony; because only perennial plants afford to the horticulturist a guarantee that the flowers of one year will be identical with those of the preceding; consequently, if we plant woody shrubs in such manner as to secure a regular gradation of tones, the successive annual flowerings will be constantly according to that order. We may apply this kind of arrangement to standard roses.
558. But I do not advise any one to attempt submitting annuals to this arrangement, because of the uncertainty that exists in the tones of their colour.
Harmonies of Analogy of Hues.
559. If I have spoken against the associations of contrast of hues (554), I am more inclined to speak against the associations of analogy of hues, always remembering the restrictions I have stated above (Section 1). We must not forget that my intention is to describe assortments, whose good effects are certain. Now the more the colours contrast, conformably to our law, the more latitude there will be, although the colours of individual flowers associated vary in tone and in hue.
560. An objection might be addressed to me that the green of the leaves, which serves as a ground to the flowers, destroys the effect of their contrast. But it is not so; and to be convinced of it, it is sufficient to fix upon a screen of green silk, two kinds of flowers in conformity with the arrangement of the coloured bands (pl. 1. fig. 7), and to look at them from a distance of about ten paces; for when the eye is fixed on two well-defined objects simultaneously, surrounding objects, especially distant ones, produce but feeble impressions.
The Best Possible Advantage From the Colour of Their Foliage
ON THE ART OF ASSORTING LIGNEOUS PLANTS IN GARDENS, SO
AS TO DERIVE THE BEST POSSIBLE ADVANTAGE FROM THE
COLOUR OF THEIR FOLIAGE.
562. Harmonies of Contrast.—The most decided contrast of colour that we can establish between the leaves of ligneous plants, is that of green, with foliage nearest to red. But even the purple beech is more of a red-brown than a dark red, properly so called, for the colour of leaves results from a mixture of red and green, which, according to the principle of mixing colours must produce black, if they are in suitable proportion, or a brown tone of the green or red scale, according as one or the other colour predominates. The contrast of hue is established by the assortment of a bluish-green and a yellowish green of tones unequally high, by the contrast of a bluish-green brown with a yellowish light green, &c.
563. Harmonies of Analogy.—Nearly all the masses of various trees in our landscape gardens present certain harmonies of hues mostly resulting from associations established according to considerations foreign to those of the assortment of foliage—an evident result, remembering (561) that the colours of the leaves of the greater part of plants are of green belonging to scales more or less allied, and of tones but little distant from each other.
(a) Harmonies of analogy of hues formed of allied tones belonging to neighbouring scales, are those which it is least difficult to obtain.
(b) Arrangements of foliage presenting a series of equidistant tones of the same scale of green.
On the Distribution and Planting of Trees, etc., in Masses
564. The principal object of the two following chapters is to supply a deficiency in works on gardening as to the manner of distributing and planting trees in masses, &c., the outlines of which have been previously sketched conformably with precise rules. For authors say nothing on this subject, and the embarrassment of a landowner who wishes to plant an estate already planned out, is further increased by this circumstance, that, in the majority of cases, the author of the plan of the projected garden, after having defined the lines of the plantations, indicated the places where isolated trees must be placed, designated the kinds of trees which should constitute groups, and others which must enter into the formation of masses with trees and shrubs (which he does not generally indicate), leaves the care of planting and other details to ordinary gardeners.
Yet the distribution of trees and shrubs, however easy it may appear, in a piece of ground otherwise perfectly planned, contributes more than is generally supposed to the pleasure of a landscape garden, and presents also more difficulties than to allow of its being effected in a satisfactory manner, when it is abandoned, as generally happens, to chance. In fact, if, at the end of a few years, we observe the greater part of masses planted as they frequently are, we shall be struck with defects which were not at first perceptible, because we were then under the influence of the pleasure we always experience at witnessing the development of plants which have been confided to a carefully prepared soil; and besides, there are some defects which are only perceptible after a certain time, such, for example, as that resulting—
1. From the plants being placed too near together.
2. From placing, in the front row, clumps which rise too high, or which lose their lower branches. Such are the elder tree, and sumach.
565. It was after many years of lost enjoyments, through having planted without fixed rule, masses otherwise well designed in their contours, that I was led by my own experience to seek the means of avoiding similar errors in future. The rules I now give are not the result of reflection merely; they have been practised many years, and I am much deceived if those who observe them will not derive great facilities in their application, and experience from them a lively satisfaction.
566. I will now define several expressions employed to designate the different associations of plants which may form part of a landscape garden.
An assemblage of trees and shrubs, occupying a large space, is termed a forest. But in a landscape garden a similar assemblage, or that which has been arranged to present the appearance of a vast space, is called a wood, if it is composed of trees and underwood; and a park, if it consists of trees only.
ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS IN LANDSCAPE GARDENING.
A collection of trees, shrubs, bushes, and underwood, is called a grove; when it consists only of trees, it is termed a group of trees.
There are thickets of shrubs, bushes, underwood, and of flowering herbaceous plants.
There are thickets formed of a single species of plants, and thickets formed of several species. The first are called homogeneous, and the second heterogeneous, or varied.
There are isolated masses, and masses subordinated together.
A small mass of flowers or shrubs, isolated, and of a circular or elliptical form, is called a bed.
Chapter I — Of Lines of Plants
567. I call a line of plants, plants placed at equal distances from each other, in straight or curved lines: these plants may be trees, shrubs, bushes, underwood, or flowering herbaceous plants.
568. A line of plants of sufficient extent, and of which the plants are close enough to conceal from view objects placed behind them, is called a screen.
All masses planted according to my method are composed of lines of plants parallel to each other; in other words, there is between two similar lines an equal distance throughout. But the distance between the first and the second may differ from the distance between the second and the third, and so of the others. The result would be the same if the lines were closed curves, as, for instance, circles or ovals. The lines of plants are the elements of the masses.
Article I. of the Lines of Plants Called Screens
569. When we desire to conceal any object of considerable extent, we have recourse to a screen of plants. Whenever the extent of the land will not permit of the planting of several lines, constituting a mass, evergreens, such as thujas, almond-laurels, &c., are those to be preferred, succeeded by the hornbeam, lilac, privet, &c.
The most homogeneous screens, that is to say, those which are formed of a single species of plant, are preferable to all others for the object they are intended to fulfil; and to avoid the monotony of a single species, we must have recourse to one which offers varieties. For example, a screen composed of violet and white lilacs, will possess at the same time the advantage of homogeneity for concealing what is behind it, and the advantage of variety of foliage; the leaves of the violet-lilac being of a less yellow-green than those of the white lilac. We may alternate one or more plants of violet-lilac with one plant of white lilac.
Of Lines of Plants Considered as Elements of Masses
2nd. Where a line happens to be entirely seen, the same species must be placed alternately.
3rd. We must avoid placing the same species in two neighbouring lines, when we would employ varied masses which are composed of several lines only.
Rule.—When two lines of vegetation are planted to constitute a mass, in planting the first or exterior line, we must follow the rule indicated above (570), then go on planting the second line, in the same manner as the first, except that the stakes indicating the centre of vegetation must be placed chequer-wise relatively to the centre of vegetation of the first line.
I will cite an example of a plantation of two lines intended to conceal a wall.
1st Line. 1. Almond-laurel. 2. Violet-lilac. 3. Laburnum. 4. Violet-lilac. 1a. Almond-laurel, &c.
2nd Line. 1. Clump of prunus mahaleb. 2. Idem, &c.
The distance between the clumps of the first line is four or five feet.
We may plant the first line in screen, and the second with trees larger than in the first; we may also plant the second line with roots of prunus mahaleb, comprehending between two roots three or five clumps of the same species.
Of Homogeneous Masses
571. The homogeneous mass includes only a single species of plant, because the intention of the gardener in forming it, is to produce an effect of individuality.
In the large French garden, designed by Le Notre, where the trees combine so effectually with the elements established by the architect, to prolong, so to speak, a similar work, the symmetrical plantations are identical, and generally composed of trees of a single species.
572. Although homogeneous masses of trees have a good effect in a large composition, it is not so with those which are composed of a single species, or of a single variety of flower. They almost always present a monotonous aspect, especially if the latter have a definite extent; and if the species of plant of which they are composed is in flower only a part of the year, the defect of monotony will be greatly increased. Homogeneous masses of shrubs or of flowers are only suitable when they are in leaf or in flower during a great portion of the year; as their extent is small, and they serve simply as a bond of union between different parts more or less distant from each other.
Of Heterogeneous or Varied Masses
573. I shall distinguish two cases—one where it is a heterogeneous or varied mass, isolated, intended to serve as an individual composed of distinct parts; and the other where it consists of many varied masses, allied together, and separated by paths, at least in some parts.
Isolated Masses
If each line consists of only a single species, we must arrange the lines according to their size. For example—1. Lilacs. 2. Laburnum. 3. Judas trees.
574. Heterogeneous or varied masses placed together so as to form a whole, are generally separated from each other by glades, or unplanted intervals, but cultivated or sown in grass, or by paths. To make what follows thoroughly understood, I must point out the essential difference that exists between landscape gardening and French (geometrical) gardening.
575. French gardening is regular and symmetrical, the paths are straight, and the eye is only impressed by objects slightly varied; for when there are squares or straight borders, symmetry necessarily requires that the objects on one side be repeated on the other. The result is, that when the spectator has visited the principal points of this composition, which are never very numerous, he has seen everything it has to offer to his curiosity.
576. I will not say, with some writers, that landscape gardening is conceived with an entirely different aim. The spectator who surveys a landscape garden, should be excited, so to speak, at every step, by the sight of various objects. The different points of view must be as numerous as possible, the paths must always, therefore, be traced, so that from no point can their whole extent be discovered. The plantations must be disposed so as to conceal the walls, fences, or other disagreeable ill-placed objects. They must allow the eye the greatest possible scope, at all the points the gardener wishes to be displayed; and the views must vary with the different points successively observed.
577. To achieve this, it is evident that there must be no straight paths, but only curved ones. When paths pass between masses, the intervals between these masses must also permit to be seen groups of objects, which must form planes, skilfully prolonging the perspective, as far as possible. The masses, though varied, must nevertheless be allied together, so that neighbouring masses may harmonize as dependent parts of the same whole.
Article II
578. Harmony between masses distant from each other, in which harmonies may be established by the same general means as they are between neighbouring masses. The foliage in the masses being much more abundant than the flowers, the shades of their greens will not differ so much from each other as the colours of their flowers; consequently, the distant masses, however varied in their foliage, are always in harmony of form and colour, if they have been planted according to our rules; and if they are composed solely of ligneous plants, which lose their leaves in winter, or solely of evergreens, which do not lose them; but in the opposite case, that is to say, when the masses are formed, the one of deciduous trees, and the other of evergreens, some remarks must be made relative to the conditions of harmony, which are the more necessary, as even the most studied landscape gardens generally err in this respect; for a clump or a mass of evergreens is almost always out of keeping in a large space where masses of deciduous trees are found. To remedy this defect we must multiply the groups or masses of evergreens, so as to establish between all of them this same correlation which is required by deciduous trees; but it is not necessary that the trees should occupy a space equal to that occupied by ordinary trees; it is sufficient if their forms recur at suitable intervals. In a word, for evergreens to produce a good effect, they must compose a whole, which unites or intercalates with the general effect of the masses of deciduous trees.
We may oppose allspice trees to pines, cedars to larches; different groups, composed of three or four trees only, suffice to harmonize a large space of ground occupied with two or three groups composed of half a hundred similar trees.
579. There are certain cases in which the want of either perspective or harmony requires, in a large mass, a line of trees which is neither concentric with its circumference, nor identical with the central line, if there be one; such, for example, as the line P. R., which is found in the masses 1 and 2 (Pl. 18); for if the planting of this line be correct, and according to the preceding principles, the trunks, which define it, beyond the concentric plantings, must be in the points of intersection of the line P. R., with the concentric lines, and the central line, if there be one; and the trunks must be as much as possible at equal distances from each other.
Such a plan, always easy to make, will enable a landowner, when once his masses are planned, their concentric lines traced, and the species to be planted determined upon, to order from the nurseryman the exact number of each species he requires.
580. After tracing the lines of plantations, and putting in the stakes to mark out the centre of the holes to be dug, we must draw upon grey paper lines representing those of the masses we intend to plant, taking as many equidistant points as there are stakes in the corresponding lines of plantation; we then fasten on these points wafers, or little circles of paper, of the colour of the flowers or the foliage of the plants, according to the desired effect.
By this means we can judge of the harmony of the colours of flowers with the different hues of green composing the mass, and thus rectify any defect in the plan before we begin to plant.
The principles on which the preceding rules are founded are those of height, form, variety, facility of development, and distinctness of view. Harmonious arrangement, with reference to these points, not being so exclusively the object of this work as the subject of colour, must be passed with this indication.
Contrast of Colours
581. This principle, regarded generally, is included in the preceding, since a difference in colour will render plants distinct which have numerous analogies; but viewed specially, it produces among perfectly dissimilar plants, effects which can only be obtained from colour; and it is then that the principle of contrast is to be taken into consideration.
In the application of the law of contrast to the arrangement of flowers, we must never forget the difference between an assemblage forming a line of plants, and an assemblage of flowers belonging to plants of various heights, standing on different planes, so as to produce the effect of a picture. I have alluded to this before (551); for in a linear arrangement, for example, there is nothing more unpleasant than the blue flowers of the German iris, associated with the light violet of the lilac. But if we add to this association large tufts of alyssum saxatile, Persian iris, and red tulips, so that the golden yellow, white, and deep red, appear on one plane, and the deep blue and the light violets on a more distant plane, we shall obtain general effects of a most agreeable kind.
Repetition
582. When a line of plants exhibits the repetition of the same species, and presents them regularly at the same intervals, an effect is produced which, although very agreeable, is but little appreciated—for it is very rarely met with in gardens. It is especially the repetition of a similar arrangement of colours that is agreeable, and which recommends the observance of this principle.
Repetition of the same arrangement of plants of various kinds, and of course distinct to view, contributes greatly to prolong the extent either of an alley or of a mass; a similar general effect repeated a certain number of times becomes a standard, by means of which the eye judges the space to be greater than if it were bordered with individuals of the same species or variety equal in number to the former. This effect is carried to the utmost extent when the arrangement is composed of a certain number of tufts—five, for instance—placed between two trees, which rise above them, but not too high.
Repetition and distinctness of view concur in producing an agreeable effect.
583. Variety, like every other principle, should never be carried too far, and it is a great mistake to suppose that plantations made without design, and which thus it might seem must be extremely diversified, produce in this respect more effect than those which have been arranged according to the principles of distinct view, contrast, and repetition.
Whenever objects must have a certain superficial extent, we gain nothing by multiplying varieties of them. Thus, the repetition of an arrangement of three colours, including white or black, will generally be more agreeable than that of an arrangement of five colours.
Diversity of colours, pushed to the extreme, can only be permitted in a continuous border, or a bed of different varieties of the same species of flowers, as a border of larkspur, china aster, or anemones; but, for flowering shrubs, we shall gain everything by not indefinitely multiplying their colour, in a view which the eye can embrace at once. And as with colours so with forms, which must not be too diversified in the same arrangement.
Symmetry
584. We should deceive ourselves very much if we supposed the principle of symmetry to be excluded from landscape gardening. But, in order to perceive it or to put in practice, it is necessary to distinguish the symmetry of similar parts, and the symmetry of parts merely corresponding.
The former is that of two equal parts of one whole, as the two halves of a circle, of a square, of an equilateral or isosoceles triangle, &c.; while
Symmetry of parts merely corresponding, is that of two parts of the same whole, which, without being equal, have the same form, or nearly so; such are the two triangular parts of the Mass 3, Plate 18.
Or, that of two separate parts, more or less analogous in form, extent, or nature, which have a correspondence of position relatively to an intermediate object.
Or, that of two masses or groups of trees, or of a mass and a group of trees which are presented, the one to the left, the other to the right.
General Harmony
585. In the general composition of a large landscape garden, it is not enough to have satisfied all these principles, if the different masses subordinated together, which we shall now regard as individuals, as well as the various constructions of wood or of stone, are not combined by some harmonious relation suitable for satisfying the principles of general harmony. The isolated or subordinated masses near or distant from each other must be allied together by the same vegetable form or by analogous forms, or by the same arrangements of several species; or, lastly, by the same colours of flowers or of foliage. By the aid of similar means, we ally the house and other buildings to the different parts of the garden. When the neighbouring masses, especially those formed near buildings, are not sufficiently allied together, or the perspective of their concentric or median lines is not satisfactory, we have recourse to a different line of vegetation, which cuts the first and thus adds to the general harmony. Thus, as I have so strongly insisted, when we decide to plant evergreens in a landscape garden, they must be distributed throughout the composition.
Notes
551 The associations of flowers which relate to the harmonies of contrast of colour, are first, those with colours mutually complementary to each other; such as blue with orange, or yellow with violet. Rose or red flowers contrast with their own leaves.
554 It is so difficult to make associations of hues which will have a satisfactory effect, that I prescribe in general the mutual association of flowers whose colours belong to neighbouring scales.
561 If we consider trees and shrubs no longer under the relation of the colour of their flowers, but with regard to the manner in which we may employ their foliage in the decoration of gardens, we shall perceive that there is only a very small number of contrasts of scale and hue which we can realize while vegetation is active; yet in autumn, when plants, losing their leaves before falling, assume various colours, as red, rose, scarlet, orange, and yellow, these, by their brilliancy, recall the season of flowers. Most trees and shrubs present, in the summer season, only the green of their foliage; and, although this green varies in tone and hue, the differences are always trifling.
570 1st. If the plants in the same line are not of the same species, it is essential that they do not differ too much from each other in respect to height.