III Note on the Collection of Venom and the Treatment of Bites From Poisonous Snakes in the French Settlements in India. By Dr. Paul Gouzien — Principal Medical Officer of Colonial Troops
From the time of our arrival in India, in February, 1901, we turned our attention to ensuring the regular collection of snake-venoms, with a view to satisfying the desire for them that had been expressed by our friend Professor Calmette, Director of the Pasteur Institute at Lille.
To gain this end, the moral and financial support of the Administration was indispensable, and this did not fail us. Acting on our suggestion, as formulated by letter on May 25, 1901, Governor Rodier, on June 11, issued an order by the terms of which a sum of 200 rupees was placed at the disposal of the Chief of the Sanitary Service, “with a view to encourage the catching of poisonous snakes, and to assist the collection of snake-venom by the granting of bounties to natives.”
On the issue of this order, we drew up instructions for the collection of venom, which we caused to be distributed to all posts in the Colony. At the same time an appeal in the vernacular was posted up in each of our sanitary institutions, inviting the Hindus to commence the campaign forthwith. The notice placarded on the door of the Pondicherry Hospital ran as follows:—
“Public Notice
“For the public good the Governor requests the population to capture poisonous snakes in all places where they are found; to take them alive if possible; and to bring them to the Hospital without removing their fangs.
“One rupee will immediately be paid for each snake brought in.
“Those who read this notice are requested to communicate it to their acquaintances.”
The Indian snake-charmers at once responded to this appeal, and the harvest of snakes was soon abundant. The first provision of 200 rupees, allotted to us by the Administration in June, 1901, had to be successively renewed in May and October, 1902. Since then, on the proposition of our successor, Dr. Camail, this sum of 200 rupees has been included in the local budget, thus definitively sanctioning the principle of the collection of venom in our Indian Settlements.
The venom forwarded by us to France has been exclusively derived from the cobra, or Naja tripudians. Other venomous serpents are found in the French Settlements in India, especially the species of Hydrophis, or sea-snakes; but the cobra is by far the commonest species, and our trading stations teem with it. Yanaon is infested by it at all seasons, but especially at the time when the Godavari is in flood; the reptiles then make their way towards spots spared by the inundation, and the natives frequently kill them in their houses. Thus M. Mariapregassam, the Sanitary Officer in charge of the the Medical Service of this dependency, was in a position to procure for us, at the very commencement of our operations, important doses of venom: it should be added that he acquitted himself of this task with a perseverance and devotion worthy of the fullest recognition. Of the 653 cobras captured between August 1, 1901, and February 23, 1903, 229, or more than one-third, were furnished by Yanaon. Moreover, the cost price of the cobra fell in proportion to its numbers, and Yanaon paid for its snakes on the average at the rate of 33 centimes apiece; while at Chandarnagar and Pondicherry the snake-charmers frequently received 1 rupee (1 franc 67 centimes) per reptile, though it is true that even this was an extremely poor remuneration, when we consider the risk of the calling.
Again, owing to the limited amount of our grants, we were obliged to restrict our expenditure, regulating the purchase-price of the snakes according to the quantity of venom collected. Thus at Pondicherry, having observed that each cobra yielded on an average twenty drops of venom, we fixed the value of two drops at one fanon (one-eighth of a rupee), never more. In this way it was decidedly to the snake-charmer’s interest to bring us fresh snakes, and not such as had been previously deprived of their venom.
In spite of this new regulation, snakes continued to pour into the hospital, and several were repeatedly brought to us at the same time; in October and November, 1902, the figure 9 appears three times in our statistics.
The combined results of the snake-harvest at our five settlements, from August 1, 1901, to February 23, 1903, are shown in the following table:—
| Number of cobras | Sum expended | Quantity of venom collected | Averagen weight of dry venom per cobra | Average price of the cobra | Average price of 1 gramme of venom |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 653 | R. 446 | 242 | 0·37 | R. 0.68 | R. 1.84 |
| grammes | grammes | (1.13 fr.) | (3.07 fr.) |
On an average, therefore, nearly three cobras are necessary to furnish 1 gramme of dry venom, since freshly collected venom weighs more, owing to the proportion of water contained in it, which is greater than half the total weight. Thus the quantity of fresh venom extracted from an average cobra may be estimated at about 80 centigrammes. It may be added that the product of the glands differs considerably in appearance, according as it is derived from a dead or living snake. In the former case it takes the form of extremely small, glistening lamellæ, of a golden-yellow colour, similar in appearance, when in bulk, to iodoform. Venom extracted from the living snake, on the other hand, is of an amber-brown colour, and forms much larger lamellæ, which are translucent and slightly elongate, resembling particles of gum arabic. When the product is impure and mixed with a small quantity of blood, it has a dull appearance, and is of a dark, dirty brown, almost black colour.
At the Pondicherry Hospital venom is collected in the following manner;168 The snake is brought by the snake-charmer in a chatty, a kind of earthern pot, covered with a rag, or half a calabash. Ensconced at the bottom of this receptacle, the reptile has a difficulty in making up its mind to emerge, which it does only after having been stirred up several times. Once it is outside the charmer forces the cobra to uncoil, and, while the animal is moving slowly along, fastens it to the ground by placing the end of a bamboo on its neck, quite close to the head. The Indian then cautiously seizes the head of the cobra with his forefinger and thumb, and, with a rapid movement, throws it into a jar prepared for the purpose, containing a few tampons of absorbent wool impregnated with chloroform. As soon as the snake is inside, an assistant quickly slips a metal plate over the opening of the jar and presses his hand firmly down upon it. In a few minutes the animal is dead; it is then taken out of the jar and its mouth is swabbed out; next, the fangs having been raised by means of a probe, a saucer is placed between the jaws, and, by pressure exerted upon the poison-glands laterally and from behind forwards, the venom is made to spurt out. The fresh product obtained in this way is of a very pale yellow colour, and viscid. It is protected from the air and light until completely desiccated; then, when it is in sufficient quantity and distributed in flakes round the sides of the saucer, like the colours on a palette, it is cautiously detached with a spatula, taking care to protect the eyes against risk from flying particles of venom. After being placed in well-corked bottles, the product is despatched to France.
In spite of the precautions observed in the course of these proceedings, and although the venom has not been extracted until after the death of the animal, some regrettable accidents have taken place, as we shall show further on.
Cases of bites from poisonous snakes appear but seldom in the statistics of our settlements in India, and, contrary to what is the case in the neighbouring English possessions, hardly any deaths are officially recognised in the annual returns as being due to this cause. It is true that the death statistics are very badly authenticated, and that the natives frequently conceal the real cause of death.
We have been informed by Dr. Cordier, Surgeon-Major of the Sepoy Corps, that, during a previous tour of duty in Bengal, he had successfully treated two cases of cobra-bite with Calmette’s serum.
At the end of 1901 the following note was forwarded to us by Dr. Paramananda Mariadassou, Physician to the Karikal Hospital:—
“Case I.—In the month of November, 1901, a woman of robust habit was brought about midnight to the Karikal Hospital, in a semi-comatose condition. Her husband stated that an hour before, while lying on a mat stretched on the ground, she felt herself bitten in the shoulder when in the act of placing her head on the pillow. With a start of surprise she half rose and then lay down again. It was only on being bitten for the third time that she made up her mind to seek for the cause; passing her hand beneath the pillow in the darkness she touched the body of a snake and cried out. Directly afterwards she pointed out to her husband, who had at once hastened to her, the snake coiled up against the wall; the man killed the reptile and burnt it on the spot. According to him the snake was about a metre in length, and as thick as all five fingers put together. The woman had barely time to tell her husband what had happened, for she speedily became unconscious, and was in this condition when brought to the hospital.
“On admission the following symptoms were observed: The patient did not reply to questions put to her, the eyelids remained closed, and the teeth clenched. On the right shoulder, a little on the inner side of the deltoid prominence, two or three punctures were distinguishable, marked by a small spot of coagulated blood. The respiration was normal, but the pulse was feeble and thready. When a pledget impregnated with ammonia was held under her nose the woman reacted, but immediately relapsed into the soporose condition.
“Two doses of antivenomous serum were at once injected, one in each flank: the patient seemed scarcely to feel the insertion of the needle. The wound on the shoulder was then washed with a fresh solution of hypochlorite of calcium, 1 in 60, and six injections, each of 1 gramme, of the same solution were given round the wound. The latter was covered with a pad of cotton-wool saturated with the solution, and two more doses of serum were injected into the flanks. As the result of this treatment, which altogether took nearly half an hour, the woman began to unclench her teeth, and to respond to her name. She was made to swallow a few mouthfuls of very hot black coffee. A little later she resisted when a fresh injection of serum was about to be given her. After having taken a second cup of coffee she sat up, opened her eyes, and recognised those about her. She immediately asked to go home, but was detained for some time longer. After being carried from the operating table to a bed, she was wrapped in a blanket; a few minutes later profuse perspiration set in, and the patient felt so well that she was allowed to go.
“On the following day the husband came to thank us, and stated that his wife had quite recovered, and that, while she had been unable to sleep for the remainder of the night, it was rather from fear caused by what had happened than in consequence of the pain.”
Case II.—We feel it our duty to relate in detail the following case, having regard to the peculiar circumstances under which it took place.
Coupin, the son of Ponnin, aged 25, living at Carouvadicoupom, near Pondicherry, is a snake-charmer, and one of those who regularly supply us with venom. In the course of July, 1902, this man pointed out to us a shrub169 growing in one of the alleys of the hospital, to which he attributed so marvellous a power against the bites of poisonous snakes, that he offered to make a cobra bite him in our presence, little as we showed any desire to witness such an exhibition. We allowed him to talk, not wishing to encourage such an act of bravado.
However, on July 23 he returned to the charge, and, as we were leaving the hospital accompanied by our colleagues, he showed us a cobra which he had just caught, and declared himself ready to carry out the proposed experiment there and then. In the face of so much confidence and sang-froid, and, apart from this, being interested in learning the justification for the reputation for immunity possessed by Hindu snake-charmers, we thought we ought not to oppose this voluntary test.
Coupin then turned out from the chatty in which it was imprisoned a medium-sized cobra, and amused himself for a few moments by teasing it. Irritated by this sport, the snake reared itself up, hissed, and struck at its aggressor several times, as though it would bite him; but, at each dart, Coupin stopped it with his hand and gaze, and the snake remained fascinated, with open mouth, hesitating to drive home its fangs. At one moment the snake even crawled up to the native’s outstretched hand, and appeared to lick it: it was evident that the animal’s only intention was to defend itself, not to attack.
Coupin, however, was bent on getting bitten, and, by dint of exciting the snake, the latter became so exasperated that, with hood dilated, it struck at the snake-charmer’s right hand and drove in its fangs. The man quietly raised his arm, to allow it to be clearly seen that the cobra had a firm hold; then, forcing the animal to let go, he came to us to prove that he was really bitten. There were two bleeding spots, 6 millimetres apart, in the centre of the fourth intermetacarpal space of the right hand. The time was exactly 4.40 p.m.
The snake, which was immediately killed, was still able to yield twelve drops of venom, when lateral pressure was applied to its glands.
Coupin walked towards a shrub of the kind mentioned above, which he had planted that very morning in the courtyard of the hospital,170 plucked some leaves from it and began to chew them, making rather a wry face, for he said that they were very bitter. He then seemed to meditate for a few moments before the shrub. We asked him whether he was afraid, but he stoutly denied it, declaring that this was not his first experience, and that indeed he had been bitten by cobras so often that he could not remember the first occasion. We endeavoured to discover whether he was not rendered immune, as Indian snake-charmers are reputed to be, by inoculating themselves subcutaneously with increasing doses of venom, according to a principle to a certain extent analagous to that on which the preparation of antivenomous serum is based. He, however, assured us that he knew nothing about such practices, and that the properties of the plant in question had always sufficed to cure him without other treatment. Such was his confidence in his specific that, before the cobra was killed, he suggested to our hospital-warder that he should allow himself to be bitten in his turn, in order to render the experiment still more conclusive, adding that his own assistant would be the subject at the next demonstration.
Nevertheless, a slight œdema began to appear round the bite. The injured man seemed to be suffering a little, but the pain did not extend above the wrist; a slight trembling appeared in the other arm. From time to time Coupin gently massaged the affected limb with his left hand from above downwards, in order, he said, to lessen the pain, and perhaps also with a view to checking the diffusion of the venom. A slight perspiration broke out over the body; the pulse was regular, 92, twenty minutes after the bite.
Towards 6.15, or about an hour and a half after the experiment, the man, refusing an injection of serum, prepared to go home, but we insisted that he should remain at the hospital for at least two hours longer, so as to enable us to watch his condition. He consented to this, and asked for something to eat. At this time the back of the hand was somewhat more swollen, but Coupin seemed to be little disturbed by it; he even declared that the swelling would increase still further on the following day, and that, in two or three days, he would make an incision in order to let out the impure blood collected at the spot; also that the trouble was now localised, and would not extend higher. He merely complained of acute thirst, and of a certain difficulty in swallowing, which was due, he declared, to the extreme bitterness of the leaves that he had just masticated. Temperature 36·8° C.; pulse 36. After the brief reaction at the outset, there was a certain amount of hypothermia, but the general condition seemed satisfactory, and the man remained perfectly calm. We therefore left him under the supervision of the resident student and the male attendants, giving orders that we should be sent for immediately in case of any serious symptoms arising.
At 7.15 we received a note from the student to the effect that Coupin had vomited, that his pulse was small, there was difficulty in breathing, and that he had just received an injection of antivenomous serum. We hastened to the hospital, where we were speedily joined by Drs. Cordier and Lhomme.
On our arrival we found Coupin in a rather prostrate condition. The pupils were fixed, he was foaming slightly at the mouth, respiration was regular, the pulse was strong and quite rhythmical at 96; the man was somewhat chilly. The patient was unable to speak, but had not lost consciousness, for, when we asked him how he was, he indicated by signs that he felt very ill. We subsequently learnt, from the student on duty, that towards 6.45 the condition of the patient became suddenly worse, after his companion had administered to him some medicine, the nature of which we have been unable to discover; on swallowing this drug Coupin was seized with vomiting, and became collapsed. We thought it more likely, however, that this was a mere coincidence, rather than the result of a poison adding its effects to those produced by the bite of the snake.
While waiting for our arrival a ligature had been applied to the injured arm, and near the bite there had been made two deep incisions, from which some dark blood escaped. At the same time the patient received hypodermically a first injection of 10 c.c. of Dr. Calmette’s antivenomous serum, and two injections of ether and caffeine. As the result of this treatment we found a marked increase in pulse-rate. After a subcutaneous injection of 500 grammes of artificial serum, there appeared to be a further distinct improvement until about 8.45 (four hours after the bite). From this moment, however, the patient gradually sank. A second dose of antivenomous serum was injected beneath the skin,171 and, since the respiratory movements gradually became slower, artificial respiration by Sylvester’s method was resorted to, while the tongue was rhythmically drawn forward. From time to time these proceedings were interrupted for a few moments, in order to observe the condition of the respiration; at the base of the thorax and in the flanks abrupt, jerky, tetaniform undulations were observable, but there was no free respiratory movement. The abdominal aorta, the pulsations of which were visible behind the navel, raising the anterior wall of the abdomen, was somewhat misleading, simulating the rhythmical oscillations of the abdominal respiratory type. The heart, however, continued to beat regularly, without any appreciable weakness. The radial pulse persisted, although weak and slow: rate 48.
The patient was kept alive by repeated injections of ether and artificial serum (1¼ litres in three doses). About 8.30 there appeared to be a slight improvement; the patient was warmer, and showed some degree of sensation in the region of the bite. On pinching the vasculo-nervous bundle in the left axilla reflex movements were produced in the fingers, which closed convulsively. The pulse, which had momentarily disappeared in the radial artery, could again be felt, weak but regular. At the same time, when the epigastric region was examined, a few faint respiratory movements were just perceptible. A third injection of antivenomous serum was given and artificial respiration was continued.
This factitious amelioration, however, was not maintained, and after a few scarcely visible movements of the thorax the end soon came. The eyes were fixed and insensible, the pupils slightly dilated; no sweats, no urine passed. The body slowly grew cold; the pulse disappeared from the femoral and carotid arteries, and diminished in the aorta. The contractions of the heart were once or twice irregular, and its beats became weaker and gradually lower. The reflexes had disappeared. There were still a few slight muscular contractions near the base of the chest, and the patient quietly passed away at 11.5 p.m., as the result of the progressive arrest of the heart’s action, respiration itself having virtually disappeared two hours before the heart had ceased to beat.
Case III.—A week after this sad occurrence, another snake-charmer, Kingilien by name, aged 25, was bitten in the first phalanx of the right forefinger, when taking hold of a cobra in the courtyard of the Pondicherry Hospital. Refusing an injection of antivenomous serum, the man ran off as fast as he could go, after having a simple ligature applied to his wrist. Scarcely had he reached his dwelling, when he fell into a deep coma, in which condition he was carried to Cottacoupom, to the abode of one Souraire Kramani, a kind of sorcerer, who administered to him a certain medicament in a betel leaf. After having vomited a large quantity of bile he was taken home. At this time, according to the summary investigation that we caused to be made, the patient was unable to utter a single word; he could only open his mouth with difficulty, and his eyelids remained closed. Kingilien, who had partially regained consciousness, seemed to be suffering from continuous attacks of vertigo; his head, if pushed to one side, drooped, and the man was incapable of voluntary movement. Respiration was fairly easy, swallowing painful. The entire hand was greatly swollen; poultices of leaves were applied to it, after a few incisions had been made with a knife in the back of the hand, in order to reduce the congestion. The arm was rubbed from above downwards with the very bitter leaves of the Vëmbou, or mango-tree, and prayers were recited. This is all the information that I have been able to obtain with reference to this man, who, after a prolonged convalescence, is said to have recovered (?).
Case IV.—One Latchoumanin, aged 25, also a snake-charmer, of Caradicoupom, was bitten at the Hospital at 10 a.m., on August 2, while handling a cobra. The bite was situated in the second joint of the right thumb. After it had bitten the man, ten drops of venom were extracted from the reptile’s glands.
A ligature was immediately applied, and the wound was made to bleed by hard squeezing. Refusing all other treatment, especially injection of serum, although we repeatedly urged it, the man made off home with all speed, but on arrival failed to find the specific on which he was relying. All that was then done was to recite a few prayers over him, and a Brahmin priest was called to bless him. About 11.30, after acute suffering, Latchoumanin sank into a comatose condition. At 12.30 respiration became stertorous, and the patient succumbed at 2 p.m., four hours after being bitten. Just as the medical officer, deputed by us, reached the dying man, two chatties containing live snakes were deposited at his bedside, to ward off ill-luck!
On the whole, the evidence collected in the last two cases is as confused as it is incomplete, and we can scarcely say how much we regret the obstinacy of these unfortunate victims in refusing to submit to our treatment, for the serum would undoubtedly have produced its maximum effect in them, since it would have been possible to make use of it in good time. These disastrous occurrences, however, will not cure natives of their exclusive reliance upon empirical practices; and as regards the inhabitants of the Tamil country, that is to say, Southern India, it may be foreseen that for a long time to come they will continue to remain refractory to the serotherapic treatment, submission to which the English have had less difficulty in securing from the natives of Bengal, whose intellectual development undoubtedly stands on a higher plane.
INDEX.
d’Abbadie, M., on inoculation, 238. Acalyptophis, 133. Acanthophis, 96. “antarcticus (death adder), 96. ““““bite dangerous, 100. Acanthopterygii, 290, 301, 304. Acanthurus, 301. “luridus, 301. Adder, 25, 26. See also Vipera berus. Africa, poisonous snakes in, 57-81. “““ geographical distribution of genera (tables), 143, 144. “ (Central), witch doctors of, snake-bite remedies, 237. “ (East), Vatuas’ method of inoculation, 239. Agglutinins of venoms, 202. Aipysurus, 140. “annulatus, 140. “australis, 140. “lævis, 140. “eydouxii, 140. Albuminoid of snake-venom produces hæmorrhages, 162. Albumins of venom devoid of toxic power, 164. Albumose of snake-venom attacks nerve-cell of respiratory centres, 162. Albumoses of venoms of Colubridæ, 162. “““ method of separation, 162. “See also Proto-albumoses, Hetero-albumoses. Alcatifa, extraction of venom from, for inoculation, 239. Alcock, researches of, on glands of snakes, 147. Alexins, 198, 209. “characteristics of, 207. “fixation of, 210, 211. “of normal serum, fixation by cobra-venom, 211. “neutralisation of, 212. Alkaloids in venom, 160. Alps, and mountains of Central Europe, Salamandra atra found in, 313. Amboceptors, 198, 210. “fixation of, 208, 220. America, snakes in, geographical distribution of genera of (table), 146. “venomous snakes in, 100-131. America, (Central), Batrachus tau found on shores of, 302. “ (North), musical toad found in, 318. “ (South), witch doctors of, snake-bite remedies, 237. “ (Tropical and Sub-tropical), Latrodectus mactans found in, 275. Ammonia, injection of, only temporary antidote against snake-venom, 261. Ancistrodon, 49, 109, 110. “venom of, precipitation of anticoagulant substance in, 195. “acutus, 49. “bilineatus, 111. “blomhoffii, 50. “contortrix, 111. “himalayanus, 50. “hypnale, 51. “intermedius, 50. “piscivorus, 110. “rhodostoma, 51. Anderson, relation of escape from Naja haje, 60. Anemone scultata, 269. Aniline colours, action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms, 167. Animals, venomous, definition of, 1. Arachnolysin, poison from Latrodectus prepared by, 276. Araneida (spiders), 274. Armstrong, H., chemical analysis of cobra-venom, 159. Arrows, poisoned by Hottentots with venom of Bitis arietans, 72. Arthropods, poisonous species of, 274. Asia, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 30, 57. ““““ geographical distribution of genera (tables), 142, 143. Asp, 27, 28. See also Vipera aspis. Aspidelaps, 64. “lubricus, 64. “scutatus, 64. Atheris, 78. “ceratophorus, 78. “chlorechis, 78. “squamiger, 78. Atlantic (Tropical), Acanthurus found in, 301. ““Muræna moringa found in, 309. Atractaspis, 78. “aterrima, 80. “bibronii, 80. “congica, 79. “corpulenta, 80. “dahomeyensis, 80. “hildebrandtii, 79. “irregularis, 79. “leucomelas, 81. “microlepidota, 81. “micropholis, 81. “rostrata, 80. Australia, health authorities’ notices against venomous reptiles, 100. “mortality from snake-bite in, 100, 261. “poisonous snakes of, 81-100. “snakes of, almost all confined to sub-family Elapinæ, 5.
Bacteriolytic action of venoms, 206. “““ how differing from that of rat-serum, 208. Bailey, action of venom on brain, 185. Batrachians, 312. Batrachiidæ, 302. Batrachus grunniens, 302. “tau, 302. Bavay on the spitting snake, 63. Bee-sting, remedies for, 286. Bees, venom of, 282. Bertrand, researches of, 147. Bertrand and Phisalix, experiments on immunity of hedgehog to venom, 226. ““ preparation of toad-venom, 319. Bettencourt, R., venom antitoxin treatment of yellow fever, 184. Bibron and Duméril on coloration of snakes, 16. ““Naja worship in Egypt, 61. Bile, destructive effect on cobra-venom, 215. Birds, symptoms after inoculation with lethal doses of venom, 172. Bitis, 69. “arietans (puff adder), 69. ““““ bite from, 350. ““““ venom used for poisoning arrows by Hottentots, 72. “atropos, 72. “caudalis, 73. “cornuta, 73. “gabonica, 73. ““ does not attack man, 74. “inornata, 72. “peringueyi, 72. Black snake, 88. See also Pseudechis porphyriacus. Blin, bite from Cerastes, 349. Blindness following bite of viper, 178. Blood, anticoagulant action of venom on, mechanism of, 195. “coagulability, action of venom of Lachesis lanceolatus on, 191. ““ destroyed by venoms of Colubridæ, 179, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193. ““““ certain species of Crotalinæ, 191, 192, 193. ““ uncertain action of venom of Vipera berus on, in certain animals, 189, 190. “coagulation of, connected with action of venoms of Viperidæ on nervous system, 185, 186. ““ produced by venoms of Viperidæ, 179, 188, 189. “not coagulated after death caused by venoms of Colubridæ, 171, 188, 189. “of hedgehog toxic before heating, antitoxic afterwards, 226. “of scorpion antitoxic, 279. Blood, toxicity of, in reptiles, 217. “““ confers partial immunity to venom, 218, 219. “““ destroyed by heating, 218. ““ in venomous snakes, 217. Blood-corpuscles, red, agglutination by venoms, 202. ““ dissolution only effected by combination of venom with blood-serum or lecithin, 197. ““ dissolved by snake-serums, 219, 220. ““ effects of venom upon, 196. ““ resistance to large doses of venom, 199, 200, 201. ““““““ explanation, 200, 201. ““ washing of, important before presentation to action of venom, 196, 197. “unaltered under action of simultaneous doses of venom and serum, 220. “white, effects of venom on, 203. Bombay, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, 248, 252. Bonaparte, Lucien, chemistry of venom of vipers, 160. Bothrops, bites from, 353, 354. Bottard on venomous fishes, 288. Boulengerina, 58. “stormsi, 58. Brachyaspis, 95. “curta, 95. Brain, comparative action of venoms of Colubridæ and Viperidæ on, 185, 186. “substance of, fixation of venom on, 186. Brazil, Thalassophryne maculosa found on shores of, 303. Brehm, on Crotalus confluentus, 125. “the daboia (Vipera russellii), 46. “Echis carinatus (efa, viper of the pyramids), 76, 77. “reverence paid by Hindus to Naja, 38. Broad-headed snake, 94. See also Hoplocephalus variegatus. Briot, A., experiments with weever-venom, 298, 299. “poison of Scolopendra prepared by, 280. Bromized water, saturated, modifies or destroys venoms, 164. Brown snake, 87. See also Diemenia textilis. Brunton, Sir Lauder, on harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal dose, 214. Bufo calamita (natter-jack), 318. “musicus (musical toad), 318. “viridis (green toad), 318. “vulgaris (common toad), 318. Bufotalin, 319, 320. “first active principle of toad-venom, and cardiac poison, 319, 320. Bufotenin, 320. “second active principle of toad-venom, and neurotoxic poison, 320. Bungarus, 30. “venom of, active hæmolysing power possessed by, 199. “cæruleus (common krait), bite, cure of, 337. ““““ venom of, dose lethal for different animals, 174. “candidus, 32. Bungarus candidus, resemblance to Lycodon aulicus, 33. “fasciatus, 31, 32. Buprestidæ, food for larvæ of Cerceris bupresticida, 285. Bushmaster, or surucucu, 112. See also Lachesis mutus.
Calamaridæ, species of Callophis feed only upon, 42. Callionymus, 301. “belennus, 301. “lacertus, 301. “lyra, 300-301. “vulsus, 301. Callophis, 40. “feeds only on snakes belonging to Calamaridæ, 42. “bibronii, 41. “gracilis, 41. “maclellandi, 41. “maculiceps, 41. “trimaculatus, 41. Calmette’s serum, cobra-bites treated with, 363-5. See also Serum, antivenomous. Calvados, Callionymus lyra common on coast of, 301. Cantharis (blister-beetles), 281. Cantor, on venom of Naja bungarus, 39. “vindictiveness of Naja bungarus, 39. Captivity, poisonous snakes kept in, 61, 62, 125, 156, 223. Carawalla. See Ancistrodon hypnale. Cardiac poison of toad-venom (bufotalin), 319, 320. Caribbean Sea, Scorpæna grandicornis found in, 293. Carpi and Morgenroth, lecithide of bee-venom prepared by, 285. Carrière, experiments on ingestion of venom, 214. Cascavella (Crotalus terrificus), 124. Cato, army of, patronage of snake-charmers by, 228. Causus, 67. “defilipii, 67. “lichtensteinii, 68. “resimus, 67. “rhombeatus, 67. Cells, dissolution of. See Cytolytic action. Cerastes, 47, 75. “bites from, 348-350. ““ cured, 358. “secretion of, 150. “venom of, fatal to barefooted pedestrians, 76. “cornutus, 47, 75. “vipera, 75. Cerceris bupresticida, 285. Ceylon, snake-charmers of, 229. Chameleons succumb rapidly to snake-poisoning, 172. Chelicera (fang of spider), 274. Chemical reactions exhibited by venoms, 162. Chemical substances modifying or destroying venoms, 164. Chemistry of snake-venoms, 159. Cherry and Martin on antagonism between toxins and antitoxins, 253. Chilomycterus, 307. “orbicularis, 307. “tigrinus, 307. China and Japan, Lophius setigerus found in seas of, 304. Chloride of gold, antidote to venom before absorption, 261, 263. ““ solution, modifies or destroys venom, 164. “lime solution, modifies or destroys venom, 164. Cholesterin, antidote to lecithin, 198. Chromic acid, antidote to venom before absorption, 260. ““ solution, modifies or destroys venoms, 164. Clamouse, on bites from European vipers, 343. Clot Bey on Egyptian snake-charmers, 228-229. Clothing protective against dangerous effects of snake-bite, 170. Cobra, bite of, clinical symptoms, 169. ““““ exhibit rapid general intoxication, 169. ““ treated with Calmette’s serum, 363. “extraction of venom from, method, 153. “Egyptian (Naja haje or haie), 59. “method of carrying after capture, 21. “snake-charmers’ skill with, 229. “venom of, 149. ““ alkaloids in, 160. ““ chemical analysis, 159. ““ comparison of toxicity by means of intra-cerebral injections, 186. ““ destructive action of bile on, 215. ““ dissolution of trypanosomes by, 207. ““ dose lethal for different animals in twenty-four hours, 174. ““ fixation on nervous elements, 186. ““ local effects on serous membranes slight, 179. ““ potency of antineurotoxic antivenomous serum against, 250, 251, 252. ““ vaccination against, 242, 244, 245. Cobra-di-Capello, 33. See also Naja tripudians. ““ spectacled, used by Hindu snake-charmer, 229. Cœlenterates, poisonous species of, 269. Cœlopeltis, 22. “moilensis, 23. “monspessulana, 23. Cold, intense, toxicity of venom not diminished by, 166. Colombia, herons of, probably immune to snake-venom, 227. ““ hunt young snakes for food, 226. Coloration of snakes, 15, 16. ““ subject to biological laws of mimicry, 15, 16. Colubridæ, 3, 30, 57, 82, 100, 101-109. See also Acanthophis, Aspidelaps, Boulengerina, Brachyaspis, Dendraspis, Denisonia, Diemenia, Elapechis, Elapognathus, Furina, Glyphodon, Homorelaps, Hoplocephalus, Micropechis, Notechis, Ogmodon, Opisthoglypha, Proteroglypha, Pseudechis, Pseudelaps, Rhinhoplocephalus, Rhynchelaps, Sepedon, Tropidechis, Walterinnesia. Colubridæ (sub-family Elapinæ). See also Bungarus, Naja, Hemibungarus, Callophis, Doliophis. “resemblance to harmless snakes, 3. “species of, bite rapidly produces general intoxication, 168. “venoms of, absorption by digestive tract often without ill-effect, 180, 181. “““““““ cause, 181. ““ action on nervous centres profound, 185. ““ affinity of scorpion poison to, 278. ““ albumoses of, 162. ““ destroy coagulability of blood, 179, 188, 189. ““ dialyse slowly, 161. ““ lethal effects on mammals, 170. ““ minimum doses lethal for guinea-pig in twenty-four hours, 173. ““ precipitation of anticoagulant substance in, 195. ““ recovery rapid after non-lethal doses, 177. ““ resistant to heat, 161. ““ richness in neurotoxin, 249. Common rattle-snake, 125. See also Crotalus durissus. Congestin, poison from Anemone scultata, 271. Conjunctivitis caused by discharge into eyes of venom of spitting snake, 63, 64. Copperhead, 90. See also Denisonia superba. Coral-snake, 104. “immunity from bite of, 238. “venomous nature of, 108. “See also Elaps corallinus. Coral or harlequin snake, 106. See Elaps fulvius. Cordier, D., cobra-bites treated with Calmette’s serum, 363. Cotes, E. C., on extraction of venom by charmers, 234. Cottus, 289, 290, 292. “poison-apparatus of, 293. Crabronidæ, 285. “stings of females of, toxic to other insects, nearly harmless to man, 285. Crotalinæ (Viperidæ), 101, 109. “characteristics of, 6. “venoms of certain species of, non-coagulant, 191, 192, 193. “See Ancistrodon; Lachesis. Crotalus (rattle-snake), 110, 122. “comparative toxicity of organs, 220. “eggs of, rich in poison, 220. “poison glands of, 148. “venom of, alkaloids in, 160. ““ comparison of toxicity by means of intra-cerebral injections, 186. ““ ingestion causing death, 180. ““ weak hæmolysing power possessed by, 199. “adamanteus, venom of, dose lethal for rabbit, 175. “cerastes (horned rattle-snake), 129. “confluentus (Pacific or mottled rattle-snake), 124. “““““ habits, 125. ““ devoured by pigs, 125. Crotalus confluentus, secretion of, 150. “durissus (common rattle-snake), 125. “horridus, 127. ““ bites from, 355. “lepidus, 129.
“mitchelli, 127. “polystictus, 129. “scutulatus (Texas rattle-snake), 124. “terrificus (dog-faced rattle-snake or cascavella), 124. “tigris, 127. “triseriatus, 129. Cryptobranchus japonicus (great Japanese salamander), 313-315, 317. ““ venom of, 317. “““ action similar to that of viperine venoms, 317. Curados de Culebras, immunity produced by inoculation by, 235-237. Cytolytic action of venoms, 206.
Daboia. See Vipera russellii. Deafness following bite of viper, 178. Death adder, 96. See also Acanthophis antarcticus. Delezenne, establishment of existence of kinase in venoms, 204. “on the kinasic properties of venoms, 204, 213. Dendraspis, 65. “angusticeps, 66. “antinorii, 66. “jamesonii, 66. “viridis, 66. Denisonia, 88. “carpentariæ, 92. “coronata, 89. “coronoides, 89. “dæmelii, 90. “flagellum, 91. “frenata, 90. “frontalis, 91. “gouldii, 91. “maculata, 91. “melanura, 92. “muelleri, 90. “nigrescens, 92. “nigrostriata, 92. “pallidiceps, 92. “par, 92. “punctata, 91. “ramsayi, 90. “signata, 90. “superba (the copperhead), 89. “suta, 90. “woodfordii, 93. Dialysis, results of, in experiments with venoms of Colubridæ and Viperidæ, 161. Diastases, action upon venoms, 214. Diastasic actions of venoms, 212. Diemenia, 86. “modesta, 87. “nuchalis, 87. “olivacea, 87. “psammophis, 87. “textilis (brown snake), 87. ““““ bite dangerous, 100. “torquata, 87. Digestion of snakes aided by venoms, 213, 214. Digestive tract, absorption of venoms of Colubridæ often without ill-effect on, 180, 181. “““““““ cause, 181. Diodon, 305. Dipsadomorphinæ, sub-family of Opisthoglypha, 3. “geographical distribution, 4. Dipsas, teeth of, 8. Distira, fresh-water genus of Hydrophiinæ, 5, 136. “cyanocincta, 137. “jerdonii, 137. “ornata, 136. “subcincta, 137. Dog, minimal dose of cobra-venom lethal for, 174. Dog-faced rattle-snake, 124. See also Crotalus terrificus. Doliophis, 42. “bilineatus, 43. “bivirgatus, 42. “intestinalis, 42. “philippinus, 43. Domestic animals, treatment of poisonous bites in, 265. Duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus or O. anatinus), 323. Duméril and Bibron, on coloration of snakes, 16. ““Naja worship in Egypt, 61. Dutch Indies, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 30-57. Dyer, venom antitoxin treatment of yellow fever, 184.
Eau de Javel, antidote to venom before absorption, 263. ““ in treatment of wasp- or bee-stings, 286. Echidnin, chemistry of, 160. Echinoidea (sea-urchins), 273. Echinoderms, poisonous species of, 273. Echis, 48, 76. “carinatus (efa, viper of the pyramids), 48, 76. ““ bite from, 347. ““ dreaded by Egyptians, 77. ““ venom rapid in action, 49. “coloratus, 77. Efa (Echis carinatus), 48, 76. See also Echis carinatus. Eggs of bees, venom contained in, 284. “fowls, artificial intoxication by venom, effect on embryo, 214. “Crotalus rich in poison, 220. Egypt, laboratory researches in, 149, 150. “snake-charmers of, 228-229. Egyptians, dread of Echis carinata (Efa) shown by, 77. ““ and pursuit of Naja haje among, 60. Ehrlich, theory of lateral chains, 208, 220. Elachistodontinæ, sub-family of Opisthoglypha, 3. “geographical distribution, 4. Elapechis, 58. “boulengeri, 59. “decosteri, 59. “hessii, 59. “guentheri, 58. “niger, 58, 59. “sundevallii, 59. Elapinæ, sub-family of Colubridæ, 30. “geographical distribution, 5. Elapognathus, 97. “minor, 97. Elaps, 101, 108. “ancoralis, 108. “annellatus, 103. “anomalus, 103. “buckleyi, 103. “corallinus (coral snake), 104. See also Coral-snake. “decoratus, 104. “dissoleucus, 106. “dumerilii, 104. “elegans, 103. “euryxanthus (Sonoran coral-snake), 102. “filiformis, 107. “fraseri, 107. “frontalis, 106. “fulvius (harlequin or coral-snake), 106. “gravenhorstii, 102. “hemprichii, 104. “heterochilus, 102. “heterozonus, 103. “langsdorffii, 103. “lemniscatus, 107. “marcgravii, 106. “mentalis, 107. “mipartitus, 107. “narduccii, 108. “psyches, 106. “spixii, 106. Elaps surinamensis, 102. “tschudii, 104. Electricity passed through solution of venom in form of continuous electrolytic current destroys toxicity, 165. See also High frequency currents. Embryo, anomalies in development consequent on introduction of venom into eggs of fowl, 214. Enhydrina, 139. “venom of, fixation on nervous elements, 186. “bengalensis (syn. E. valakadien), 139. “valakadien (syn. E. bengalensis), 139. ““ venom of, dose lethal for different animals, 174. Enhydris, 138. “curtus, 138. ““ venom of, dose lethal for rat, 174. Entomophaga, 286. Eosin, photodynamic action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms, 167. Epeira, 276. Erythrosin, photodynamic action of, diminishes toxicity of venoms, 167. Europe, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 22-29. ““ geographical distribution of genera (tables), 142. “ (Central). See Alps. “Triton cristatus and T. marmoratus found in, 313. Ewing, action of venom on brain, 185.
Facial bones, special arrangements of, characteristic of poisonous snakes, 6. Fasting, prolonged, snake-venom shows greatest activity after, 176. Faust, S., salamandrine prepared by, 316. Fayrer, Sir J., fatal results of experimental ingestion of venoms, 180. ““ on the daboia (Vipera russellii), 47. ““ habits of the krait (Bungarus candidus), 33. ““ harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal dose, 214. ““Naja bungarus, 39. Feeding, artificial, in laboratories for collection of venom, 157. ““ of poisonous snakes, 17, 18. Fer-de-lance (Lachesis lanceolatus), 112, 113, 114. Féré, Ch., experiments on development of embryo after introduction of venom into fowl’s egg, 214. Fishes succumb rapidly to snake-venom, 172. “venomous, 288. ““ poison-apparatus of, 289. Flexner and Noguchi, on action of snake-serum on red corpuscles, 219. ““ cytolytic action of venoms, 206. ““ investigations on toxicity of snakes’ organs, 220. Food, abstinence from, by snakes, 149. Fowls killed by causing them to ingest venom, 180. Fox, W. A., bite from Sepedon hæmachates, 337. France, mortality from snake-bite in, 3. Fraser, on destructive action of bile on cobra-venom, 215. Frog-serum, antidote to poison of pedicellariæ, 274. Frogs succumb slowly to snake-poisoning, 172. Furina, 98. “bimaculata, 99. “calonota, 99. “occipitalis, 99.
Gaboon viper, 73. See also Bitis gabonica. Gangrene, produced by venom of Viperidæ, 177. Gautier, Armand, chemical constituents of venom, 160. Geographical distribution of poisonous snakes in Africa, 143, 144. ““““ America, 146. ““““ Asia, 142, 143. ““““ Europe, 142. ““““ Oceania, 145. Geracki, collection of venom, 156. Gibbs, Wolcott, chemical constituents of venom, 160. Glands (acid and alkaline), poison-organs of the hymenoptera, 282. “secretion of venom from, 147. Glandular secretions of persons and animals bitten by venomous snakes, toxic, 181. Glycerine, means of preservation of concentrated solution of venom, 166. Glyphodon, 83. “tristis, 84. Gobiidæ, 300. Gouzien, Paul, collection of venom from poisonous snakes in French settlements in India, 359. ““ on collection of venom, 156. Grage (Lachesis atrox), immunity from bite of, 238. Grass-snakes, parotid glands of, 147. ““ withstand large doses of venom, 172. Gressin on poisoning from weever-stings, 299. de Gries on bites from Bothrops, 353, 354. Ground rattle-snake, 120. See also Sistrurus miliarius. Grunting batrachus. See Batrachus grunniens. Guiana, witch-doctors of, snake-bite remedies, 237, 238. Guinea-pig, minimal doses of various venoms lethal for, 173, 174, 175. “vaccination against cobra-venom, 242.
Hæmolysins of venom, resistance to heat, 202. Hæmolysis, failure of, under exposure of red corpuscles to large doses of venom, 199, 200, 201. “in venoms, comparative study of, 196. “power of, possessed by various venoms, 199. Hæmorrhages produced by albuminoid of snake-venom, 162. “visceral, complicating recovery from bites of Viperidæ, 177, 178. Hæmorrhagin in venoms, 187. “local effects of, not prevented by antineurotoxic serum, 251. “predominance in venom of Viperidæ, 249. Hæmorrhagin, present in some species of Viperidæ, 249. “sensitive to heat, 249. Hamadryas elaps, 37. See also Naja bungarus. Harlequin or coral snake, 106. See also Elaps fulvius. Heart, action of venom on, 184. Heat, comparative effect on venoms of Colubridæ, Hydrophiidæ and Viperidæ, 161. “hæmorrhagin sensitive to, 249. “resistance of hæmolysins of venoms to, 202. “sole agent in attenuating venom submitted to alternating high frequency currents, 165. Heating destroys toxicity of blood of reptiles, 218. Hedgehog, immunity of, to venom of Vipera berus, 226. ““““ proved experimentally, 226. “blood of, toxic before heating, antitoxic afterwards, 226. Heloderma horridum, 321. ““ saliva sometimes toxic, sometimes harmless, 323. ““ venom of, 321, 322. Hemibungarus, 39. “calligaster, 40. “collaris, 40. “japonicus, 40. “nigrescens, 40. Henri, V., poison from pedicellariæ prepared by, 273. Herons of Colombia hunt young snakes for food, 227. ““ probable immunity to snake-venom, 226, 227. Hetero-albumoses, active principle of snake-venom, 164. “separation from snake-venom, 162, 163. Heterometrus maurus, venom of, 279. “““ effect upon sparrows, 279. High frequency currents, alternating, attenuate venom only by thermic action, 165. Hill, Patrick, on duck-billed platypus, 324. Hindus, worship bestowed on Naja by, 38. Holbrook on Crotalus confluentus, 125. Holocanthus, 305. “imperator, 305. Homalopsinæ, sub-family of Opisthoglypha, 3. “geographical distribution, 4. “aquatic, 4. Homorelaps, 57. Hoplocephalus, 93. “bitorquatus, 94. “bungaroides (syn. H. variegatus, broad-headed snake), 94. “curtus (Notechis scutatus, tiger-snake), 95. “““““ bite dangerous, 100. “““““ secretion of, 149. “stephensii, 94. Horned rattle-snake, 129. See also Crotalus cerastes. Horse, bleeding, aseptically, after vaccination to obtain antivenomous serum, 245, 246. “immunisation to venom, difficulties attending, 244, 245. Horse, minimal dose of venom lethal for, 176. “polyvalent serum prepared from, 251. “red corpuscles of, reasons for choice of, for exposure to action of venom, 196, 197. “vaccination of, against cobra-venom, 244, 245. Horse-serum must be added to venom to dissolve washed red corpuscles, 197. Hottentots, venom of Bitis arietans employed for poisoning arrows by, 72. Hydrelaps, 134. Hydrophiidæ (sea-snakes), 100. “bite from, cure, 338. ““ rapidly produces general intoxication, 168. “venoms of, resistant to heat, 161. Hydrophiinæ (sea-snakes), 4, 131. ““ habitat and geographical distribution, 4, 5. ““ habits of, 131. Hydrophis (sea-snakes), 134. ““ venom from, 360. “cærulescens, 135. “cantoris, 135. “elegans, 135. “fasciatus, 136. “gracilis, 135. “leptodira, 136. “nigrocinctus, 135. “obscurus (syn. H. stricticollis), 136. “spiralis, 135. Hydrus, 132. Hymenoptera, 281. “poison-glands of, 281, 282. Hypochloride of calcium solution modifies or destroys venoms, 164. Hypochlorite of lime, antidote to venom before absorption, 261, 263. ““ remedy for wasp- or bee-sting, 286. Hypochlorites, alkaline, antidotes to venom before absorption, 261. Hypoleucocytosis, accompanying snake-bite, in lethal cases, 211, 212. “following fatal dose of venom, 216.
Immunity to venom, active, incontestably possible, 240. ““ doubtful, by Vatuas’ method, 239. ““ hereditary, pretended, 238. ““““ in India and Egypt, 240. ““ natural, 222. ““ partial, enjoyed by snakes due to diastasic substances in blood, 218, 219. ““ in lethal doses not conferred by ingestion of venom, 215. India, French Settlements in, collection of venom and treatment of bites from poisonous snakes in, 359. “legend relating to Naja in, 37. “mortality from snake-bite in, 2, 38, 363. ““““ excessive, due to snake-worship, 2. “““Naja bites, 38. India, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 30-57. ““ snake-charmers in, 229-234. “““ remedies for bites, 237. “Teuthis found in, 301. Indian Ocean, Chilomycterus orbicularis and C. tigrinus, 307. ““Naseus found in, 301. ““Plotosus found in, 308. ““Pterois found in, 296. ““Scorpæna diabolus found in, 293. ““Tetrodon stellatus found in, 306. Inoculation, experimental, by Fraser, of Edinburgh, 235. “extraction of venom from alcatifa for, 239. “graduated, by French viper-catchers, 234. “immunity incontestable from, 240. “subcutaneous, productive of immunity, 234. Insects, venomous species of, 281. Invertebrata easily killed by venom inoculation, 173.
Jacolot, on Mexicans’ method of immunisation, 255-257. Japan, Cryptobranchus japonicus found in, 315.
“Prionurus found in, 301. “Tetrodon rubripes found on shores of, 306. “““See also China and Japan. Jararacussu (Lachesis lanceolatus), 112, 113, 114. Jean, bite from Trigonocephalus, 352. Jugglers called in to expel efas (echis carinatus) from Egyptian houses, 77. Julus, 280.
Kanthack, A. A., on chemical constituents of venom, 160. Kasauli, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, 248, 252. Katipo (Latrodectus scelio), 275. Kayalof, Mlle., poison from pedicellariæ prepared by, 273. Kidney, action of venom on, 183. Kinase in snake-venoms, 204. Kinasic properties of venom, how produced, 213. “““See also Diastasic actions. King cobra. See Naja bungarus. Kipling, Rudyard, account of battle between mongoose and cobra, 223. Kobert, poison from Latrodectus and Epeira prepared by, 276. Krait, 30. See also Bungarus. Krefft, Gerard, on snakes of Australia, 81, 82. Kyes, lecithide from scorpion-venom, 278. “on relation of toxins to antitoxins, 254, 255, 257. “the production of lecithides, 197, 199.
Labaria (Lachesis atrox), 114. Labial glands, upper, venomous secretions, 147. Laboratories for preparation of antivenomous serum, 248, 252. de Lacerda, on diastatic actions of venoms, 212. “Elaps, 108. “harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal dose, 214. Lacertidæ, 321. Lachesis, 51, 109, 111. “bite of, clinical symptoms, 169. “““ primarily local, violent, 169. “classification of species, 52. “venom of, absorption by digestive system, cause of acute inflammation of gastric mucous membrane, 180. ““ rich in kinase, 204. “alternatus, 115. “ammodytoides, 117. “anamallensis, 56. “atrox (grage), immunity from bite of, 238. ““ (labaria), 114. “aurifer, 119. “bicolor, 119. “bilineatus, 118. “borneensis, 57. “brachystoma, 118. “cantoris, 53. “castelnaudi, 117. “ferox (grage), bites from, cure, 351. “flavomaculatus, 55. “flavoviridis, 53. “godmani, 118. “gramineus, 55. ““ venom of, dose lethal for rabbit, 175. “jerdonii, 54. “lanceolatus (fer-de-lance, or jararacussu), 112. ““ description and habits, 113, 114. ““ mortality from bite of, 113. ““ secretion of, 150. ““ venom of, 325. “““ coagulant action on blood, 191. “““““ diminishes when heated, 191. “lansbergii, 118. “lateralis, 119. “luteus, 54. “macrolepis, 56. “microphthalmus, 114. “monticola, 52. “mucrosquamatus, 54. “mutus (bushmaster or surucucu), 112. “neuwiedii (urutù), 115. “nigroviridis, 119. “nummifer, 117. “okinavensis, 52. “pictus, 115. “pulcher, 114. “puniceus, 56. Lachesis purpureomaculatus, 54. “schlegelii, 119. “strigatus, 53. “sumatranus, 56. “trigonocephalus, 56. “undulatus, 118. “wagleri, 57. “xanthogrammus, 117. Lamb, G., on action of venom on brain, 185. “on coagulant action of venom of Vipera russellii, 191. Landouzy, Prof., on serum therapeutics, 240. Lannoy, on diastasic actions of venoms, 212, 213. “proteolytic action of venoms, 204. “researches of, on glands of snakes, 147. Lapeyre, on bites from European vipers, 346. Latrodectus, 276. “erebus, 276. “mactans, 275. “malmignattus, 275. Lavigne, bite from Trigonocephalus, 354. de Lavison, R., on Lachesis lanceolatus, 113. Lecithides, production of, 191, 197, 198, 199, 254, 258. ““ from bee-venom, 285. “““scorpion-venom, 278. Lecithin, added to venom to dissolve washed red corpuscles, 197. “cholesterin antidote to, 198. “combination with snake-venom, 254. Leipothymia following inoculation of venom of Synanceia brachio, 292. Le Naour, on the spitting snake, 63. Leucocytes, protective rôle against snake-poisoning, 216. Leucolysin, mode of producing, 203. Lewin, experiments on immunity of hedgehog to venom, 226. Leydig, researches of, 147. Lhomme, bite from Lachesis ferox, 351. “collection of venom, 156. Light, destructive effect of, on venom in solution, 165. Liver, action of venom on, 182. Livingstone, mention of Naja haje by, 60. Lizards, 321-323. “only one species venomous, 322. “succumb rapidly to snake-poisoning, 172. Lophius, 304. “piscatorius, 301. “setigerus, 303-304. Lucan, passage from, quoted, on immunity of Psylli, 240. Lumière, A., and Nicolas, J., on effect of intense cold on venom, 166. Lungs, action of venom on, 184. Lycodon aulicus, resemblance of Bungarus candidus to, 33.
Maclaud, bite from Naja haje, 356. Madsen, Th., and Noguchi, H., on ratio between dose of venom and time elapsing till death, 177. Mal on Hindu snake-charmers, 229. Malaysia, poisonous snakes of, 81. Malmignatte, 275. Mammals, action of Colubrine venom on, symptoms and course, 171. ““““post-mortem findings, 171. ““Viperine venoms on, symptoms and course, 171. ““““post-mortem findings, 171. Man, minimal dose of venom lethal for, 176. “not attacked by Bitis gabonica (Gaboon viper), 74. Mano de sapo root, eaten by Mexicans during immunisation treatment, 236. Maoris’ fear of Katipo, 275. Marchand, on bites from European vipers, 339. Mariadassou, P., serum treatment, 363-371. Mariapregassam, collection of venom, 361. Marotte, on Naja haje bite, 356. Martin, C. J., chemical constituents of venom, 160. ““ experiments on Pseudechis, 162. “““ with rats proving harmlessness of ingestion of venom of Pseudechis, 181. ““ on venom of Ornithorhynchus, 324. ““ and Cherry, on antagonism between toxins and antitoxins, 253. ““ and Smith, MacGarvie, on local and general effects of albumoses derived from snake-venom, 163. Martinique, mortality from bite of fer-de-lance in, 113. Massasanga, 120. See also Sistrurus catenatus. de Maupas on Pelias berus bite, 357. Mediterranean Sea, Muræna helena found in, 309. ““Scorpæna porcus found in, 294. Medulla, substance of, fixation of venom on, 186. Meloë (oil-beetles), 281. Mexico, inoculation of natives in, successful, 235-237. Micropechis, 93. “elapoides, 93. “ikaheka, 93. Milk from mother bitten by poisonous snake causing death of young, 181, 214. Mimicry, biological laws of, coloration of snakes subject to, 15, 16. Mitchell, S. Weir, on chemical constituents of venom, 160. ““ fatal results of experimental ingestion of venoms, 180. ““ harmless ingestion of venom exceeding lethal dose, 214. Moindrot, H., bites from European vipers, 345. Molluscs, poisonous species of, 286. Mongoose, battles with hamadryads and cobras, 223, 224. ““ victory mainly due to natural agility, 225. “immunity to snake-venom, 223. “““ not absolute, 225. “““ proved by injections, 224, 225. Monotremata. See Ornithorhynchus paradoxus or O. anatinus. Mons on bite from horned viper, 349. Morgenroth, on combination of venom with lecithin, 254. “reconstitution of toxins, 257. “and Carpi, lecithide of bee-venom prepared by, 285. Mortality from bite of Naja in India, 38. ““Vipera berus (common viper or adder), 27. ““ poisonous snake-bite; localities:— Australia, 100, 261. France, 3. India, 2, 38, 363. Martinique, 113. Mottled Rattle-snake 124, 125. See also Crotalus confluentus. Moudon, on bite from Cerastes, 348. Moult of snake’s skin, 16, 20. “venom shows greatest activity after, 176. Mouse, experiments on, demonstrating neutralisation of venom by antitoxin, 254. Mucous membranes, acute inflammation produced by deposit of venoms on, 180. Muræna, 309. “poison apparatus in buccal teeth, 288. “““ of, 309, 310. “helena, 309. “moringa, 309. Murænidæ, 307, 309. Murex brandaris, 286. “trunculus, 286. Murison, Lieutenant C. C., on bite from Echis carinata, 347. Muscles, striated, action of venoms on, 184. Muscular apparatus of head of poisonous snakes, 11, 12, 13. Myriopods, venomous species of, 280.
Naja (cobra), 33, 59. “habits of species of, 37. “legend relating to marks on its neck, 37. “mortality from bite of, in India, 38. “poison-glands of, 148. “venom of, active hæmolysing power possessed by, 199. “worship bestowed on, by Hindus, 38. “anchietæ, 62. “bungarus (Ophiophagus or Hamadryas elaps, king cobra or hamadryad), 37, 38. ““ action of venom, 39. ““ feeds on other snakes, 38. ““ killed by mongoose, 223. ““ method of procuring food, 38, 39. ““ vindictiveness of, 39. “flava, 61. ““goldii, 62. “haje or haie (Egyptian cobra), 59. ““ bites from, 356. Naja haje, danger extreme from its boldness in pursuit of victims, 60. ““ dreaded and hunted down in Egypt, 60. ““employed by Egyptian snake-charmers, 61. ““ secretion of, 149. “““ tables, 150. ““ worshipped among ancient Egyptians, 61. “melanoleuca, 62. “nigricollis, 62. “samarensis, 36. “tripudians (Cobra-di-capello), 33-36. ““ collection of venom from, 156, 360. ““ marks produced on skin by bite of, 10. ““ muscular apparatus of head of, 11, 13. ““ poison-gland of, 11, 13. ““ var. cæca, 35. “““fasciata, 35. “““miolepsis, 36. “““sputatrix, 35. “““typica, 34. Naseus, 301. Natter-jack, 318. Neurotoxic and hæmolytic actions of venoms, parallelism between, 255. Neurotoxin, 191, 195. “essential active substance in venoms, 187, 250. “highly resistant to heat, 249. “of scorpion-poison, 278. “of toad-venom (bufotenin), 320. “potency of antineurotoxic serum against, 250, 251. “predominance in venom of Colubridæ, 249. “present in venoms of some species of Viperidæ, 249. Neuwied on Elaps, 108. New Caledonia, terrestrial poisonous snakes unknown in, 100. New Guinea, poisonous snakes of, 81-100. New Zealand, Katipo found in, 275. “no poisonous snakes in, 100. Nicolas, J., and Lumière, A., on effect of intense cold on venom, 166. Noc, on action of different venoms, 190, 191. “bacteriolytic property of venom, with respect to different micro-organisms, 207, 208, 209. “hæmolytic powers of venoms, 196. “study of venom of Ornithorhynchus, 324. Noguchi, H., on action of aniline colours on venom, 167. “failure of hæmolysis under large doses of venom, 200, 201. “and Flexner, cytolytic action of venoms, 206. “““ investigations on toxicity of snakes’ organs, 220. “““ on action of snake-serums on red corpuscles, 219. ““ Madsen, Th., on ratio between dose of venom and time elapsing till death, 177. Normandy, coast of, Cottus abundant on, 292. Notechis, 95. “scutatus (syn. Hoplocephalus curtus, tiger-snake), 95. “““““ bite dangerous, 100. ““ venom of, dose lethal for rabbit, 175.
Oceania, geographical distribution of genera of poisonous snakes (tables), 145. Octopods, poisonous juice exuded by, a means of overpowering prey, 287. Ogmodon, 82. “vitianus, 82. Oil beetles, 281. See also Meloë. Ophiogeni in Egypt, 228-229. Ophiophagus, 37. See also Naja bungarus. Ophthalmia, purulent, produced by snake-venom experimentally, 180. “““ venom of species of Sepedon, 180. Opisthoglypha, group of Colubridæ, 3. “sub-families of, 3. See also Homalopsinæ, Dipsadomorphinæ, Elachistodontinæ. ““ slightly poisonous and not dangerous to man, 4. Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, or O. anatinus (duck-billed platypus), 323. “““““ venom of, 324, 325. “““““ action similar to venoms of Viperidæ, 324. “““““ toxicity very slight, 325.
Pacific Ocean (Equatorial), Pterois found in, 296. ““ (Tropical), Scorpæna diabolus found in, 293. “““Synanceia brachio most commonly found in, 291. “rattle-snake, 124, 125. See also Crotalus confluentus. Pain, severe, after bite of species of Viperidæ, 169. “slight from bite of cobra, 169. Panama, Thalassophryne reticulata found on shores of, 303. Pancreatic juice, addition to venom produces kinasic power, 213. Paris, brown Pelobates found near, 318. Parotid glands, venomous secretions, 147. Pasteur Institute (Lille), poisonous snakes in captivity at, 72. “““ preparation of antivenomous serum at, 245-248. “““ rattle-snakes in captivity at, 125. “““ work and experiments at, 189, 190, 191, 204, 214, 223, 224, 244-248, 267. Paterne, D., bites from European vipers, 341. Peal, H. W., on bite from Hydrophiidæ (sea-snakes), 338. Pedicellariæ (organs of the Echinoidea), poison prepared from, 273. Pediculati, 303. Pedlar on chemical constituents of venom, 160. Pelias berus (common viper), bite from, 339. “““““ cure, 357. Pelobates fuscus (brown Pelobates), 318. Pelor, 293, 296. Percidæ, 304. Peritoneum, hæmorrhagic injections of, produced by venoms of Viperidæ, 179, 180. Permanganate of potash, antidote to venom before absorption, 260. ““ solution, modifies or destroys venoms, 164. Philadelphia, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, 248, 252. Philippine Islands, poisonous snakes inhabiting, 30-57. Phisalix, experiments of, on venom with alternating currents of high frequency, 165. “on effects of emanations of radium on venom, 166. “variations in local effects of venoms, 176. “venom of Cryptobranchus japonicus, 317. “poison from bee-venom prepared by, 283. “researches of, on glands of snakes, 147. “and Bertrand, experiments on immunity of hedgehog to venom, 226. “““ preparation of toad-venom, 319. Phoorsa. See Echis carinatus. Phrynolysin, 320. “extracted from skins of toads, 320. Physiology of experimental poisoning, 170. Physostomi, 307. Pig, destruction of vipers and rattle-snakes by, 125, 222, 226. “immunity to snake-venom due to defence provided by adipose tissue, 222. “serum, devoid of antitoxic substance, 222. Pigeons, vaccination against rattle-snake-venom, 241. “killed by causing them to ingest venom, 180. Pinto, Col. S., on immunity to inoculation, 238, 239. Platurus, 140. “colubrinus, 141. “laticaudatus, 141. “muelleri, 141. “schistorhynchus, 141. Plectognathi (family Gymnodontes), 305. Pliny on salamanders, 312. “treatment of poisonous snake-bites, 259. Plotosus, 308. “lineatus, 308. ““ poison-apparatus of, 308. Plutarch on snake-charmers, 228. Poison-apparatus of Cottus, 293. “Muræna, 309, 310. “Plotosus lineatus, 308. “Scorpæna, 294. “snakes, 8. “Synanceia, 291. “Trachinus (weevers), 297, 298, 299. “venomous fishes, 289. Poison-fang, 8. “action of, 148. “of Proteroglypha grooved, 4, “Viperidæ canaliculate, 5. Poison-gland of Hymenoptera, 281, 282. Poison-gland of non-venomous snakes, 217. “venomous snakes, 10, 11, 12, 13. Polistes, 285. Pompilus, 285. Pondicherry, collection of venom at, 156-158. “Hospital, collection of venom, method, 362. “public notice in, re capture of poisonous snakes, 360. Prairie rattle-snake, 120. See also Sistrurus catenatus. Pravaz syringe, injection of serum with, 263. Precipitins of venoms, 202. Prionurus, 301. Pröscher on extraction of phrynolysin from skins of toads, 320. Proteids, extraction from snake-venom, 163. Proteolytic action of venoms, 204. “““ extent and limitations, 205. Proteroglypha (group of Colubridæ), 4. “bite rapidly produces general intoxication, 168. “poison-fangs of, grooved, 4. “sub-families of, 4. See also Hydrophiinæ; Elapinæ. Proto-albumoses, active principle of snake-venom, 164. “separation from snake-venom, 162, 163. Pseudechis, 87. “venom of, experiments on, 162. ““ ingestion by rats harmless, 181. “australis, 88. “cupreus, 88. “darwiniensis, 88. “ferox, 88. “microlepidotus, 88. “papuanus, 88. “porphyriacus (black snake), 88. ““““ bite dangerous, 100. ““““ secretion of, 149. “scutellatus, 88.
Pseudelaps, 84. “diadema, 85. “harriettæ, So. “krefftii, 85. “muelleri, 84. “squamulosus, 84. “sutherlandi, 86. “warro, 86. Pseudocerastes persicus, 47. Psylli, Egyptian charmers and healers, 228-229. “Roman charmers and healers, 228. “““““ Lucan on, 240. Pterois, 293, 295-296. Puff adder, 69. See also Bitis arietans. Putrefaction, rapid, following death from snake-bite, 211, 212. Pyramids, viper of (Echis carinatus), 76.
Queensland, mortality from snake-bite slight in, 100.
Rabbit, experiments on, demonstrating neutralisation of venom by antitoxin, 255. “minimal doses of various venoms lethal for, 173, 174, 175. “vaccination against cobra-venom, 243. Rascasse, 296. Rat, P., on common viper’s bite, 358. “ingestion of venom of Pseudechis harmless to, 181. “minimal doses of various venoms lethal for, 174. Rat-serum, bacteriolytic action of venom not comparable to, 208. Rattle-snake, common, 125. See also Crotalus durissus. “dog-faced, 124. See also Crotalus terrificus. “ground, 120. See also Sistrurus miliarius. “horned, 129. See also Crotalus cerastes. “Pacific, or mottled, 124. See also Crotalus confluentus. “prairie, 120. See also Sistrurus catenatus. “Texas, 124. See also Crotalus scutulatus. “venom, vaccination of pigeons against, 241. Red Sea, Naseus found in, 301. Reichert on chemical constituents of venom, 160. Renaux, P., on bites from Crotalus horridus, 355. Rennie, Major S. J., case of bite of Bungarus cæruleus, 337. Reptiles, toxicity of blood in, 217. Respiratory centres, nerve-cell of, attacked by albumose of snake-venom, 162. Rhinhoplocephalus, 95. “bicolor, 95. Rhynchelaps, 97. “australis, 98. “bertholdi, 97. “fasciolatus, 98. “semifasciatus, 98. Richards on fatal results of experimental ingestion of venoms, 180. Richet, C., congestin from Anemone scultata prepared by, 270. “thalassin, from Anemone scultata prepared by, 269. Ringhals slang, 63. See also Sepedon hæmachates. River-jack viper, 73. See also Bitis gabonica. Rogers, Major L., experiments on action of venom on nervous centres, 186. ““ researches of, on glands of snakes, 147. Romans, snake-charmers’ customs among, 228. ““““ Lucan on, 240. Roudot, Natalis, on Hindu snake-charmers, 229. Russell, on the venom of daboia (Vipera russellii), 46.
Sachs, on relation of toxins to antitoxins, 254. Salamandarin, 316. See also Salamandrine. Salamander, Japanese, 317. See also Cryptobranchus japonicus. “venom of, closely analogous to that of toad, 321. ““ potency exaggerated by the ancients, 312. Salamanders and toads most dreaded by ancients, 312. Salamandra atra (black salamander), 313. “maculosa (spotted salamander), 313, 314. Salamandridine prepared from venom of salamanders, 317. Salamandrine, prepared from venom of salamanders, 317. Saliva of Heloderma horridum sometimes toxic, sometimes harmless, 323. “venomous, of non-poisonous snakes, 214. Sangis, name of snake-charmers of Bengal, 229. São-Paulo (Brazil), laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, 248, 252. Scales, arrangement of, on heads of poisonous snakes, 14, 15. Scolopendra, 280. Scolopendridæ, bite of, 281. Scorpæna, 288, 289, 293. “poison-apparatus of, 294. “diabolus, 293. “grandicornis, 293. “porcus, 294. Scorpio occitanus, 277, 278. Scorpion, blood of, antitoxic, 279. “manner of stinging, 277. “poison, 278. ““ affinities with that of Colubridæ, 278. ““ neurotoxin of, 278. Scorpionidea (scorpions), 276. Sea-snakes, 131. See also Hydrophiinæ. “ (Hydrophis), venom from, 360. Sepedon hæmachates (spitting snake or ringhals slang), 63. ““ bite of, cure, 337. ““ venom of, purulent ophthalmia discharged by spitting, 63, 64. “““““ caused by projection of, 62, 180. Serous membranes, local effects on, of cobra-venom, slight, 179. ““““ venoms of Viperidæ, severe, 179. Serph, collection of venom. 156. Serranus, 304. “ouatabili, 304. Serum, antivenomous, antineurotoxic, 250, 251. “““ potency against cobra-venom, 250, 251, 252. ““ in treatment of bites of poisonous snakes, 326. “““ yellow fever, 184. ““ method for measuring power of, 256, 257. “““““in vitro, 202. ““ neutralisation of snake-venom by, 253-258. “““““ experiments showing necessary proportions to effect, 254, 255. ““ polyvalent, 251. “““ prepared from horse, 251. ““ preparation of, 246. “““ test-solutions, 217. “““ at Pasteur Institute, Lille, 245-248. “““ special laboratories, 248, 252. Serum, antivenomous, preventive power tested by intravenous injection, 246. ““ rules respecting proportions of quantity to be administered, 266, 267, 268. ““ specificity of, 248. “Calmette’s, in treatment of cobra-bites, 363, 364, 365. “therapeutics, antivenomous, 241-252. “““ technique of, 262-265. “See also Snake serum. Serums, specific against coagulant venoms, 192. Sewall on vaccination of pigeons against rattle-snake venom, 241. Siluridæ, 307, 308. Silurus glanis, 308. Sistrurus, 110, 120. “catenatus (prairie rattle-snake, or massasanga), 120. “miliarius (ground rattle-snake), 120. “ravus, 120. Skin, marks produced on, by bites of different species of snakes (venomous and non-venomous), 10. Smell, loss of, following bite of viper, 178. Smith, MacGarvie, researches of, 149. ““ on chemical constituents of venom, 160. ““ and Martin, C. J., on local and general effects of albumoses derived from snake-venoms, 163. Snake-bite, death from, rapid putrefaction following, 211, 212. “hypoleucocytosis accompanying, in lethal cases, 211, 212. “mortality from, 2, 3, 38, 57, 100, 261, 363. “non-lethal, suppuration following, 212. “poisonous, treatment in domestic animals, 265. “““ men and animals, 259. “““See also Serum therapeutics, antivenomous. Snake-charmers, 228. “deaths from bites, 234. “Egyptian, 228-229. ““ employment of Naja haje for performances, 61. “Indian, 229-234. “Libyan, 228. “Roman, 228. “safety in skill, 234. Snake-serum combined with snake-venom does not destroy red corpuscles, 220. “dissolution of red corpuscles by, 219. Snake-venom, action on heart, 184. ““ kidney, 183. ““ liver, 182. ““ lungs, 184. ““ nervous centres, 185. ““ spleen, 183. ““ striated muscles, 184. “activity greatest after prolonged fasting and after moult, 176. “aids digestion of prey, 213, 214. Snake-venom, antagonism between coagulant and anticoagulant kinds, 194. “antidotes to, before absorption, 260, 261. “artificial introduction into egg of fowl, effect on embryo, 214. “bacteriolytic action, 206. ““ substance in, peculiarities of, 207, 208. “chemical study of, 159. “collection of, 147, 152-158. ““ in French Settlements in India, 359. “combination with lecithin, 254. “combined with snake-serum does not dissolve red corpuscles, 220. “complex effects on tissues, 215. “complexity of means of defence against, 215. “cytolytic action, 206. “diastasic action of, 212. “dried, 149. “effects of, in non-lethal doses, 177. “extraction of, by Hindus, 233. ““ from Alcatifa, for inoculation, 239. “freshly collected, 149. “hypoleucocytosis following fatal dose, 216. “immunity to, 222. ““ from inoculation, 234-235. ““ of herons to, probable, 226, 227. “ingestion of, fails to secure immunity to lethal dose, 214, 215. ““ harmless, 214. “lethal to snakes of other species, 219. “neutralisation by antitoxin, 253-258. ““ injection of antitoxic serum, second step in treatment after bite, 262. “no strict ratio between dose inoculated and time elapsing till death, 177. “parallelism between neurotoxic and hæmolytic action, 255. “prevention of absorption first step in treatment after bite, 262. “produces acute inflammation of mucous membrane, 180. “protective rôle of leucocytes against, 216. “proteolytic action, 204. “reconstitution, method of, 257, 258. “secretion of, 147-152. “temperature lowered after fatal dose, 216. “toxic conditions of, 151. “vaccination against, 241. “variations in local effects of, 176. Snakes, coloration of, 15, 16. ““ subject to biological laws of mimicry, 15, 16. “cranial skeleton of, 6. “dentition of, 6. “moulting of skin, 16, 20. “non-poisonous, arrangement of scales on head of, 14. ““ poison-glands in, 217. ““ venomous saliva of, 214. Snakes, non-poisonous, withstand large doses of venom, 172. “poisonous, all species carnivorous, 17. ““ arrangement of scales on head of, 15. ““ artificial feeding of, 17, 18. ““ bite of, danger diminished by clothing or other means of protection, 170. ““ blood of, toxicity, 217. ““ characterised by special arrangement of facial bones, 6. ““ deaths from, in Queensland, 100. ““ devoured by herons, 227. ““ different species should not be placed in same cage, 219. ““ difficult to distinguish from non-venomous, 2. ““ digestion aided by venom, 213, 214. ““ dread of destruction of, cause of excessive mortality from snake-bite in India, 2. ““ geographical distribution of, 2, 3. ““ habits of, 17. ““ health authorities’ notices respecting, in Australia, 100. ““ kept in captivity, 61, 72, 125, 156, 223. ““ method of capture, 20, 21. “““ striking and seizing prey, 17. ““ muscular apparatus of head of, 11, 12, 13. “of Africa, 57-81. ““ Asia, Dutch Indies and Philippine Islands, 30-57. ““ Australia, 81-100. ““ Europe, 22-29. ““ Malaysia, 81. ““ New Guinea, 81-100. ““ South Sea Islands, 81-100. ““ Sunda Islands, 81. ““ poison-apparatus of, 8. ““ poison-fangs of, 8. ““ poison-glands of, 10, 11, 12, 13. ““ succumb to venom of other species, 173. ““ teeth of, difference in arrangement and dimensions of various species, 9. ““ treatment of bites from, in French Settlements in India, 359. ““ unaffected by enormous doses of their own venom, 172. ““ unknown in New Caledonia, 100. “““New Zealand, 100. ““ victory of mongooses over, in combat, due mainly to natural agility, 225. “worship of, 2. ““ extant in India, 2. Solenoglypha, 109. “bite produces important local disorders, 168. “marks produced on skin by bite of one of, 10. Sonoran coral-snake, 102. See also Elaps euryxanthus. South Sea Islands, poisonous snakes of, 81-100. Sparrows, effect of venom of Heterometrus maurus on, 279. Sphærechinus granularis, poison from pedicellariæ, 273. Spinal cord, comparative actions of venoms of Colubridæ and Viperidæ on, 185, 186. Spiders. See Araneida. Spitting snake, 63. See also Sepedon hæmachates. Spleen, action of venom on, 183. Sponge-divers, malady of, 272. Squamipinnes, 304. Stings (wasp- or bee-), treatment for, 286. Stomach, acute inflammation of gastric mucous membrane produced by ingestion of venoms of Viperidæ, 180. Strongylocentrotus lividus, poison from pedicellariæ of, 273. Strychnine, injection of, of no value as antidote against snake-venom, 261. Sunda Islands, poisonous snakes of, 81. Superstitions, native methods of inoculation full of, 239-240. Suppuration following non-lethal snake-bites, 212. Surucucu or bushmaster, 112. See also Lachesis mutus. Sutherland, Surgeon-Captain, bite from Echis carinatus, 348. Sydney, laboratory for production of antivenomous serum at, 248, 252. Synanceia, 288, 289, 290. “poison-apparatus of, 291. “brachio, 291. Syncope, following inoculation of venom of Synanceia brachio, 292.
Teleostei, 290, 305, 307. Temperature, effect of, on venoms, 161. Tetrodon, 290, 305. “rubripes, 306. “stellatus, 306. Teuthididæ, 301. Teuthis, 301. Texas rattle-snake, 124. See also Crotalus scutulatus. Thalassin, poison from Anemone scultata, 270. Thalassophis, 133. Thalassophryne, 288, 303. “maculosa, 303. “reticulata, 302-303. Thuau on bites from European vipers, 342. Tidswell, F., on venom of Ornithorhynchus, 324. Tiger-snake, 95. See also Notechis scutatus. Toad, common, 318. “green, 318. “musical, 318. “and frog, distinctions between, 318. ““ salamander, much dreaded by ancients, 312. “venom of, 318, 319. ““ active principles of, 319, 320. ““ closely analogous to that of salamander, 321. ““ preparation, 319. ““ exaggerated by the ancients, 312. Trachinidæ, 297. Trachinus (weever), 288, 289, 297. Trachinus (weever) poison-apparatus of, 297, 298, 299. “araneus, 297. “draco, 297. “radiatus, 297. “vipera, 297. Travers, P. M., on bite from Bitis arietans, 350. Trichloride of iodine modifies or destroys venoms, 164. Triglidæ, 290. Trigonocephalus, bites from, 352, 355. Trimeresurus gramineus, 55. See also Lachesis gramineus. “riukianus, 53. See also Lachesis flavoviridis. Triodon, 305. Triton cristatus, 313. “marmoratus, 313, 314. Tropidechis, 94. “carinatus, 94. Tropidonotus matrix (grass-snake), venogen of, 151. Trypanosomes, dissolution by cobra-venom, 207. Tubriwallahs, snake-charmers of Bengal, 229. Tunis, snake-charmers of, 228. Tuxpan, natives of, inoculation methods, 235-237.
Urodela, salamanders belong to order of, 312. Urutù, 115. See also Lachesis neuwiedii.
Vaccination against cobra-venom, 242. ““ snake-venom, 241. Van Denburgh, J., observations on Heloderma horridum, 323. Vatuas, method of inoculation of, 239. Venomous secretion, histology, 151. de Villiers, on common viper’s bite, 357. Viper, common, of Europe. See Vipera berus. “horned, bite from, 349. “inoculation of professional catchers of, in France, 234. Vipera, 43. “zoological characters of, 23, 24. “ammodytes, 29, 69. “aspis (asp, or red viper), 27, 28. ““ bite from, cure, 339. ““ poison-cells, 151. “berus (common viper, or adder), 25, 26. ““ devoured by hedgehogs, 222, 226. ““ mortality from bite, 27. ““ venom of, chemical constituency, 149, 160. “““ immunity of hedgehog to, 226. “““ uncertain coagulant action on blood, 189, 190. “latastii, 28, 69. “lebetina, 44, 69. Vipera raddii, 44. “renardi, 44. “russellii (daboia, or Russell’s viper), 45, 40. ““ muscular apparatus of head of, 11, 12. ““ poison-gland of, 11, 12. ““ protection against, adopted by natives, 46. ““ venom of, coagulant action on blood, diminished when heated, 191. “““ extremely potent, 46. “““ dose lethal for rabbit, 175. “““ ingestion causing death, 180. “superciliaris, 69. “ursinii, 24, 25, 44. Viperidæ, 5, 43, 66. “bites of, local gangrene resulting from, 177. “characteristics of, 5. “geographical distribution, 6. “poison-fangs canaliculate, 5. “species of, bite produces grave local disorders, 168. “sub-families of, 6. See also Viperinæ, Crotalinæ. “venoms of, absorption by digestive tract sets up acute inflammation of gastric mucous membrane, 180. ““ action on nervous centres weak, 185, 186. ““ comparison of coagulant action on blood of various species, 190. ““ easily destroyed by heat, 161. ““ hæmolysing power, weak, 199.
““ lethal effects on mammals, 171. ““ neurotoxin present in those of some species, 249. ““ non-dialytic, 161. ““ produce coagulation of blood, 179, 188, 189. “““ hæmorrhagic injections of peritoneum, 179, 180. ““ recovery after non-lethal doses, slow, 177. “““““ followed by loss of sight, smell, or hearing, 178. ““ recovery after non-lethal doses complicated by visceral hæmorrhages, 177, 178. ““ resemblance in action of that of Japanese salamander to, 317. “““““Ornithorhynchus to, 324. ““ richness in hæmorrhagin, 249. Viperin, chemistry of, 130. Viperinæ, 43, 66, 101. See also Atheris, Atractaspis, Bitis, Causus, Cerastes, Echis, Pseudocerastes, Vipera. “characteristics of, 6. Viscera, hæmorrhages from, complicating recovery from bites of Viperidæ, 177, 178. “hyperæmia of, caused by fatal bite of species of Colubridæ, 171.
Wall, chemical constituents of venom, 160. Waller, fatal instance of rapid poisoning from bite of Naja haje, 60. Walterinnesia, 64. Walterinnesia ægyptia, 65. Wasp, sting of, death from, 283. ““ remedies for, 286. Weevers, 297. See also Trachinus. “stings of, 298, 299. Wehrmann, on diastasic actions of venoms, 212, 213. “experiments on ingestion of venom, 214. Wertheimer, Austrian naturalist, fatally bitten by coral snake, 108. Witch-doctors, remedies of, 237, 238, 239. Wolfenden, Norris, chemical constituents of venom, 160. Wright, O. B., observations on Heloderma horridum, 323.
Yellow fever, treatment by antitoxin of venom, 184.
Zervos, Dr. S., malady of sponge-divers, 272.
Footnotes
1 As regards the distinctive characters of these various snakes, and of the majority of those that we shall describe in this book, we have followed the statements in the “Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History),” vol. iii., by George Albert Boulenger, F.R.S. (London: Printed by order of the Trustees, 1896.)
2 Acad. de médecine, March 19, 1889.
3 Erpétologie générale, t. vii.
4 “Le serpent cracheur de la côte occidentale d’Afrique,” Société Zool. de France, 1895, p. 210. Bavay thinks that the Spitting Snake is a Naja haje, but the description that he gives of the head of the reptile, which was sent to him by Le Naour, certainly agrees with the characters of Sepedon. Moreover, I have satisfied myself that the many specimens of Naja haje that I have kept in captivity in my laboratory never possessed the faculty of spitting their poison to a distance.
5 “The Snakes of Australia,” Sydney, 1869.
6 L. Lannoy, “Thèse de doctorat ès sciences,” Paris, 1903, No. 1,138, série A, 454.
7 “Snake Commission Report,” 1874.
8 Bulletin de l’Académie de Médecine, t. x., 1883, p. 947.
9 Zeitschrift für Biologie, xxiii.
10 Kühne and Chittenden, “Ueber Albumosen,” Zeitschrift für Biologie, 1884.
11 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, 29 février, 1896.
12 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, 1896, p. 489.
13 Province médicale, 21 Septembre, 1901.
14 Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York, 1906.
15 Proc. Roy. Soc., London, lxxiv., 1904, pp. 108-109.
16 Ibid., pp. 104-108.
17 “Communication de l’Institut Sérothérapique de l’État danois,” tome i., Copenhagen, 1906.
18 Indian Annals, July, 1868.
19 Medical News, Philadelphia, 1884.
20 “Zur Pathologie des Schlangenbisses,” Forschungen der Medicin, Berlin, 1890.
21 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, t. xii., 1898, p. 369.
22 Thèse Bordeaux, 1902.
23 Virchow’s Archiv für Pathologie, Anatomie, und Physiologie, Band 179, 1905.
24 Société de Médecine et de Chirurgie de São Paulo (Brazil), June 15, 1904.
25 Medical Record, September 15, 1900.
26 Lancet, January 2, August 20, October 22, 1904, and September 23, 1905.
27 Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. lxxi., 1903.
28 “The Constitution of Snake-venom and Snake-sera,” University of Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin, vol. xv., 1902, p. 345.
29 Fontana, “On Poisons,” translated by J. Skinner: London, 1787.
30 Smithsonian Reports, 1854.
31 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 1860.
32 Medical Times and Gazette, vol. ii., 1873.
33 “On the Physiological Action of the Venom of the Australian Black Snake,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, July, 1895.
34 Indian Medical Gazette, December, 1901.
35 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, November 4, 1899.
36 Ibid., October 28, 1899.
37 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, June, 1904.
38 At the Serum-therapic Laboratory of São Paulo (Brazil), Dr. Vital, Brazil, is at the present time preparing serum specific against Lachesis-venom.
39 Medical Times and Gazette, vol. ii., 1873.
40 “The Thanatophidia of India.” Churchill, London, 1872.
41 “On the Physiological Action of the Venom of the Australian Black Snake,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, July 3, 1895.
42 Archives biologiques, 1897 and 1898; Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, October 28, 1899.
43 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, October 28, 1899; November 4, 1899; July 26, 1902.
44 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, June, 1904.
45 Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, 1899-1900.
46 Journal of Experimental Medicine, March 17, 1902; University of Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin, November, 1902.
47 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, June 16, 1902.
48 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, No. 27, 1902.
49 Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, Nos. 38, 39, 1902; Nos. 2-4, 1903; Nos. 42-43, 1903.
50 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, 1904, p. 387.
51 Journal of Experimental Medicine, 1905, No. 2, pp. 191-222.
52 Lancet, April 2, 1904, pp. 916-921.
53 “The Constitution of Snake-venoms and Snake-sera,” University of Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin, vol. xv., November, 1902, p. 345.
54 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, August 11, 1902.
55 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, June, 1904.
56 “Sur l’action protéolytique des venins,” Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, September, 1902, and Thèse Paris, No. 1,138, 1903.
57 “On the Plurality of Cytolysins in Snake-venom,” University of Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin, vol. xvi., 1903, p. 163.
58 Ann. Soc. Méd. de Gand, 1905, fasc. 3.
59 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, April, 1905.
60 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, 1898.
61 Thèse Paris, No. 1138, 1903.
62 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, August 11, 1902.
63 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, January 11, 1896.
64 Wehrmann, Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, 1897 and 1898.
65 Carrière, “Sur le sort des toxines et des antitoxines dans le tube digestif,” ibid., 1898, p. 435.
66 British Medical Journal, 1895 and 1897.
67 Chatenay, “Les réactions leucocytaires vis-à-vis de certaines toxines,” Thèse Paris, 1894.
68 Flexner and Noguchi, “Snake-venom in Relation to Hæmolysis, Bacteriolysis, and Toxicity,” Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. vi., March 17, 1902.
69 “Trattado del veneno della vipera,” 1787.
70 Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie, Bd. ix., 1873.
71 Morphologisches Jahrbuch, Bd. viii., 1883.
72 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, January 20, 1894.
73 Archives de Physiologie, 1894.
74 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, January 22, 1894.
75 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, January 13, 1894.
76 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, 1897.
77 Archives italiennes de Biologie, 1888 and 1889.
78 Archives de Physiologie, 1894.
79 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, July 25, 1903.
80 Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, May, 1903.
81 Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology, 1900, p. 273.
82 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, July 1, 1905.
83 “The Jungle Book,” by Rudyard Kipling. London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd. Reprint of 1905, pp. 183, 184.
84 Deutsche medicinische Wochenschrift, 1898.
85 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1895, p. 639, and 1899, p. 77; Bulletin du Muséum d’Histoire naturelle, 1895, t. i., p. 294, t. ii., p. 100.
86 “Aperçu général sur l’Egypte.” Paris, 1840.
87 Brehm’s “Thierleben”; French edition, “Les Reptiles,” p. 480.
88 Maclure’s Magazine, April, 1894.
89 British Medical Journal, August 17, 1895.
90 Archives de médecine navale, 1867, p. 390.
91 Revue scientifique, 1892, p. 254.
92 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, February 24, 1896.
93 “The Pharsalia of Lucan, translated into blank verse by Edward Ridley, Q.C., sometime Fellow of All Souls’ College, Oxford.” (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1896). Book ix., p. 296, lines 1,046 to 1,065.
94 Journal of Physiology, vol. viii., 1887, p. 203.
95 “Les Vipères de France,” p. 136 (1889).
96 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, 1892, p. 181.
97 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, t. 118, February, 1894, p. 356, March, 1894, p. 720; Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, February, 1894, pp. 111, 120; Archives de Physiologie, July, 1894; Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, May, 1894, p. 275, April, 1895, p. 225.
98 British Medical Journal, June 15, 1895.
99 Cf. papers by George Lamb, Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India, New Series, Nos. 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 16; L. Rogers, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. lxxii., and Lancet, February 6, 1904; C. J. Martin, Intercolonial Medical Journal of Australasia, August 20, 1897, April 20, 1898; Dr. Hunter, Lancet, January 2, 1904; Dr. Tidswell, Australasian Medical Gazette, April 21, 1902; A. Calmette, Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, May 2, 1904; Dr. Vital Brazil, “Contribution a l’étude de l’intoxication ophidienne” (separately published pamphlet), Paris, 1905; G. Bill, Intercolonial Medical Journal of Australasia, July 20, 1902.
100 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, 1895, No. 4.
101 “The Nature of the Antagonism between Toxins and Antitoxins,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. lxiii., 1898, p. 420.
102 Calmette, Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, 1902, No. 24; Preston Kyes, Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1904, No. 19.
103 Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1905, No. 50.
104 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, September, 1881.
105 “Le venin de la vipère,” Paris, 1889.
106 Transactions of the Third Intercolonial Congress, 1892, p. 152.
107 “Les morsures de vipères chez les animaux,” Recueil de médecine vétérinaire d’Alfort, May 15, 1897.
108 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, December 13, 1902; June 6, July 25, 1903; February 20, 1904.
109 Semaine médicale, June 24, 1903.
110 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, May 19, 1906.
111 “El Latrodectus formidabilis de Chile,” by Fredérico Puga-Borne, Santiago, 1892; and “Biologia Centrali-Americana,” Arachnida, vol. ii., pl. 35.
112 Blackwell, “Experiments and Observations on the Poison of Araneida,” Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, 1855, p. 31. See also “Insect Life” (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1889), vol. i., parts 7, 8, 9 and 10, and vol. ii., part 5.
113 “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Giftspinnen.” Stuttgart, 1901.
114 “Zur Kenntniss des Kreuzspinnengiftes,” Hofm. Beiträge, ii., p. 125, 1902.
115 Joyeux-Laffuie, “Appareil venimeux et venin de scorpion” (Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Science), Paris, 1883; and Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, November 6, 1882.
116 “Ueber die Giftwirkung des Nordafrikanischen Skorpiones,” Zeitschrift für Biologie, Bd. xii., p. 170, 1876.
117 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1885, p. 574.
118 Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1903, Nos. 42, 43.
119 Annales de l’Institut Pasteur, 1895, p. 232.
120 Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xlii., 1887, p. 17.
121 “L’immunité dans les maladies infectieuses,” Paris, 1901.
122 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, November 15, 1904.
123 “La scolopendre et sa piqure,” Thèse Paris, 1887.
124 “Appareil venimeux et venin de la scolopendre,” Thèse Montpellier, 1885.
125 “Lehrbuch der Anatomie der Wirbellosen Tiere,” 1848.
126 Arch für anat. Wissensch., 1859.
127 Comptes rendus de l’Acad. des Sciences, 1884.
128 “Appareil glandulaire des hyménoptères,” Paris, 1894.
129 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, 1898.
130 Annales sc. Anat. Zoologie, 8e série, t. x., 1898.
131 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, July 25, 1890.
132 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, July 24, 1905.
133 Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1906, No. 44.
134 Comptes rendus de l’Académie de Médecine, t. liii., 1905, p. 498.
135 “Traité de zoologie médicale,” t. ii. (Paris).
136 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, January 17, 1908.
137 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, February 25, 1905.
138 “Les poissons venimeux,” Thèse Paris, 1889.
139 “Poissons venimeux et poissons vénéneux,” Archives de Physiologie, May, 1872; Archives de médecine navale, February, 1865, and January, 1881.
140 “Poissons venimeux et poissons vénéneux,” Thèse Paris, 1899.
141 “Les poissons vénéneux,” Paris, 1900.
142 “Sédentarité des poissons venimeux,” Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1895, p. 86.
143 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1904, p. 666.
144 Thèse Paris, 1884.
145 Bulletin du Muséum d’histoire naturelle, 1899.
146 “Giftfische und Fischgifte,” Vorträge im Rostocker Fischerverein, 1902, and Die medizinische Wochenschrift, 1902.
147 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, October 25 and November 8, 1902, and June 21, 1904; Journal de Physiologie, March, 1903.
148 Brehm (Sauvage’s translation), “Les Merveilles de la Nature—Reptiles et Batraciens” (Paris, 1885).
149 Hoppe-Seyler’s “Med.-chem. Untersuchungen,” Berlin, 1866.
150 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, April 1, 1889, and January 29, 1890.
151 Ibid., 1890.
152 “Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Salamandarins und Salamanderalkaloïde,” Archiv. f. experimentale Pathologie und Pharmakologie, Bd. xli., 1898, p. 219, and Bd. xliii., 1900, p. 84.
153 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1897, pp. 723, 823.
154 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, April 21, 1851, and May, 1852.
155 Journal de Thérapeutique, 1877, p. 929.
156 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, February 25, 1884.
157 Archives de Physiologie, 1893, p. 511.
158 Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie, Bd. ii., 1889, p. 57.
159 “Zur Kenntniss des Krotengiftes,” Hofm. Beiträge, Bd. i., 1901, p. 575.
160 “Ueber Bufonin und Bufotalin,” Leipzig, 1902; and Archiv für experimentale Pathologie und Pharmakologie, December, 1902.
161 “Rapports des venins avec la biologie générale,” Revue générale des Sciences, December 30, 1903.
162 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, December 14, 1903.
163 H. Coupin, La Nature, September 19, 1903.
164 “On the Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, its Venomous Spur and General Structure,” Trans. Linn. Soc., 1822, p. 622.
165 “Observations on the Femoral Gland of Ornithorhynchus and its Secretion;” Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. ix., July, 1894.
166 “Note sur la sécrétion venimeuse de l’Ornithorhynchus paradoxus,” Comptés rendus de la Société de Biologie, March 12, 1904.
167 “On the Effects of Wounds Inflicted by the Spurs of the Platypus,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, 1876.
168 The photographs, by which this note was accompanied, are reproduced in Chapter IV. of this volume, pp. 155, 157, 158.
169 Polygala telophioides, Will.
170 We subsequently learnt that he had informed his friends of his intention, but had not said a word about it to his wife.
171 The thick and cloudy appearance of the contents of the bottles made us hesitate to have recourse to intravenous injection.
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