Chapter XXIX Names and Superstitions
Giving names the first amusement—Curious and odd names—A spiteful naturalist—The melancholy Bartzia—Common names—British orchids—Dancing girls and columbines—Susans—Biblical names—Almond, apple, locust—Spikenard—Tares—Effects of darnel—Daffodil—Acanthus leaf—Ghost-disturbing branches—Elder or bour tree—Its powers and medicinal advantage—Danewort—Mandrake—How to pull it up—The insane root—Its properties—Plants which make bones pink—The betel nut—Henna—Egyptian and Persian uses—Castor oil—Leeks, onions, and garlic—Ancient use of them.
Man has always taken a certain pleasure in giving names to both plants and animals. It was, of course, a necessity to do this, but it is probable that people enjoyed the process as they do now.
At the present moment there must be at least 200,000 plants named and described by botanists. So that the number of ecstatic moments enjoyed by humanity has been undoubtedly increased.
The Egyptians, the Babylonians, and the Arabs named a great many plants, but for the most part those names are quite lost. Most of the knowledge of the Egyptians and Babylonians remained a close secret confined to their priestly colleges or universities, and has entirely perished.
For centuries those fragments of the knowledge of Greece and Egypt which were preserved seem to have been translated and taught in Latin. Long after the Roman Empire had passed away, all knowledge, including that of medicine, of botany, and of law, was imparted in Latin, which indeed was supposed to be learnt by every educated person almost until the present century.
Even now descriptions of new plants have to be given in Latin, and the name must have a classical appearance. Of course, nowadays, it would be much more convenient and much more generally useful if every person learnt English, German, French, and Japanese, but in this case of naming plants, the Holy Roman Empire still exercises its sway over the whole world.
Very often the names given to plants are of the most extraordinary character. The Latin is curious and the Greek remarkable, yet sometimes they are both pleasant to the ear and have a pretty and poetical meaning.
Poggeophyton, on the other hand, for example, means the plant discovered by Dr. Pogge, a German botanical explorer. Wormskioldia, Zahlbrucknera, Krascheninikowia, Acanthosicyos, Chickrassia, Orychophragmus, Warczewiczia, Lychnophoriopsis, Krombholtzia, Pseudorhachicallis, Sczegleewia, Zschokkia, are all names that sound harsh and look odd to us. Yet most of them are just called after those who discovered them, or their friends. In many of the smaller microscopic plants the names are really much longer than the plants themselves. Thus Pseudocerataulus Kinkeri is a diatom which cannot possibly be seen without the use of a microscope.
Names are and were given in the most extraordinary way. Not merely great botanists, but Themistocles, Aristides, Aristobulus, Virgil, and even Gyas and Clianthes, have plants named after them.
Yet that is not inexcusable, if people had not sufficient inventive power to do better. There was a naturalist who quarrelled with the great French scientist Buffon. Therefore he baptized as Buffonia a group of ugly, unimportant little plants which had an unpleasant smell. In other cases people have named plants after their sweethearts or friends.
A British plant called Bartzia has a rather melancholy, desolate appearance. It was named when the author had just received the news of the death of his friend Dr. Bartsch.
One of the most usual complaints which one hears from those who are beginning to study flowers is that the Latin names are so difficult and hard to remember. But they are not really more difficult than the common popular names, and especially those of foreign plants. Cheirostemon, for instance, which means stamens like a hand, is much easier to speak and to remember than Macpalxochitlquahuitl, which is its soft, meandering, Spanish-American name. Asperula (little rough one) is quite as good as Squinancywort, which means a herb good for quinsy (it is moreover of no good in quinsy). Perhaps, however, Woodruff (which is really “wood rowel,” from the resemblance of the leaves to an old-fashioned spur), or Waldmeister (master of the woods), are as good names as Asperula. Then Erigeron, which means “soon growing old,” is an excellent description of the faded appearance of this little weed, for which the popular name is Fleabane (it has no effect upon these creatures whatsoever).
How popular names came to be associated with particular flowers is generally quite unknown. A fair number are called from the diseases which they are supposed to cure. Lungwort, however, was so called because the lichen Pulmonaria has a resemblance to lungs. Then in course of time people began to suppose it was a cure for diseases of the lungs, which it is not.
The British Orchids are called Bee, Spider, Fly, and Hanging-man Orchids, because of a fancied resemblance to their namesakes. Dancing-girls (Mantisia) was so called from a certain resemblance of the flower to a columbine. The true Columbine (Aquilegia) was so called because of a resemblance which some one saw to a circle of little doves with wings seated on a circular well.
The greatest objection to popular names, however, lies in their being so indefinite. Entirely different plants are known by the same name, and also in different parts of the country totally different names are given to the same plant. All such difficulties disappear if one takes the trouble to learn the Latin names.
These also are often quite pretty. Luzula, Veronica (with its pretty legend), Mimulus (the little monkey), Circæa (Enchanter’s Nightshade), Senecio (the old man, from its woolly head of fruits), Nymphea, Naias, Carlina (the old witch), and so on, are quite as pretty and as nice as Mugwort, Devil-in-a-bush, Hairy Rock Cress, and the rest. One curious result of the use of popular names is seen in the Biblical names of plants. The Rose of Sharon seems most probably to have been Narcissus Tarzetta, and not a rose at all. As regards the lilies of the Field, Mr. Ridley has the following remarks. The Hebrew word Shushan was a generic name given to a mixture of flowers, exactly as we now talk of ferns, herbs, or grass. The Sermon on the Mount was preached near the plain of Gennesaret, and there flourish the Anemone (Anemone coronaria), Ranunculus asiaticus, and Adonis aestivalis and flammea, which are exactly of the same colour and follow each other in close succession. This word Shushan is the original of the Christian name Susannah or Susan. The Arabic name for Anemone coronaria is Susan.
The Almond of the Bible is the common almond which is wild in Syria and Palestine. “Aaron’s rod that budded was a branch of an almond tree; the bowls of the Golden Candlestick were designed from the almond blossom. Even at the present time English workmen call the glass drops for ornamenting candlesticks almonds.” The Apple of the Bible was more probably an Apricot. The husks of the prodigal son were probably the Locust-beans, sometimes called St. John’s bread, but it is quite probable that the “locusts” eaten by St. John were the insects. At any rate, locusts are regularly eaten in the East. The Locust Tree (Ceratonia siliqua), or Algaroba or Carob, has large, dark-purple pods; there is a pulpy material between the seeds which forms a valuable cattle food. The seeds are said to have been the original “carat” weight of jewellers.
The Spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi) belongs to the natural order Valerianaceæ. It is a wild plant of Bhutan found near Rangasnati, in India, and in ancient times it was transported on camels by the regular caravan route to Syria, Greece, and Rome. It was then worth about £3. 10s. per lb. The essence is obtained from the roots, but one hundred pounds of roots will furnish only half a pound of essence. Now it has but little value.154
The Tares sown amongst the wheat were probably the seed of the Darnel. When growing, this grass is very like wheat, and it would be quite possible to mistake one for the other until the flowers and fruit are formed. Darnel is one of the very few poisonous grasses. It is said that the poison is produced by a fungus which is found in the grain. When darnel seed is ground up with wheat the bread becomes dangerous, for the poison produces severe headache, vertigo, and giddiness. Other authorities say that it causes in man and rabbits eruptions, fits of trembling, and confusion of sight. It seems not to affect horned cattle, swine, and ducks.
As regards those plants which were specially beloved and venerated by the Greeks, there is not very much to say. Moly seems to have been Allium moly, one of the onion or garlic family. It is not very remarkable in any way. Amaranth was apparently the garden Love-lies-bleeding, called in France Queue-de-Renard and Discipline-de-Religieuse. The Asphodel which covered the Elysian fields seems to be Asphodelus ramosus. 155 This grows in quantities in Apulia, and is said to afford good nourishment for sheep.
The Myrtle, with which the Athenian magistrates and victors in the Olympic games were crowned, is not really a European plant, though it has a wide range from Asia Minor to Afghanistan. It was sacred to Venus, and had some importance as a medicinal plant and for perfumes. It was even used in cookery and for making myrtle wine, which last is said to be still prepared in some parts of Tuscany.
“Narcissus, son of the river Cephisus and of Liriope, daughter of the Ocean, was a young man of great beauty who scorned all the Nymphs of the country, and made to die of languor Echo, because he would not respond to her passion. But one day returning from the chase weary and fatigued, he stopped at the side of a fountain to refresh himself. There having seen his own face in the water, he was so smitten with it and so greatly loved himself that he died of grief. The Gods, touched by his death, changed him into a Daffodil, according to the fable.”
Such is the account in M. l’Abbé Ladvocat’s Dictionnaire Historique-Portatif, Paris, 1760. Daffodil means appearing early in the year. The number of races, varieties, and forms of Daffodil, Jonquil, etc., has become innumerable; yet it is doubtful if any are quite so graceful and absolutely charming as the Narcissus poeticus, supposed to be the original of the above legend.
The Acanthus leaf which was so much used in sculpture seems to have been that of Acanthus spinosus. It can still be traced in modern carving, though, of course, it is very much altered and in a rather degenerate form.
It is often very difficult to say why certain plants have received so much attention and veneration in ancient times. In some cases it is clearly because they are poisonous, and therefore become dreadful and awe-inspiring. Why, however, should a twig of Rowan (Pyrus Aucuparia) be so often placed above the door of a Highland cottage? In some way it was supposed to keep off evil spirits, but there is no special reason why it should have been chosen.
The “Bour Tree” or Elder (Sambucus) has been the centre of a whole series of extraordinary and remarkable superstitions. Of the Ellhorn (Low Saxon), or Sambucus nigra, Arnkiel gives the following account: “Our forefathers also held the Ellhorn holy, wherefore whosoever need to hew it down must first make his request, ‘Lady Ellhorn, give me some of thy wood, and I will give thee some of mine when it grows in the forest’—the which, with bended knees, bare head, and folded arms, was ordinarily done.”
The flowers are an eye-wash and cosmetic, or they may be taken as tea or used as a fomentation. The berries are used for “elderberry wine.”
A certain cure for rheumatism is to carry about a small piece of elder cut after the fashion of a rude cross.
Evelyn speaking of it says: “If the medicinal properties of the leaves, bark, berries, etc., were thoroughly known, I cannot tell what our countrymen could ail for which he might not fetch a remedy from every hedge, either for sickness or wound.”
The other species (Sambucus ebulus, or Danewort) has had its name explained as follows by Sir J. E. Smith: “Our ancestors evinced a just hatred of their brutal enemies the Danes in supposing the nauseous, fetid, and noxious plant before us to have sprung from their blood.”
Of all these, however, the Mandrake (Mandragora) is connected with the most extraordinary and remarkable superstitions. The plant is distinctly poisonous, and has peculiar divided roots which sometimes have a very rough resemblance to the human body. It was supposed to be alive, and to utter the most piercing shrieks when it was pulled out of the ground. In those accounts, which are based on that given by Josephus, it is the person who pulls out the root, and not the plant, that shrieks, subsequently rolls on the ground, and finally dies in torments. Therefore, if you wish to pull up a mandrake, the correct course to pursue is as follows: Tie a dog to the plant by its tail, and then whip the dog. It will pull up the mandrake, and then die in frightful agony!
This is the “insane root” of Macbeth, but its various uses, real or pretended, are too numerous to explain in detail.
Thus it was used for the following purposes: as a poison, an emetic, a narcotic like chloroform, in love-philtres and love-charms, as well as to dispel demons, who cannot bear its smell or its presence.
There are many of these relics of medieval times which are difficult to explain or to find a reason for.
Why, for instance, should old women always carry a sprig of Southernwood to the kirk in their Bibles? The leaves are, however, said to be disagreeable to insects. The Lavender stalks usually placed in linen both keep away insects and have a pleasant old-world scent.
A great many of the properties possessed by plants are of the most extraordinary and unsuspected nature. The roots of the Madder (Rubia tinctorum), for instance, when they are eaten by swine or other animals, change the colour of their bones, which become pink. This curious property has actually been made useful, for physiologists have employed madder in the study of the growth and development of bone.
In India and other eastern countries one is often shocked and surprised to find an apparently quite healthy native expectorating blood in a most lavish manner.
But the native is only chewing Betel nuts, which have the power of turning the saliva red. The fruit is that of Areca Catechu, a fine palm which is cultivated, for this purpose only, in many parts of India and the East. The nuts are cut in pieces and rolled up with a little lime in leaves of the Betel pepper. It is said to turn the teeth red and sometimes to produce intoxication; at any rate, people become slaves to this disgusting habit, and they do not seem to be at all injured by indulgence in it.
Another extraordinary plant is Henna (Lawsonia inermis). The Egyptian mummies are found to have the soles of the feet, as well as the palms and finger-and toe-nails, dyed a reddish-orange colour by the use of henna. But the practice is continued to-day in most parts of the East, and no odalisque’s toilet would be considered complete without the use of henna. It is even said that men dye their beards with it.
The white horse used in processions by the Shah of Persia has its legs, tail, and body dyed with henna.
The powdered leaves are used: they are made into a paste with hot water, and then spread upon the place. It is grown in Syria, Egypt, Algeria, China, Morocco, Nubia, Guinea, and the East Indies.
In China women dye their eyebrows with an extract of the petals of Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis.
One of the first plants to be utilized by man was the Castor-oil (Ricinus communis). It was used by the Indians from time immemorial; it is mentioned by Herodotus (under the name Kiki); seeds have been found in mummy-cases, showing the careful preparations which were made for the dead when starting on their travels in the other world!
It is one of the very commonest plants in the tropics and in sub-tropical or warm, temperate countries. It is rather handsome, and has large reddish-green leaves and handsome spikes of flowers. It is said to be sometimes twelve feet high, but is usually only six or seven feet. The seeds are mottled or marbled, and have a distinct resemblance to a beetle when seen from above. It has been suggested that this protects them from birds, or enables the latter to recognize the seed, which is strongly medicinal. That, however, is at least doubtful, and certainly pigeons are exceedingly fond of the seeds and eat them in quantity. The oil is used for lighting, in making soap, and also in painting.
Another characteristic Egyptian plant was the Leek, which with the onion and garlic seems to have been one of the very first to be brought into cultivation. Herodotus says that on the Great Pyramid there was an inscription saying that 1600 talents had been paid for onions, radishes, and garlic used by the workmen during its erection.
The Jewish priests were forbidden to eat garlic, which (with cucumber) formed the dishes most regretted by the Israelites during their wanderings in the wilderness. The Shallot comes from Ascalon, where it will be remembered Richard the First defeated Saladin the Sultan, and where also Sir Sidney Smith defeated the Emperor Napoleon and made him miss his destiny. It was not brought to this country till 1548. Probably, therefore, Tennyson’s Lady of Shalott lived somewhere else. Onions and leeks are of course popular in this country, and especially in Wales, where the latter has been the badge of the Welsh since they gained a victory over the Saxons in the sixth century. They wore it as a badge on that occasion by an order of St. David.
But in warmer countries onions and garlic are much more important, where they have flavoured almost every dish since the days of Nestor’s banquet to Machaon in Asia, and of the Emperor Nero in Italy, until our own days.
But the subject is so inexhaustible, depending as it does upon man’s powers of invention and his tendency to weird superstitions, that we must close this chapter and also the book.
And we will end by asking the reader to think sometimes of all these many and various ways in which plants help and interest man.
It is not merely because our life depends upon them. Everything that we eat has been produced by plant life and plant work.
Tea, coffee, cocoa, and wine are pleasant because plants have produced some essence which is found useful and agreeable by mankind. Even water would be tasteless and unwholesome were it not for the minute diatoms and other microscopic vegetables in it.
But those who take an interest in flowers and leaves for themselves, find that they need never spend a dull hour in the country. There is so much to see and to find out, even in the commonest weed or the tiniest floweret.
But it is necessary to sympathize with them, to try to look at things from their point of view, and not merely from an artistic or collector’s standpoint.
The romance of plant life then becomes a fascinating and engrossing pursuit. But however long one studies it, the knowledge that the wisest naturalist can ever attain to must remain a negligible quantity compared with what he does not know.
Suppose a mouse happened to stray into the office of the editor of the Times, he might boast to his fellow-mice of his knowledge of the “higher journalism,” but his opinions would not really be of very great value on the subject.
However hard we study, and however much we observe and reflect upon the working of this great world of Nature, we really cannot expect to know more relatively than that little mouse.
In fact, the more we think, the more humble men of heart we become, and the greater also should be our reverence for the Creator of this wonderful universe.
Footnotes
1 Kerner, Natural History of Plants; also Scott Elliot, Nature Studies—Plant Life.
2 The gas Carbonic acid consists of one part of Carbon and two of Oxygen. It is invisible, just as are the gaseous states of many liquids and solids. Water-vapour is not visible, though water (liquid) and ice can of course be seen. Starch, sugar, cell wall substance, etc., all contain Carbon, Oxygen, and Hydrogen. Vegetable fat is not well understood, but starch helps to form it.
3 The ascent is assisted by the osmotic absorption of water at the root and by evaporation at the leaves.
4 This is still the custom in the huts of the wizard or medicine-man in West Africa, where one finds small cushions stuck over with all sorts of poisonous plants, bits of human bones, and other loathsome accessories.
5 Cooke, British Fungi.
6 The same “woad” which was used by the Britons to paint themselves with.
7 Lascelles, Pharm. Journ., 23 May, 1903.
8 Bonnier, Cours de Botanique.
9 Saccardo, Atti d. Congresso, Bot. Intern. di Genova, 1892.
10
“Guarda il calor del sol che si fa vino
Giunto all’ umor che dalla vite cola.”
He is speaking of wine—that “lovable blood,” as he describes it.
11 Hartig finds the specific gravity of the wood in a tree is increased from 0-60 to 0.74 when the surrounding wood has been cut down.—Bot. Central, vol. xxx, p. 220.
12 Bonnier, Cours de Botanique.
13 Bonnier, l.c.
14 Dunlop House, Kilmarnock.
15 It will be remembered that they were obliged to keep the sacred fire always burning, and were put to death if they misbehaved. The fire was never allowed to go out during the whole of Roman history, and the custom has been even preserved in some Roman Catholic convents and chapels.
16 Seven Seas.
17 Munro, Lake Dwellings.
18 Royal Dublin Society, vol. i. part v. No. 11.
19 Niven, Bot. Section British Association, 1901.
20 Boyd Watt, Cairngorm Club Journal, vol. iv. No. 20, January, 1903; Smith, Lewis, Roy. Geog. Soc. Journal.
21 The Romans used it for ships’ masts and spars.
22 Most of these interesting details are found in Boulger’s valuable treatise on “Wood.”
23 Compare the report by the Society of Arts.
[24] The Toll of the Bush.
25 The historical account by Bonnier, Cours de Botanique, is very interesting and complete.
26 The pollen from the great pine forests of the Italian Alps blown up to the snow becomes used in nourishing the Pink or Red Snow Algæ, which colours it a delicate rose-pink. In lower grounds all such pollen becomes, like leaf-mould, a manure for other plants. There is no waste, strictly speaking.
27 Pharmaceutical Journal, May 20th, 1899.
28 Buscalioni e Traverso, Atti del Ist. Bot. di Pavia, vol. 10, 1904.
29 Von Buttel, Respen.
30 Linnæus and many others have made Floral Clocks. Kerner, Natural History of Plants, describes the opening and closing of flowers very fully.
31 Huck, Unsere Honig u. Bienenpflanzen. These are drawn up for Germany, and cannot be warranted for this country.
32 Memories of the Months.
33 Compare Shelley, who watched all day “the yellow bees in the ivy bloom,” but he “did not heed what things they be.” Moreover, though he appreciated the general spirit of the bee, it is very unlikely that he saw any of them on the Ivy!
34 Kerner and Oliver, l.c., vol. 1, p. 88.
35 Annals of Botany, 1904.
36 Lilienfeld, Beihefte z. Botan. Centralblatt, Band XIV., abth 1, pp. 131-212. The facts were denied by Newcombe and Rhodes, Bot. Gazette, 36, 1904.
37 If the growing part itself touches a stone it curves round the stone, not away from it—the reverse of the reaction at the tip!
38 Pfeffer, l.c., p. 139.
39 This weed is a cure for gout, and seems to have been called Bishopsweed because it was supposed that gout was a common ailment of bishops!
40 By the classical researches of Rimbach.
41 Scott Elliot and Fingland, Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow, vol. 5, New Series, part ii., 1897-8.
42 See Rimbach’s researches.
43 Schimper, Pflanzengeographie. The account is based on the works of Pynaert, Sachs, Askenasy, etc.
44 Kerner, Natural History of Plants (Blackie), vol. 1, p. 468.
45 Naturalist in Mid-Africa.
46 Naturalist in Mid-Africa.
47 Floyer.
48 Drude, Vegetation der Erde.
49 Drude, l.c.
50 Rawlinson, Story of Egypt.
51 Ridley, l.c.; Lindley, l.c.; Maisch, Materia Medica.
52 This was suggested by Tyndall, but has been denied by others.
53 Journal Society of Arts, August, 1896.
54 Heuzé, Les Plantes Industrielles. Most of the following details are obtained from this valuable work.
55 4,400,000 pounds of roses were produced in France in one year.
56 In 1899 Philippopolis produced 1800-2000 kilogrammes of otto of roses, worth 700 to 800 francs the kilo. (Pharm. Journ. Sept. 1st, 1900).
57 Watt, Economic Dictionary of the Products of India. This valuable work of reference should be consulted for interesting details as to all the plants cited in this chapter.
[58] Wrightson, Journal R. Agr. Soc., Second Series, vol. 10, part ii. p. 312; Jenkins, Ibid., vol. 11, part i. p. 192; De Lanne, Ibid., vol. 23, part i. p. 213. Carter, Tobacco in England.
59 Dunning, Tobacco, 1876.
60 Journal Society of Arts, March, 1896.
61 Darwin, Naturalist’s Voyage round the World in the Beagle, p. 387.
62 Schimper, l.c., p. 674.
63 Schimper, l.c., p. 653.
64 Ridley, Pharmaceutical Journal, May 19th, 1900.
65 Scott Elliot, Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. 18, p. 243.
66 Used to make billiard balls.
67 Kipling.
68 As the story probably differs in detail for every district, the author is obliged to confine himself to ground which he has actually seen and studied.
69 Mr. Chisholm, Geographical Journal, November, 1897.
70 Sir H. Maxwell, Memories of the Months, First Series.
71 This may of course have been an exaggeration, a sort of joke. But he had no right to make jokes on such a subject.
72 Mr. John Murray, of Murraythwaite, referring probably to 1780, from Singer, Agricultural Survey of Dumfriesshire, 1812.
73 The agricultural rents in Dumfriesshire were valued in 1656 at £13,225, in 1790-1800 as £109,700, in 1808 £219,037 10s. 8d. In 1905 the value per acre was from £1 to £2.
74 Warming, Lehrbuch der Œcol Pfl. Geog.
75 Drude, l.c.; Schimper, l.c.; Warming, l.c.; Colonial Reports, No. 3, Miscellaneous. Schimper, Indo-Malayische Strandflora.
[75-b] Drude, l.c.; Schimper, l.c.; Warming, l.c.; Colonial Reports, No. 3, Miscellaneous. Schimper, Indo-Malayische Strandflora.
76 Flahault, after Schimper, l.c.
77 Lecidea has at least 230 species on British stones and rocks (Leighton).
78 Engler, Humboldt’s Centenaarschrift, 1889.
79 Warming, Lehrbuch der Oekol. Pfl. Geog.
80 Kerner, l.c., vol. I, p. 447.
81 Scott, Annals of Botany, vol. 11, p. 327.
82 Scott Elliot, Naturalist in Mid Africa.
83 Mr. Thomas Hamilton, Researches by Lanarkshire Teachers, 1902-3.
84 Lindley’s Treasury of Botany.
85 Ridley, Pharmac. Journ., May 19, 1900.
86 Maxwell, Memories of the Months, First Series, 1, pp. 74-76.
87 Kerner, l.c.
88 Ridley l.c.
89 Evelyn, Silva.
90 Third Series, p. 60.
91 Memories of the Months, Third Series, p. 366.
92 I had expressed some doubt in my Nature Studies: Plant Life.
93 l.c., vol. I, p. 433.
94 Origin of Plant Structures, pp. 38-40.
95 Errera, Un Ordre de Recherches trop négligé. See also Ludwig, Biologie d. Pflanzen, p. 210.
96 Gard. Chronicle, 32, 390.
97 Lindley, l.c.; Ludwig, l.c.
98 Memories of the Month, First Series, p. 73.
99 Flowers, Fruit, and Leaves.
100 Nestler, Sitz. d. K. Akad. d. Wiss. Wien, vol. 3, p. 27.
101 Squiers, “On the Absorption of Electro-magnetic Waves by Living Vegetable Organisms,” December 3, 1904.
102 Cooke, British Freshwater Algæ, on the authority of Phillips, Trans. Shropshire Natural History Society.
103 Dickie, Journal Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. 3, p. 79.
104 Coaz, Mittheilungen d. Naturf, Berne, 1886.
105 Schimper, l.c.; Drude, l.c.
106 Ling Roth, Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. 22, London, 1892; and Mason, l.c.
107 Tristram, Land of Israel; Mason, Origin of Inventions, p. 298.
108 The pupil of the eye is enlarged by belladonna.
109 British Association, Liverpool, 1896, Section K.
110 Plants Reputed Poisonous to Stock. Bailey & Gordon, Brisbane.
111 Reid, Origin of the British Flora.
112 Queensland in 1900 had 6215 acres, and produced 2,321,108 bunches of bananas.
113 Journal Royal Horticultural Society, vol. 27, part iv.
114 Reid, Origin of the British Flora.
115 Ludwig, Biologie d. Pflanzen.
116 Ludwig, l.c., after Ihne, Frauenfeld, Shaw.
117 Darbishire, Trans. and Proc. of Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. 23, part 1.
118 Kerner, Natural History of Plants, vol. 2.
119 Or whenever they could do so successfully. (Publisher’s note.)
120 Hackel, True Grasses.
121 Hackel, True Grasses.
122 De Candolle, Origin of Cultivated Plants.
123 Drude, Handbuch Pflanzengeographie, p. 107.
124 Reid, Origin of the British Flora.
125 Report of the Botanical Department N.J. Agricultural Experiment Station, 1891.
126 Perceval, Agricultural Botany.
127 Masters, Nature, July, 1899.
128 Journal Farmers’ Club, February, 1900.
129 For full details see Watts, Economic Dictionary of Products of India; Muller, Select Extra-tropical Plants.
130 Proceedings Linnean Society, 1861. Dr. MacCook adds nothing essential, and in no way disproves Dr. Lincecum’s statements.
131 Belt, Naturalist in Nicaragua.
132 Kerner, l.c., vol. 2, fig. 264, p. 242.
133 This is not quite certain.
134 Rudyard Kipling has a most interesting account of the great opium factory at Malwa.
135 Chambers’s Journal, Oct. 24th, 1896.
136 Contemporary Review, Dec., 1905. Mr. Herbert Samuel, M.P.
[137] Collins, Gutta-percha and Indiarubber.
138 Henslow, Origin of Plant Structures; Warming, Rev. Gen. de Bot., tom. 5, p. 213.
139 Trans. and Proc. Bot. Soc. Pennsylvania, Session 1897-8, vol. 1, No. 1.
140 Pfeffer, Pflanzen-Physiologie, vol. 2, p. 412.
141 For the above facts: Pfeffer, Pflanzen-Physiologie, vol. 2, pp. 423-8; Green, Vegetable Physiology, p. 389; Kerner, l.c., p. 697; Bonnier, l.c., p. 305.
142 Henslow, Origin of Plant Structures, p. 223.
143 Henslow, l.c.
144 In the first, the entangled underground stems and roots resemble a bird’s nest; in the second, the peculiar red rhizomes are rather like coral.
145 Dr. Bull, Journal of Botany, vol. 2, p. 273.
146 Kerner and Oliver, Natural History of Plants, vol. 1, p. 136.
147 Groom, Ann. Bot., 1903, p. 223.
148 Kerner, Natural History of Plants. Many details are taken from this work in the present chapter.
[149] Dennett.
150 Green, Vegetable Physiology, p. 203.
151 Annals Botany, vol. 3, p. 253, and vol. 6, p. 401.
152 Macchiati, Botan. Centralblatt, 41, 190.
153 Miall, Nature, Aug., 1898, p. 377.
154 Heuzé, Les Plantes Industrielles.
155 Figured in Kerner’s Natural History of Plants.
The entry in the Illustrations section:
XIV. AND XV. THEN AND NOW 146-7
has been broken into two entries:
XIV. THEN 146
XV. AND NOW 147