Section VIII Account of the Systema Naturæ of Linnæus
Linnæus’s Classification of the Animal Kingdom—Remarks on the Gradations employed, and on Nomenclature—Classification of the Animal Kingdom—General Remarks—Method of Tournefort—Method of Linnæus—Classification of the Vegetable Kingdom—Theory of the Formation of Minerals and Rocks.
The work just mentioned bears the title of Systema Naturæ per Regna tria Naturæ, secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis,—A System of Nature, in which are arranged the objects constituting the three kingdoms of nature, in classes, orders, genera, and species, with their characters, differences, synonymes, and places of occurrence.
The first volume contains the animal kingdom. The introduction presents a brief view of the constitution of the world, in the usually laconic style of the author. In it the three kingdoms of nature are thus defined:—Minerals are concrete bodies, possessing neither life nor sensibility; vegetables are organized bodies, possessed of life, but without sensibility; animals are organized bodies, possessing life and sensibility, together with voluntary motion. Objections may be made to these definitions; but it is not our object at present to criticise his views and arrangements, our intention being simply to offer a brief account of them, omitting all that is not absolutely essential. It ought to be understood, that the entire work is merely an index or catalogue of the productions of nature; that it was obviously intended as such by its author; and that they who object to the Systema Naturæ, because it contains nothing more than characteristic notes methodically arranged, forget that Linnæus never professed to give descriptions in it.
The natural division of animals, he says, is indicated by their internal structure. This principle his modern adversaries have chosen to overlook, asserting that his classification is founded on external form. In some species the heart has two distinct cavities, and the blood is warm and red; of these some are viviparous,—the mammalia,—others oviparous,—the class of birds. In certain species the heart has only a single cavity, with a single auricle, the blood red but cold; of these the amphibia have a voluntary respiration, while fishes respire by gills. In other animals the heart has also a single cavity, but without an auricle, while the blood is cold and of a white colour; of these the insects are characterized by their antennæ, the vermes or worms by their tentacula.
The Mammalia, which constitute the first class, are the only animals furnished with teats. Their clothing, hoofs, claws, horns, teeth, and other organs, are briefly described, in such a manner as to enable the student to comprehend the meaning of the terms to be subsequently employed. The characters of the orders are derived principally from the teeth.
I. Primates or Nobles: Mammalia furnished with fore teeth, of which there are four in the upper jaw, and two pectoral mammæ.
II. Bruta: No fore teeth in either jaw.
III. Feræ, Beasts of Prey: The fore teeth conical, usually six in each jaw.
IV. Glires or Gnawers: Two chissel-shaped fore teeth in each jaw.
V. Pecora, Cattle: No fore teeth in the upper jaw, several in the lower.
VI. Belluæ: Fore teeth obtuse; feet furnished with hoofs.
VII. Cete, Whales: Pectoral fins in the place of feet, and in place of a tail the hind feet united so as to form a flat fin; no claws; the teeth cartilaginous.
The order Primates contains four genera:—
1. Homo, Man, of which (strange to say) he makes two species, viz. Homo Sapiens, including all the descendants of Adam, and Homo Troglodytes, the orang-outang! The varieties of the human race are the American, the European, the Asiatic, the African or Negro, and those called monstrous, such as the Patagonians, characterized by their great size, the flat-headed Indians of Canada, &c. His description of the human figure is amusing; and as it may afford an idea of his mode of viewing objects, we shall translate it in part:—
“The Body erect, bare, sprinkled over with a few distant hairs, and about six feet high. The Head inversely egg-shaped: scalp covered with longer hairs: the fore part obtuse, crown very obtuse, hind-head bulging. The Face bare: Forehead flattish, square, compressed at the temples, ascending at the corners among the hair. Eyebrows somewhat prominent, with hairs closely set and directed outwards, separated by the flattish glabella. Upper eyelid moveable, lower fixed, both pectinated with projecting somewhat recurved hairs. Eyes round: pupil round, without nictitant membrane. Cheeks bulging, softish, coloured, their lower part somewhat compressed, the buccal portion looser. Nose prominent, shorter than the lip, compressed, higher and more bulging at the tip; nostrils ovate, hairy within, with a thickish margin. Upper lip nearly perpendicular, grooved in the middle; lower lip nearly erect, more prominent. Chin protruded, obtuse, bulging. Mouth in the male bearded with bristles, which on the chin especially form a bundle. Fore teeth in both jaws sharp edged, erect, parallel, close; canine teeth solitary, a little longer, close to the rest on both sides; grinders five, bluntish. Ears lateral; auricles roundish-semilunar, pressed in some measure towards the head, bare, vaulted above the margin; bulging and soft below.” He then proceeds to state more particularly, that there is no tail, and that the thumb is shorter and thicker than the fingers. Man, therefore, differs from other animals, as he says, in having the body erect and bare, although the head and eyebrows are covered with hair, two pectoral mammæ, a brain larger than that of any other creature, a uvula, the face bare and parallel to the abdomen, the nose prominent and compressed, the chin projecting, no tail, feet resting on the heels, the males bearded on the chin, the females smooth.
As to the orang-outang, which forms his second species of man, he might have known that having four hands, and being incapable of carrying its body erect, it had no right to stand beside the lord of the creation.
The second genus, Simia, includes the baboons and monkeys, of which, with and without tails, he enumerates thirty-three species.
3. Lemur, the macaucos: 5 species.
4. Vespertilio, the bats: 6 species.
These are the Nobles of the animal kingdom: men, monkeys, lemurs, and bats. There could hardly be a more unnatural association; but all artificial systems, founded upon the consideration of a single organ or set of organs, are chargeable with similar absurdities.
The second order, Bruta, is composed of the following genera:—
5. Elephas, the elephant, of which there is only one species.
6. Trichechus, the walrus: 2 species, the morse and manati.
7. Bradypus, the sloth: 2 species.
8. Myrmecophaga, the anteater: 4 species.
9. Manis: 2 species.
10. Dasypus, the armadillo: 6 species.
The third order, Feræ, or Beasts of Prey:—
11. Phoca, the seal: 3 species.
12. Canis, the dog, wolf, hyena, fox, jackal, &c.: 9 species.
13. Felis, the cat kind, including the lion, the tiger, &c.: 7 species.
14. Viverra, the civet: 6 species.
15. Mustela, the martin, including otters, weasels, ermines, polecats, &c.: 11 species.
16. Ursus, the bear: 4 species.
17. Didelphis, the opossum: 5 species.
18. Talpa, the mole: 2 species.
19. Sorex, the shrew: 5 species.
20. Erinaceus, the hedgehog: 3 species.
The fourth order, Glires, Gnawing Animals:—
21. Hystrix, the porcupine: 4 species.
22. Lepus, the hare: 4 species.
23. Castor, the beaver: 3 species.
24. Mus, rats and mice: 21 species.
25. Sciurus, the squirrel: 11 species.
26. Noctilio: 1 species.
The fifth order, Pecora, the Ruminating Animals:—
27. Camelus, the camel, dromedary, lama, and alpaca: 4 species.
28. Moschus, the musk: 3 species.
29. Cervus, the deer: 7 species.
30. Capra, the goat: 12 species.
31. Ovis, the sheep: 3 species.
32. Bos, the ox tribe: 6 species.
The sixth order, Belluæ, contains,—
33. Equus, the horse, ass, and zebra: 3 species.
34. Hippopotamus: 1 species.
35. Sus, the hog tribe: 5 species.
36. Rhinoceros: 1 species.
The seventh order, Cete, the Whales, consists of four genera:—
37. Monodon, the narwhal, or sea-unicorn: 1 species.
38. Balæna, the whale, properly so called: 4 species.
39. Physeter, the cachalot: 4 species.
40. Delphinus, the dolphin: 3 species.
Including a few additional species mentioned in the appendix to the third volume, and the Mantissa of 1771, the number of Mammalia known to Linnæus was about 230. At the present day, more than 1000 species are described.
The second class, that of Birds, is divided by him into six orders, the essential characters of which are derived from the bill and feet, as follows:—
I. Accipitres: Birds of Prey. The bill more or less curved, the upper mandible dilated or armed with a tooth-like process near the tip; the feet short, robust, with acute hooked claws.
II. Picæ. The bill cultriform, with the back convex; the feet short, rather strong.
III. Anseres: Web-footed Birds. The bill smooth, covered with epidermis, enlarged at the tip; the toes united by a web, the legs compressed and short.
IV. Grallæ: Waders. The bill somewhat cylindrical; the feet long, bare above the knee, and formed for wading.
V. Gallinæ: Gallinaceous Birds. Bill convex, the upper mandible arched over the lower, the nostrils arched with a cartilaginous membrane. Feet with the toes separated, and rough beneath.
VI. Passeres: Small Birds. Bill conical, sharp pointed; feet slender, the toes separated.
It may here be remarked, that this arrangement is liable to many objections, and especially because the characters given to the orders are totally inapplicable to many species contained in them. Thus, the vultures, which belong to the first order, have no projecting processes on the upper mandible; the parrots, which are referred to the second, have the bill hooked, not cultriform, and bear no resemblance to the other species; among the Anseres, which are characterized as having the bill smooth, covered with epidermis, and enlarged at the tip, are the gannet with a bare pointed bill, the divers, the terns, and the gulls, with bills not at all answering to the description given; among the Grallæ with a cylindrical bill, are the ostrich with a short depressed one, the boatbill with one resembling a boat, the spoonbill, the heron, the flamingo, and others, whose bills differ from each other as much as from that of the snipes and curlews; the character given to the bill of the Gallinæ agrees with that of many Passeres; and, lastly, the wagtail, the swallow, the tit, the robin, and a multitude of other small birds, have bills extremely unlike those of the goldfinch, bunting, and crossbill, which are referred to the same order. We mention these circumstances, not for the purpose of detracting from the merit of Linnæus, but simply because we are persuaded that many of his generalizations are extremely incorrect, as are in many respects those of all his predecessors, and even of the ablest philosophers of the present age. It is absurd to attempt to thrust the objects of nature into squares or circles, or enclosures of any other form. Every system that has been invented has failed in presenting even a tolerably accurate view of the discrepancies and accordances of the endlessly-diversified forms that have resulted from the creation of an Infinite Power.
The following table presents the Linnæan arrangement of Birds in outline:—
Order I. Accipitres.
41. Vultur, vultures. Beak hooked; head bare: 8 species.
42. Falco, eagles and hawks. Beak hooked; head feathered: 32 species.
43. Strix, owl. Beak hooked, feathers at its base directed forwards: 12 species.
44. Lanius, shrike. Beak straightish, notched: 26 species.
Order II. Picæ.
45. Psittacus, parrots. Beak hooked; upper mandible furnished with a cere: 47 species.
46. Ramphastos, toucan. Beak very large, hollow, convex, serrated; both mandibles incurved at the tip: 8 species.
47. Buceros, hornbill. Beak convex, curved, cultrate, large, serrated; forehead covered with a horny plate: 4 species.
46. Buphaga, beef-eater. Beak straight, somewhat quadrangular; the mandibles bulging: 1 species.
49. Crotophaga, plantain-eater. Beak compressed, half-eggshaped, arched, keeled on the back: 2 species.
50. Corvus, crows. Beak convex, cultrate; nostrils covered by recumbent bristly feathers: 19 species.
51. Coracias, roller. Beak cultrate, the tip incurved, not covered with feathers at the base: 6 species.
52. Oriolus, oriole. Beak conical, convex, straight, very acute; upper mandible slightly longer, and indistinctly notched: 20 species.
53. Gracula, grakle. Beak cultrate, convex, bareish at the base: 8 species.
54. Paradisea, birds of Paradise. Beak covered with the downy feathers of the forehead; feathers of the sides long: 3 species.
55. Trogon, curucui. Beak shorter than the head, cultrate, hooked, serrated: 3 species.
56. Bucco, barbet. Beak cultrate, laterally compressed, notched at the tip, incurved, opening to beneath the eyes: 1 species.
57. Cuculus, cuckoo. Beak roundish; nostrils with a prominent margin: 22 species.
58. Yunx, wryneck. Beak roundish, sharp pointed; nostrils concave: 1 species.
59. Picus, woodpecker. Beak angular, straight, the tip wedgeshaped; the nostrils covered with recumbent bristly feathers: 21 species.
60. Sitta, nuthatch. Beak awlshaped, roundish, straight: 3 species.
61. Todus, tody. Beak awlshaped, a little flattened, obtuse, straight, with spreading bristles at the base: 2 species.
62. Alcedo, kingsfisher. Beak three cornered, thick, straight, long: 15 species.
63. Merops, bee-eater. Beak curved, compressed, keeled: 7 species.
64. Upupa, hoopoe. Beak arcuate, convex, a little compressed, rather obtuse: 3 species.
65. Certhia, creeper. Beak arcuate, slender, acute: 25 species.
66. Trochilus, humming-bird. Beak slender, longer than the head, its tip tubular: 22 species.
Order III. Anseres.
67. Anas, swans, geese, and ducks. Beak lamellated at the margin, convex, obtuse: 45 species.
68. Mergus, merganser. Beak denticulate, cylindrical, the tip hooked: 6 species.
69. Alca, auk. Beak short, compressed, convex, furrowed; the lower mandible with a prominent angle: 5 species.
70. Procellaria, petrel. Beak a little compressed; the upper mandible hooked, the lower channelled and compressed at the tip: 6 species.
71. Diomedea, albatross. Beak straight; upper mandible hooked at the tip, lower abrupt: 2 species.
72. Pelecanus, pelican, gannet, shag. Beak straight, the tip hooked, unguiculate: 8 species.
73. Plotus, darter. Beak straight, sharp pointed, denticulate: 1 species.
74. Phaeton. Beak cultrate, straight, acuminate: 2 species.
75. Colymbus, diver. Beak slender, straight, sharp pointed: 11 species.
76. Larus, gull. Beak straight, cultrate, the tip a little hooked; the lower mandible with an angular prominence: 11 species.
77. Sterna, tern. Beak slender, nearly straight, acute, compressed: 7 species.
78. Rynchops, skimmer. Beak straight; upper mandible much shorter, lower abruptly terminated: 2 species.
Order IV. Grallæ, Waders.
79. Phœnicopterus, flamingo. Beak incurvated as if broken, denticulate; feet webbed: 1 species.
80. Platalea, spoonbill. Beak flattish, the tip dilated, rounded, and flat: 3 species.
81. Palamedea, screamer. Beak conical; the upper mandible hooked: 2 species.
82. Mycteria, jabiru. Beak acute; lower mandible trigonal, ascending; upper three cornered, straight: 1 species.
83. Cancroma, boatbill. Beak bulging; the upper mandible resembling a boat with the keel uppermost: 2 species.
84. Ardea, cranes and herons. Beak straight, acute, long, a little compressed, with a furrow from the nostrils to the tip: 26 species.
85. Tantalus, ibis. Beak long, slender, arcuate; face bare: 7 species.
86. Scolopax, snipes, curlews. Beak long, slender, obtuse; face feathered: 18 species.
87. Tringa, sandpiper. Beak roundish, as long as the head; nostrils linear; feet with four toes: 23 species.
88. Charadrius, plover. Beak roundish, obtuse; feet with three toes: 12 species.
89. Recurvirostra, avoset. Beak slender, recurved, pointed, the tip flexible: 1 species.
90. Hæmatopus, oyster-catcher. Beak compressed, the tip wedgeshaped: 1 species.
91. Fulica, coot. Beak convex; upper mandible arched over the lower, which has a prominent angle: 7 species.
92. Parra, jacana. Beak roundish, bluntish; forehead wattled; wings spurred: 5 species.
93. Rallus, rail. Beak thicker at the base, compressed, acute: 10 species.
94. Psophia, trumpeter. Beak conical, convex, rather sharp; the upper mandible longer: 1 species.
95. Otis, bustard. Beak with the upper mandible arched: 4 species.
96. Struthio, ostrich and cassowary. Beak somewhat conical; wings unfit for flying: 3 species.
Order V. Gallinæ, Gallinaceous Birds.
97. Didus, dodo. Beak contracted in the middle, with two transverse rugæ; the tip of both mandibles bent inwards: 1 species, now extinct.
98. Pavo, pea-fowl. Head covered with feathers; feathers of the rump elongated, with eyelike spots: 3 species.
99. Meleagris, turkey-fowl. Head covered with spongy caruncles; the throat with a longitudinal membranous wattle: 3 species.
100. Crax, curassow-bird. Beak with a cere at the base; head covered with recurved feathers: 5 species.
101. Phasianus, pheasant. Sides of the head bare: 6 species.
102. Numida, Guinea-fowl. Carunculated wattles on each side of the face; head with a horny crest: 1 species.
103. Tetrao, grouse and partridge. A bare papillar spot near the eyes: 20 species.
Order VI. Passeres.
104. Columba, pigeon. Beak straight; nostrils with a tumid membrane: 40 species.
105. Alauda, lark. Beak slender, pointed; tongue slit; hind claw very long: 11 species.
106. Sturnus, starling. Beak slender, flattened towards the point: 5 species.
107. Turdus, thrush. Beak tubulate, compressed, notched: 28 species.
108. Ampelis, chatterer. Beak awlshaped, depressed at the base, notched: 7 species.
109. Loxia, grossbeak. Beak conical, bulging at the base: 48 species.
110. Emberiza, bunting. Beak somewhat conical; lower mandible broader: 24 species.
111. Tanagra, tanager. Beak notched, awlshaped, conical at the base: 24 species.
112. Fringilla, finch. Beak conical, acute: 39 species.
113. Muscicapa, flycatcher. Beak notched, awlshaped, with large bristles at the base: 21 species.
114. Motacilla, wagtails, warblers. Beak awlshaped, tongue jagged; claw of the hind toe of moderate length: 49 species.
115. Pipra, manakin. Beak awlshaped, incurved: 13 species.
116. Parus, tit. Beak awlshaped, feathers at its base directed forwards; tongue abrupt: 14 species.
117. Hirundo, swallow. Beak very small, depressed at the base, incurved; the mouth wider than the head: 12 species.
118. Caprimulgus, goatsucker. Beak very small, incurved, depressed at the base; large bristles; the mouth very wide: 2 species.
The class of Birds comprehends 930 species, which are characterized by the colours of the plumage, the forms of the feathers, the existence of wattles, spurs, and various other circumstances.
The third class, Amphibia, is composed of animals not, strictly speaking, capable of living both in air and in water, but having the power of suspending their respiration in a more arbitrary manner than others. They are arranged under four orders:—
I. Reptiles. Amphibious animals respiring through the mouth by means of lungs; and furnished with four feet.
To this order belong the tortoises, dragons, crocodiles, lizards, toads, and frogs, which are disposed into four genera, containing 83 species.
II. Serpentes, Serpents. Respiring through the mouth by means of lungs; destitute of feet, fins, and ears.
There are six genera, and 132 species.
III. Meantes, Gliders. Respiring by means of gills and lungs; furnished with feet and claws.
There is only one species, the lizard-syren of Carolina.
IV. Nantes, Swimming Amphibia. Respiring at will by means of gills and lungs: the rays of the fins cartilaginous.
These animals, of which 76 species are enumerated, are referred to fourteen genera,—the lamprey, ray or skate, shark, chimæra, frog-fish, sturgeon, lump-fish, oldwife-fish, bonyskin-fish, sun-fish, porcupine-fish, trumpet-fish, pipe-fish, and dragon-fish.
The number of species described as belonging to this class is 292. The specific characters are derived from various circumstances connected with the external conformation; in the tortoises, from the shell and feet; in the snakes, from the number of the abdominal and caudal plates; in the swimming amphibia, or, as they are now more properly called, the cartilaginous fishes, from the form of the body, the differences of the fins, and other circumstances.
The fourth class, that of Fishes, contains four orders, founded upon the relative position of the fins, which are compared to the feet of other animals. Thus, the ventral fins may be placed before, beneath, or behind the pectoral, or they may be wanting.
I. Apodes, Apodal or Footless. Fishes destitute of ventral fins; such as the eel, the wolf-fish, and the sword-fish.
II. Jugulares, Jugular. Fishes having the ventral fins placed before the pectoral; as the dragonet, weever, cod, haddock, and coal-fish.
III. Thoracici, Thoracic. Fishes having the ventral fins placed under the pectoral; as the goby, bull-head, holibut, gilt-head, perch, mackerel, &c.
IV. Abdominales, Abdominal. Fishes having the ventral fins placed on the abdomen behind the pectoral fins; as in the salmon, trout, pike, mullet, and herring.
In this class there are 47 genera, and 400 species. The specific characters are taken from the number of rays in the fins, the form of the tail, the cirri or filaments at the mouth, the colouring of the body, the form of the scales, and other circumstances.
The fifth class, that in which the Insects are included, comprehends 86 genera, disposed into seven orders, which are founded on the number and texture of the wings.
I. Coleoptera, or Hard-winged Insects. Insects having the wings covered by two crustaceous cases. This order is the most extensive, including 30 genera, and 893 species. It includes all the insects commonly known by the name of beetles.
II. Hemiptera, or Half-winged Insects, having the shells or cases semicrustaceous, not divided by a straight line as in the coleoptera, but overlapping each other at the margin; the beak curved inwards; 12 genera, 353 species. The cockroach, cricket, locust, and cochineal-insect, are examples.
III. Lepidoptera, or Scaly-winged Insects, having four wings, which are covered with imbricated scales; the tongue spiral and coiled up, the body hairy. In this order there are only 3 genera, Papilio, Sphinx, and Phalæna, the butterflies and moths; but the species are 780.
IV. Neuroptera, or Net-winged Insects, with four naked, transparent, or reticulated wings; the tail generally destitute of a sting. There are 7 genera, and 83 species, among which are the dragon-fly, the may-fly, and the scorpion-fly.
V. Hymenoptera, or Thin-winged Insects, with four naked membranous wings; some species, however, being wingless. The females have the tail armed with a sting. This order contains 10 genera, and 313 species, of which may be mentioned as examples, the wasp, bee, ichneumon-fly, and ant.
VI. Diptera, or Two-winged Insects, having only two wings, and being furnished with a balance or club behind each wing. There are 10 genera, and 262 species, among which are the common house-fly, the flesh-fly, and the gnat.
VII. Aptera, Wingless. Insects destitute of wings in both sexes. They are arranged under 14 genera, and consist of 300 species. In this order there are three divisions: some have six feet, as the flea, the louse, and the white ant; others have from 8 to 14 feet, as the spider, scorpion, crab, and lobster; while others have a still greater number, as the centipede.
The generic characters are derived from the antennæ, the jaws, the head, the thorax, the wings, the elytra or wing-covers; and the specific, from the colours and other circumstances. The number of species is 2984.
The sixth class, that of Vermes or Worms, is a very heterogeneous one, and to later authors has supplied materials for several classes. Linnæus divides it into five orders:
I. Intestina, Intestinal Animals: simple, naked, and destitute of limbs: for example, the earth-worm, the guinea-worm, the leech, and the ascaris: 7 genera, 24 species.
II. Mollusca. Simple, naked animals, furnished with limbs: the slug, the sea-mouse, the sea-anemone, the cuttlefish, the sea-nettle, the star-fish, and the sea-urchin: 18 genera, 110 species.
III. Testacea, Shell-fish. Soft, simple animals, covered with a shell which is usually calcareous. This order includes 36 genera, and 814 species. It is divided into three groups, the multivalve shells, or those which consist of several pieces; the bivalve, of two pieces; and the univalve, or those of one piece only.
IV. Lithophyta. Compound animals, affixed to, and fabricating a fixed calcareous base, called coral. There are 59 species, which are referred to 4 genera, the tubipores, madrepores, millepores, and cellepores.
V. Zoophyta. Compound animals, sending forth processes resembling flowers, and springing from a vegetating stem. This order contains 15 genera, among which are the red coral, the sea-fan, the sponge, coralline, &c. The number of species is 156.
The characters of the genera and species of these orders are derived from so many various circumstances, that it would be tedious to recapitulate them. The number of objects defined in this part of the Systema Naturæ, is as follows:—
| Mammalia, | 219 |
| Birds, | 930 |
| Amphibia, | 292 |
| Fishes, | 400 |
| Insects, | 2984 |
| Vermes, | 1163 |
| Species from the Appendices, | 140 |
| In all, 6128 species of animals. | |
It may be observed with respect to the method followed by Linnæus in his arrangements, that he has generally chosen the most simple and perspicuous that he could devise. The whole creation he disposes into three kingdoms, the animal, the vegetable, and the mineral. The animal kingdom is divided into six great classes, characterized by various circumstances of their organization. Each of these six classes is divided into several orders and numerous genera; and the genera are composed of species. Sometimes the species exhibits varieties, or variations of form, colour, and other qualities, dependent upon climate, food, domestication, and other circumstances. There are thus in his arrangement of animals five gradations: kingdom, class, order, genus, and species. We shall find that the same series is adopted in his classification of the vegetable kingdom. It must be remarked, however, that in nature none of these gradations actually exist. Individuals alone form the subjects of observation; but a number of individuals closely resembling each other are considered in the mind as forming a species; and several species agreeing in certain respects with each other form a genus; while genera united by particular characters compose an order; and the orders constitute a class. Thus all the individual birds called goldfinches form the species Goldfinch, which with the species Chaffinch and others constitute the genus Finch. This genus, and those known by the names of Grossbeak, Bunting, Lark, &c. constitute the order Passerine Birds. Natural objects may thus be arranged in a definite series, so that the place of any given species may be determined; hence, if the student should be desirous of finding the name and history of a particular object, he can readily discover it, or he can satisfy himself that it has not yet been described. At the same time, it must be remembered, that the classification in question is entirely artificial, and does not necessarily place together genera that are the most closely allied. It is a kind of systematic index to the works of nature, and is useful in many respects, although it may not lead to the disclosure of all the peculiarities or all the affinities and relations of the object to be examined. The Linnæan arrangement of animals cannot be considered in any other light; for, if we view it as a natural classification, we meet with false positions and erroneous views at almost every step. His disciples mistook it for a perfect system, and viewed the various species with reference to it, rather than with respect to their mutual relations. Still, they who look upon the artificial classifications of our great master as having done more harm than good, judge erroneously; for although they are certainly imperfect, without them or others of a similar kind it would have been impossible to retain any distinct remembrance of the numerous objects which have successively been introduced to notice. It were more reasonable to admire the ingenuity displayed in the construction of so simple a system, than to blame the unsuccessful attempt to classify, according to their essential peculiarities, objects whose multiplied relations have, to the present day, defied the most accomplished naturalists.
With respect to the nomenclature, it is sufficient to remark, that the classes and orders bear appropriate names, derived from various circumstances. Thus in the class Mammalia, so denominated because the animals composing it bear mammæ and suckle their young, are the orders Primates or Nobles, Bruta, Feræ, &c. The generic names are always substantives, as Phoca, Canis, Lepus, &c.; and the specific names are either adjectives, as Phoca barbata, Canis familiaris, Lepus timidus, or, in certain rarer cases, substantives, as Canis Lupus, Ursus Arctos, &c. We now proceed to the examination of another kingdom.
The second volume of the Systema Naturæ contains an arrangement of all the species of vegetables known to Linnæus. It is in this department that our author has been generally allowed to excel, and his system, after undergoing some modifications, remains in use at the present day; nor is it likely ever to be superseded by any other merely artificial arrangement.
Before proceeding to a general account of this celebrated scheme, it may be useful to take a brief view of those by which it was preceded. It is obvious, that without a methodical disposition of plants, and a fixed nomenclature, it would be impossible for an individual to retain the knowledge of the numerous and diversified forms which these present. Descriptions, moreover, would be unintelligible, and we should find it difficult or impracticable to ascertain the species of which authors might write.
The alphabetical arrangement of plants, the most artificial, or at least the most unnatural of all, was at one time much followed by botanists, especially in local catalogues. The time of flowering, the place of growth, the general habit or appearance, and various other circumstances, formed a basis to other arrangements. In the sixteenth century, Conrad Gesner showed that the flower and fruit were the only parts capable of affording determinate characters. Cæsalpinus, physician to Pope Clement VIII., presented the first model of a botanical system, in his Libri de Plantis, published in 1583. The characters are derived principally from the fruit, though likewise from the flowers, and the duration of plants. The two Bauhins, Ray, and Morison, published systems constructed on similar principles. Others, as Rivinus and Ludwig, derived their characters from the corolla. All these methods, however, successively passed into neglect, and were superseded by that of Tournefort, who was professor of botany at the Garden of Plants in Paris, in the reign of Louis XIV. This eminent writer was the first who defined the species and genera with any degree of precision. He arranged plants according to the various forms of the corolla, dividing them primarily, according to the consistence of the stem, into Herbs and Trees. The former were subdivided into three orders; those with simple flowers, those with compound flowers, and those destitute of flowers. The following is an outline of his system:—
Division I. Herbs.
* With simple flowers.
Corolla of one piece, regular.
Class I. Campaniformes, with a regular corolla, of one piece, and resembling a bell; as the convolvulus.
II. Infundibuliformes, with a regular corolla, of one piece, and resembling a funnel; as the tobacco.
Corolla of one piece, irregular.
III. Personatæ, with an irregular corolla, of one piece, resembling an antique mask; as the foxglove.
IV. Labiatæ, with an irregular corolla, of one piece, divided into two lips; as the sage.
Corolla of several pieces, regular.
V. Cruciformes, with a regular corolla, composed of four petals, placed crosswise; as the wallflower.
VI. Rosaceæ, with a regular corolla, composed of several petals, arranged in the form of a rose; as the wild rose and apple.
VII. Umbelliferæ, with a regular corolla, composed of five petals, the flowers arranged on stalks resembling the spokes of an umbrella; as in the carrot.
VIII. Caryophylleæ, with a regular corolla, composed of five petals, having long claws; as the pink.
IX. Liliaceæ, with a regular corolla, composed of six or three petals, or sometimes of one piece with six divisions; as the tulip.
Corolla of several pieces, irregular.
X. Papilionaceæ, with an irregular corolla, composed of five petals; as the pea.
XI. Anomalæ, with an irregular corolla, composed of five petals, but differing from the papilionaceous form; as the violet.
* * With compound flowers.
XII. Flosculosæ, with flowers composed of small funnel-shaped, regular corollas, divided into five segments; as the thistle.
XIII. Semiflosculosæ, with flowers composed of small irregular corollas, of an elongated flat shape; as the dandelion.
XIV. Radiatæ, with flowers composed of funnel-shaped florets at the centre, and flat ones at the circumference; as the daisy.
* * * Destitute of flowers.
XV. Apetalæ, whose flowers have no true corolla; as the grasses.
XVI. Apetalæ, entirely destitute of flowers, but having leaves; as the ferns.
XVII. Apetalæ, without apparent flowers or fruit; as mosses.
Division II. Trees.
Without petals.
XVIII. Apetalous Trees or Shrubs, having their flowers destitute of corolla; as the box.
XIX. Amentaceæ, with the flowers disposed in catkins; as the oak.
With flowers of one petal.
XX. Trees with a regular or irregular corolla of one piece; as the lilac.
With regular flowers of several petals.
XXI. Trees or Shrubs with rosaceous corolla; as the apple-tree.
With irregular flowers of several petals.
XXII. Trees or Shrubs with papilionaceous corolla; as the laburnum.
Each of these classes is subdivided into various sections or orders, founded upon modifications in the form of the corolla, the nature of the fruit, the figure of the leaves, &c. The sections contain a greater or less number of genera, under which are disposed all the species known to the author.
This classification was of the greatest service to botanists; though it was, like every other method that had been proposed, defective in many respects. A great objection to it is, that it separates the herbaceous from the woody plants, thus tearing asunder the most natural connexions; nor is the form of the corolla always so determinate, that one can say whether it be bell-shaped, funnel-shaped, or salver-shaped,—a point which it is necessary to decide before the species can be made out. Various changes were soon proposed, and new methods planned, so that the science was again falling into confusion, when Linnæus published his system, which was presently adopted by many teachers, and long before his death was in general use.
He made the stamina and pistils the basis of his arrangement, which he was induced to do from the consideration of their great importance, as the parts most essential to fructification. These organs being analogous to those distinguishing the sexes of animals, the Linnæan method is sometimes called the sexual system. It consists of twenty-four classes. The first ten are determined by the number of the stamina.
Class I. Monandria, containing all plants of which the flowers have only one stamen; as the mare’s tail.
II. Diandria: two stamens; as the jasmine.
III. Triandria: three stamens; as wheat, oats, and grasses in general.
IV. Tetrandria: four stamens; as woodruff.
V. Pentandria: five stamens; as the primrose.
VI. Hexandria: six stamens; as the lily and tulip.
VII. Heptandria: seven stamens; as the horse-chestnut.
VIII. Octandria: eight stamens; as the heaths.
IX. Enneandria: nine stamens; as rhubarb.
X. Decandria: ten stamens; as the pink.
In the next three classes, the stamens exceed ten in number, but differ from each other in certain circumstances.
XI. Dodecandria: stamens from twelve to twenty; as in agrimony.
XII. Icosandria: twenty or more stamens, inserted upon the inner side of the calyx; as in the rose and apple.
XIII. Polyandria: twenty or more stamens, inserted upon the receptacle or point of union of all the parts of the flower; as in the crowfoot and anemone.
The relative length of the stamens determines the next two classes.
XIV. Didynamia: four-stamens, of which two are shorter; as in thyme and foxglove.
XV. Tetradynamia: six stamens, of which two are shorter; as in cabbage and wallflower.
Three classes are indicated by having the stamina connected by their filaments.
XVI. Monadelphia: stamens united by their filaments into a single body or set; as in mallows.
XVII. Diadelphia: stamens united into two distinct sets; as in fumitory.
XVIII. Polyadelphia: stamens united into three or more bundles; as in hypericum and cistus.
In the next class, the stamens are united by their anthers.
XIX. Syngenesia: five stamens united by the anthers; as in the dandelion and violet.
In the twentieth, the pistil and stamen are united.
XX. Gynandria: stamens united to the pistil; as in orchis.
The plants of all the above classes have flowers furnished with both stamens and pistils; but in the next three the flowers are unisexual.
XXI. Monœcia: Flowers bearing stamens only, and flowers bearing pistils only, occurring on the same plant; as in the oak.
XXII. Diœcia: stameniferous flowers on one, and pistilliferous flowers on another individual of the same species; as in willows.
XXIII. Polygamia: Flowers bearing stamens and pistils, flowers bearing stamens only, and flowers bearing pistils only, all on the same individual, or on different individuals of the same species; as in the ash and pellitory.
The above classes contain all the plants that are Phœnogamous, or have distinctly perceptible organs of reproduction; the next and last class is composed of the cryptogamous, or those of which the flowers either do not exist, or have not been demonstrated.
XXIV. Cryptogamia: Ferns, mosses, lichens, sea-weeds, mushrooms, &c.
The orders or subdivisions of the classes are founded on the number of the pistils in the first thirteen. Thus, in any of these classes, the first order is Monogynia, or one pistil; the second Digynia, two pistils, &c. But in the fourteenth class, Didynamia, there are only two orders, Gymnospermia and Angiospermia, the former having four naked seeds, the latter having the seeds enclosed in a seed-vessel. In the fifteenth class, Tetradynamia, there are also two orders, Siliculosa, in which the pod is short, and Siliquosa, in which it is long. The orders of Monadelphia, Diadelphia, and Polyadelphia, are formed from the number of the stamina, and bear the names of Hexandria when there are six, Decandria when there are ten, &c. The orders of the nineteenth class, Syngenesia, are six. In the first, Polygamia æqualis, all the flowers (or florets, as they are here called on account of their small size, and because they are viewed as components of a compound flower) have stamens and pistils, and are equally fertile; in the second, Polygamia superflua, the flowers of the centre have stamens and pistils, those of the circumference pistils only, but both kinds produce seeds; in the third, Polygamia frustranea, the flowers of the centre have stamens and a pistil, and are fertile, those of the circumference neutral, or furnished with a pistil, but steril; in the fourth, Polygamia necessaria, the flowers of the centre have stamens and a pistil, but are steril, in consequence of an imperfection in the stigma, those of the circumference have a pistil, and are fertile; in the fifth, Polygamia segregata, all the flowers are perfect, but each has a small calyx, and the whole are contained within a common involucre; and in the last order, Monogamia, the flowers are separated from each other. In Gynandria, the orders are determined by the number of the stamens. In Monœcia and Diœcia, the characters distinctive of the classes are employed for the orders. Polygamia has three orders, Monœcia, Diœcia, Triœcia; and the last class, Cryptogamia, is divided into four orders, consisting of the Filices or Ferns, the Musci or Mosses, the Algæ, and the Fungi.
The genera are established upon characters derived from all the parts of fructification compared together, according to their number, figure, proportion, and situation; but as this volume was intended to contain all the plants known to the author, the natural characters thus formed could not be employed on account of their length, and he has used the essential character, which is shorter, and consists of those marks that serve to distinguish the genera from each other in the natural orders; while at the head of each class, the genera are synoptically disposed, being defined by their factitious characters, or those by which one is distinguished from another in the artificial order only.
The remarks which we have already made respecting the generic and specific names, apply equally to this department. These last, in the systems of former botanists, were lengthened descriptions, taken from various circumstances, and seldom in any degree distinctive; but Linnæus reduced them to twelve words at most, and derived them from some remarkable difference in the leaves, roots, stems, or other unvarying properties. These short phrases he continued to call the specific name, but they are now properly considered as the specific character; while he invented what he called the trivial name, consisting of a single word added to the generic, and which we now use as the specific. The number of species mentioned in the Systema Naturæ amounts to upwards of 7800.
We come now to the third and last volume, containing his arrangement of the objects forming the mineral kingdom. This department has received less elucidation from him than the others. In 1736, he first digested a mineralogical system, in which he attempted to found the genera on definite characters; but he seems to have lost sight of the subject until obliged to attend to it when editing the twelfth edition of his work. There he prefixes to his arrangement a brief account of his theory on the origin of fossil bodies in general, and of their several combinations. His views, however, are extremely fanciful, and cannot be said to have produced any beneficial effect on the study of this science. As they have long ago passed into oblivion, it may afford amusement, if not instruction, to present an outline of them.
The earth originated from water, agreeably to the testimony of Moses, Thales, and Seneca! The sea becoming pregnant gradually produced the dry land, from which the dew rose by evaporation, was elevated into clouds, and again descended in showers. No certain indications of a universal deluge have yet been found, but we every where perceive that land has been formed from the sea.
The water of the ocean, being impregnated by the air, produces a twin birth; the saline principle, which is masculine, soluble, acrid, transparent, and crystalline; the earthy, which is feminine, fixed, viscid, opaque, and attractive. It also nourishes the animal and the vegetable beings, which in course of time are reduced to earth.
The salts, which are sapid, polyhedral, transparent, multiplicative, soluble into infinitely minute particles, although always retaining the same form, and again becoming concrete so as to form larger particles of the same figure, generate various minerals by crystallizing.
Nitrum, which is aërial, by covering over increases sand.
Muria, which is marine, by corroding attracts clay.
Natrum, which is of animal origin, by deliquescing coagulates lime.
Alumen, which is of vegetable origin, by ramifying produces earthy soil.
These are the Fathers of minerals.
The Earths, which are powdery, drying, soluble, fixed, primitive, are generated or reproduced by crystallizing, precipitating, fermenting, or putrefying. From them, by crystallization or attraction, minerals are reformed, and these again are resolved into earths and regenerated.
Clay is the precipitation of the viscid water of the sea; and is opaque, plastic, friable, capable of hardening, and fireless.
Sand is the crystallization of turbid rain-water; and is transparent, juiceless, giving sparks, durable, and capable of being vitrified.
Mould is the decomposition of fermenting vegetables; and is black, bibulous, powdery, and combustible.
Lime is the decomposition of putrescent animal substances; and is whitish, absorbent, mealy, penetrable, and effervescent.
Clay, the earth of sea-water, is hardened into talc, when redissolved is regenerated in the form of asbestus, and when more intimately dissolved resumes the form of mica. Sand, the earth of rain-water, when thrown on the land and dried, forms drift-sand, which finally becomes gravel. Both substances, when under ground, are converted into sandstone, and when mixed with other matters form pebbles, which grow into stones. When redissolved and crystallized, it produces quartz. Mould, the earth of vegetables, is hardened into fissile slate, which being impregnated with bitumen becomes coal. It is dissolved into ochre, and regenerated into tophus. Lime, the wife of natron, produces marble, dissolved and saturated with acid is crystallized into gypsum. Both are decomposed by the elements into chalk, which, acted upon by rain-water, becomes flint; and when dissolved, is crystallized into spar (or calcedony).
Such are the Mothers of minerals.
It is unnecessary to follow our author, while he states the principles of his sexual system of minerals, through the forms and modifications of crystals, metals, rocks, and petrifactions. His scheme of geology may be described as follows:—The strata of the earth are generally parallel to each other, although not always so, nor always of marine origin. The lowest is of sandstone (cos), the second of slate, the third of marble filled with marine petrifactions, the fourth of slate, the uppermost of the saxose kind, which includes granite, porphyry, trap, conglomerate, and puddingstone. It is obvious that the ocean has produced the land. It is rendered turbid by nitrous showers, precipitates, and is crystallized into sand, which covers the bottom of the sea. The surface of it is here and there covered over to a great extent with floating fuci, the mould derived from which gradually descends, while the lighter particles help to form a floating meadow. Marine vermes, the mollusca, testacea, lithophytes, and zoophytes, together with fishes and sea-birds, feed beneath this floating meadow. An argillaceous sediment falls down in the quiet water, and this, together with the calcareous shells of the marine vermes, gradually forms a heap, which rises to the surface, while the pressure agitating the water drives out the marine animals. On the rock thus formed, the sea casts up great quantities of fuci, which are converted into mould, until at length the sandy earth rises above the surface, dries, is driven about, and concresces into gravel and sandstone. In the course of ages, the sand is hardened into sandstone, the mould into bituminous shale and coal, the clay into marble, other layers of mould into other beds of shale or slate, and other masses of sand into gravel and conglomerate. This again is converted into pebbles, these into stones, the stones into rocks. At length, the water subsiding, the mass becomes a mountain. Had Linnæus been as unfortunate in his other theories as in this, his name would have been long ago forgotten.
However fanciful his theoretical views may be, his classification is not unworthy of praise, and his specific definitions are generally intelligible to a modern mineralogist; but this is nearly all, however, that can be said in their favour. He divides the mineral kingdom into three classes, under the names of Petræ, Mineræ, and Fossilia. These are again subdivided into several orders, and the number of genera amounts to fifty-four.
Class I. Petræ or Stones, or, as modern geologists would say, Rocks.
Steril stones, originating from an earthy principle by cohesion; simple, as being destitute of salt, sulphur, or mercury; fixed, as not being intimately soluble; similar, as consisting of particles united at random.
Order I. Humosæ. Deposited from vegetable earth, combustible and burning to cinders, their powder harsh and light; as roofing-slate.
Order II. Calcariæ. Originating from animal earth; penetrable by fire, and becoming more porous, their powder mealy; and when burnt, they fall into a fine powder; as limestone, marble, gypsum.
Order III. Argillaceæ. Originating from the viscid sediment of the sea, becoming harder and stiffer in the fire, their powder unctuous before exposure to fire; as serpentine, asbestus, mica.
Order IV. Arenatæ. Originating from precipitation caused by rain-water, when struck with steel emitting sparks, very hard, their powder rough and angular like bits of glass; as quartz, jasper, flint.
Order V. Aggregatæ. Originating from a mixture of the foregoing, and therefore participating their constituent particles; their powder differing accordingly; as granite, puddingstone.
Class II. Mineræ, Minerals.
Fertile stones, originating from a saline principle by crystallization; compound, as produced from a stony substance (of the preceding class), impregnated by salt, sulphur, or mercury, intimately soluble in an appropriate menstruum, and crystalline.
Order I. Salia, Salts. To be distinguished by the taste, soluble in water; as rock-salt, alum, borax.
Order II. Sulphura, Sulphureous Minerals. Distinguishable by smell, emitting an odour and flaming under the action of fire, soluble in oil; as amber, naphtha, pyrites.
Order III. Metalla, Metallic Minerals. Distinguishable by good eyes! very heavy, fusible, soluble in appropriate acid menstrua; as molybdæna, lead, gold, and copper.
Class III. Fossilia, Fossils.
Ambiguous stones, originating from modifications of the substances included in the preceding classes.
Order I. Petrificata, Petrifactions. Impressed with the form of some natural object, as,—
Zoolithus, the petrifaction of an animal of the class Mammalia.
Ornitholithus, a petrified bird.
Amphibiolithus, a petrified frog, snake, &c.
Ichthyolithus, a petrified fish.
Entomolithus, a petrified insect or crab.
Helmintholithus, of the class vermes, including shells.
Phytolithus, vegetable petrifactions.
Graptolithus, resembling figures produced by painting; as florentine and landscape marble.
Order II. Concreta, coagulated from particles agglutinated at random; as urinary and salivary calculi; tartar of wine; pumice, formed by fire; stalactite, formed by air; tophus, produced under water, as oolite.
Order III. Terræ, Earths. Pulverized, their particles loose; as ochre, sand, clay, and chalk.
The first edition of the Systema Naturæ, which consisted of fourteen folio pages, was, as has been already related, printed at Leyden in 1735. That which the author reckoned the twelfth, but which was in reality the fifteenth, is the one that ought to be referred to by naturalists, it being the last that was published under his own care and inspection. It appeared at Stockholm in 1766.
An edition, greatly enlarged, was published at Leipsic by Gmelin in 1788, and contains numerous species not included in any of the preceding. “No nation,” says Dr Stoever, “can produce so complete a repertory of natural history as the above. With infinite labour, exertion, and judgment, all the recent discoveries and observations in all the branches of natural science have been united in it.” It is, however, as every one who has had occasion to consult it must be aware, a most injudicious compilation, in which a single species is often described under two, three, or even four different names, and in which no improvement corresponding to the advanced state of the science was made in the grouping of the species or genera.
There is an English edition of the same work, translated by William Turton, M.D. London, 1806, 7 vols 8vo.
“We may venture to predict,” says Sir J. E. Smith, in his account of the Life of Linnæus, “that as the Systema Naturæ was the first performance of the kind, it will certainly be the last; the science of natural history is now become so vast, that no man can ever take the lead again as an universal naturalist.”