Appendix I — On Fitting Out Somáli Expeditions General Observations
Example I.—Calculation of six weeks’ trip to Guban and Ogo—Composition of caravan, and expenses.
Example II.—Eight weeks’ trip to the Haud and the more accessible parts of Ogádén.
Example III.—Sixteen weeks’ trip to distant Ogádén and the Webbe—General notes on trips to the Webbe and Gállaland—Notes on caravan defence—Notes on preliminary steps, and how to engage and pay off a caravan.
For an English sportsman, Somáliland is probably the best hunting-ground in Africa. The climate is healthy, and not too hot in the higher districts; the English are universally popular, and the natives appreciate sport. The caravan, when once properly provisioned at the coast, renders one entirely independent in a country practically without villages or supplies. The game is shy and not too easy to get, which is an advantage from a sporting point of view. There is room for many simultaneous expeditions if they are only pushed into unexplored ground, and a great variety of game is found within a limited area. Above all, there is easy access to the Somáli coast from civilised parts.
I have been asked so often to give information to intending travellers to Somáliland that, for the guidance of those who contemplate visiting that country, I venture to publish the following suggestions.
It is, of course, not to be expected that every traveller can share the same views on subjects connected with the fitting out of an expedition; but by way of illustration I shall calculate a few examples of the caravans which I would myself organise for certain definite objects. Whether the intending traveller agree with me or not, he will at least gain an insight into some of the more necessary details connected with the needs and precautions attendant upon the fitting out and conducting of caravans into the interior of Somáliland.
To begin with, if there are two or more Europeans in an expedition, in my opinion each should have his own caravan complete. There are several reasons for this. Where there are two or three Europeans with a combined caravan of mixed servants, it is difficult to ensure that equal loyalty shall be extended by the Somális to each member of the party. Interests clash, and the result has, according to all I have heard, too often been a spoilt trip. In my journeys with my brother the value of distinctly organised caravans was recognised at once, and we held to this system throughout, the result being that even our servants and camelmen pulled well together, and we had no caravan difficulties.
It is convenient in safe country, when an increase of sport can be obtained thereby, for the different Europeans to separate. Thus A hears of a lion two days’ march away; B goes three days’ march in the opposite direction to search a valley believed to contain elephants; C forms a camp in the hills twenty miles away for a week’s koodoo shooting. In unsafe country, or where there is sport for all at one spot, the camps may be reunited, the dinners clubbed together, the tents pitched side by side, and the camels joined into one herd. But the distinct organisation of each caravan should be preserved, under the command of its own white leader, assisted by his Somáli headman. In this way only, with the maximum of supervision, aided by a feeling of esprit de corps between the different caravans, can the maximum of work be got out of Somális.
I am against taking servants from India. They require a great deal of water, and are at enmity with their surroundings in a country where there are practically no villages nor bazaars, and where they are almost “put to Coventry” by the natives. Somális think them effeminate, saying they may be men in the town, but that they become women in the bush, especially in the waterless Haud! In our Dolbahanta journey the women ran after my Madras cook, who was dressed in flowing white with a large turban, and asked him whose wife he was! Sometimes when my brother was out of camp, the Somáli members of the expedition used to throw stones at his Punjabi “bearer,” and although a fine fellow in his own country, among the strange surroundings he used to break down, and with many tears ask to be sent to the coast. One day, when aggravated beyond all endurance by the Somális, he shouldered his bundle of brass cooking-pots and started, without food or water, to walk across a hundred miles of pathless Haud. Luckily he was tracked up and brought back into camp. It is not necessary to take Indians; for Somális, though often rather rough as servants in a civilised household, pick up their duties quickly, and are good enough for the jungle.
In fitting out a caravan, the chief factors governing the calculation are:—
(1) What is the minimum number of armed men that should be taken into the district to be visited.
(2) Whether or not the district is waterless.
(3) The duration of the trip.
As regards the first consideration, I will mention different districts, and state what escort I should take into each, assuming political conditions to be as favourable as they were in 1893. Local disturbances of course arise, but on the whole the country is becoming safer every year for Europeans. My estimate may soon be out of date; and the political authorities in Aden, who are in touch with events in Somáliland, must be consulted as to the strength of the escort. Permission must be obtained from the same authorities to enter Northern Somáliland at all.
At ordinary times I would ride about alone, though of course armed, within the area contained by lines joining Berbera, Wagar, Hargeisa, and Elmas Mountain; and in this area the natives may often be seen unarmed. As a matter of fact a sportsman would always have a few Somális in attendance, either armed with his spare sporting rifles or with their own spears. An European who went unarmed about the country would excite the universal derision of the natives, for it is their own fashion to go armed.
Outside this area, in the explored parts of the British Protectorate, I think from eight to fifteen rifles should be distributed among the followers; and on the Abyssinian border, or in the Gadabursi and Dolbahanta countries, fifteen to twenty rifles. In distant Ogádén, on the Webbe Shabéleh, and on the western Gálla border, I recommend from twenty to thirty rifles, and the same in the unexplored country along the coast east of Karam. For the nearer Gálla tribes south of the Webbe, and for the Aulihán Somális, I should take from thirty to fifty rifles. For a distant exploration into the far interior of Gállaland, likely to be inhabited by hostile natives, were I going on such an expedition, I would not take less than from fifty to one hundred and fifty rifles. These estimates are necessarily very rough, for so much depends on the number of camels to be protected and the number of white men; and in the last case I have given my opinion on evidence obtained from the Somális, and not with any personal experience of the Gálla country itself. The strongest escort I have had at any time in my Somáli trips has been about thirty rifles.
The object of these escorts in all but the last case is to guard against a possible raid by some robber band. Once, to my knowledge, in the Jibril Abokr country, an English sportsman’s camp was, during his absence, sacked by some of these rascals. At night, too, the caravan of an European might easily be mistaken for that of Somáli traders, and in case of an attack it would be awkward, not to say undignified, for the caravan to be incapable of defence. It is very unlikely that the authorities at Aden would allow any traveller to go into the interior without his having made some provision of this sort.
Hostility from any Somáli tribes, as a whole, has not entered into my calculations, because only a large escort, such as I have advised for distant Gálla explorations, could stay in the country in the face of a combined movement of the natives. Even with a large escort the country would soon be rendered uninhabitable by tampering with wells and other expedients which Somális thoroughly understand, and the traveller would be forced to retreat, or advance so rapidly to a more friendly tribe that enemies would have no time to collect. It is with the consent of the natives that we travel, because the English are popular, and no hostility need be feared except the very unlikely chance of an attack by robbers, made probably by mistake. No robbers armed only with spears would, as a general rule, knowingly attack the well-armed caravan of an European. There have, however, been one or two exceptions. The country is only really dangerous to a native traveller, and that it is so the daily police records at Berbera will show.
Example I
We will first suppose that a single European proposes to spend six weeks travelling, purely for sport, in the explored parts of the British Protectorate, political conditions being favourable. We will assume that he does not wish to extend his wanderings far into the Haud waterless plateau. The above trip would be suitable for a sportsman from Aden having very limited leave, as those from London or Bombay would probably go farther and try unexplored ground.
The minimum number of personal servants will be as follows:—
One body servant to look after the tent and bedding, and lay out the meals. He should also be able to interpret.
One cook.
Two hunters (called, in Hindustáni, shikáris) to track, collect news of game, carry spare rifles, clean them, and skin and prepare specimens.
One personal camelman to lead, saddle, unsaddle, and tend the Somáli camel which will be ridden, at a walking pace, by the European traveller; this camel would be led by the camelman. Somáli camels do not trot. I have found this method of progression, though slow, irksome, and rather uncomfortable, to be very practical. Whenever game is sighted it is possible to jump off for a shot, or to fire from the camel’s back. Spare rifles, ammunition, blankets, and food can be carried, which would be impossible where a pony is ridden. A pony requires water in the Haud, whereas a Somáli camel does not. In long expeditions, where expensive arrangements are made on a large scale, it may answer to take a good Arab trotting camel from Aden. These camels, though excellent in every way, require daily grain, and water at least every second day; while Somáli camels, though incapable of trotting, have the advantage of picking up their own food by the wayside, and can, at a pinch, march without water for nearly a fortnight. If it is, however, decided to take ponies, they can be obtained nearly anywhere in Somáliland.
For this led camel mats will not do. An Arab pad saddle must be bought in Aden, and as it is sometimes difficult to procure, it might with advantage be ordered beforehand.
The following articles may be carried on the led camel which is ridden by the European:—
A pair of saddle-bags.
Haversacks containing food and spare ammunition.
Small hand camera.
A couple of spare sporting rifles.
Two or three blankets.
Large water-bottle.
Prismatic compass (if used).
It is the duty of the attendant, whom I have called the personal camelman, to see that these things are correctly packed on the camel at the beginning of a march, and safely housed in the tent on camp being pitched.
Thus, as above shown, we have five personal servants. The remaining servants will be camelmen for the baggage camels, and temporary servants who may be engaged for short periods in the interior, such as guides.
Some of the camelmen should know something of the line of proposed travel, and be able to act as guides if local guides fail.
Over all, whether personal servants or camelmen, should be placed a headman or caravan commander, who will also be interpreter and confidential adviser to his European master. He should know whichever of the three languages—Arabic, Hindustáni, or English—his master wishes to make the medium between himself and the natives. His business is to superintend the loading of the camels, select the site for the halting-place, and superintend the pitching of the new camp; to interview chiefs and natives who visit the camp, to have military command of the caravan in the absence of his master, to arrange for the relief of sentries at night, and choose the place for the zeríba and the watch-fires.
Assisted by one of the camelmen, who will have extra pay for the purpose, he should weigh out the daily rations, and be responsible for all native food, and for any game meat handed over to him by the hunters. In fact he is responsible to his master for everything that goes on in the caravan.
On this man the success of the expedition, of course, chiefly depends. Having once chosen my headman, I allow him to suit himself as regards engaging camelmen, insisting that they shall not all belong to one tribe. I always choose my personal servants myself.
In order to calculate roughly the number of baggage camels and camelmen required, it will be necessary to first estimate the number of camel-loads that would have to be carried if the rations and spare ammunition of the camelmen were left out. That is, we must first ascertain the number of camel-loads which would be a constant quantity in the calculation.
Whatever the number of baggage camels and camelmen may be, the European, the headman, and the five personal servants are a constant quantity. Three natives engaged locally in the interior may be added to this number, so without counting the baggage camelmen we have one European and nine Somális to provide rations for.
Thus we have the following camel-loads, namely,—
(a) 42 days’ rations for 1 European.
(b) 42 days’ rations for 9 Somális (with percentage for guests).
(c) Baggage of the European.
(d) Sporting ammunition, spare ammunition for 9 Somális, and extras.
We will add up these items. Let A be the resulting number of camel-loads.
By a simple calculation we can now tell how many baggage camels and camelmen we shall want.
The custom is for one camelman to look after two camels.
A camelman’s rations (with percentage for guests) for 42 days will be—
| Rice | 49 | lbs. |
| Dates | 26 | ″ |
| Ghee | 8 | ″ |
| His spare ammunition, say | 6 | ″ |
| Total | 89 | lbs., |
or a third of a camel-load.
Thus, as one camelman looks after two camels, the weight due to his rations and ammunition will put one-sixth of a camel-load upon each of them; and so to carry five of the loads A we shall want six camels. Hence divide the number A by five and multiply by six, and we shall have the number of camels we must purchase for the caravan, and the number of camelmen we must engage to look after them will be half this.
I consider 275 lbs. a fair load of European baggage for a Somáli camel, not counting the weight of the camel-mats. All compact weights, such as dates, are difficult to carry, and 260 lbs. is a full load; while loads distributed over plenty of surface, such as rice loghs or water in several háns, are easily carried, and so in such cases the loads may go up to 340 lbs.
If we allow 1½ camel-loads for 42 days’ rations for one European, and 2½ for his baggage (including tent, cooking-pots, spare rifles and ammunition, and so forth), 1 camel for cloth and extras, and 3 for Somáli rations, then A stands for 8, and our caravan will require by our rough calculation ten baggage camels and five camelmen.
One of these camelmen will be given a slight increase of pay, and be made makadam in charge of the camels and camelmen, under the headman of the caravan.
The duties of the camelmen will be to load and unload the camels, lead them when on the march, keep guard over them when grazing, and water them when necessary.
In addition to the special duties of camelmen, servants, and hunters, every Somáli member of the expedition, including the headman, should take his share of the following duties which are necessary for the common comfort, namely,—
To carry a rifle or spear and aid in defence if necessary.
Sentry duties in camp.
Collecting firewood for the watch-fires.
Water-supply for camp use.
Forming the zeríba round the camp.
If every Somáli, without exception, is made to take his share in these duties there will be no jealousy or trouble connected with them. The European, to whom the climate is strange, should be the only man exempt from such duty; but when away from camp, with only two or three attendants, I was accustomed to take my share.
There being such a small force, it will pay to arm the eleven men with good weapons, such as Martini or Snider carbines, or Remingtons. I have also generally given or lent my men the following equipment, namely, one “kháki” drill coat, with pockets; one cartridge belt and pouch to contain an oiled rag, one brown blanket, and one cheap butcher’s knife in leather sheath. This equipment is not absolutely necessary, but it is desirable if the escort is to be smart and efficient. The cartridge belt would be made to contain thirty cartridges, of which a few would be loaded with buckshot for sentry-duty at night. It is necessary to be careful that men who may accompany their master when shooting have no white about their clothing, as it drives away game.
The headman, five personal servants, and five camelmen, eleven in all, will be the permanent party engaged beforehand, who will serve throughout the trip and return with the caravan to the coast. In addition, enough food should be carried for the following temporary servants, to be engaged locally in the interior and dismissed again as required, namely,—
Two guides, one being for the white man, to accompany him and the two hunters when out shooting; the other, who may with advantage be an influential Akil,56 to guide the camel caravan.
One small boy, to look after milk goats, sheep, or donkeys, which it may be necessary to buy in the interior and drive along with the caravan. Donkeys are useful as baits for lions.
We shall require to buy twelve camels, ten being for baggage, one being for the European to ride, one being a spare camel without mats or load. About 10 per cent is a good proportion of spare camels. They are not absolutely necessary, but desirable.
We will now accurately calculate what will be the loads, and whether the ten baggage camels will be able to carry them.
The loads will come under the following heads:—
(a) Rations, 42 days, for 14 Somális (with percentage for guests).
(b) Rations, 42 days, for one European.
(c) Private baggage, tent, and instruments of European.
(d) Spare ammunition for escort, and spare sporting ammunition.
(e) Cloth for payments in the interior, a large cooking-pot for the men, and miscellaneous extras.
Although it is advisable to allow for a day’s water being carried on any Somáli expedition, we will neglect water-supply in the present calculation. It is fully gone into in Example II.
The rations for a caravan follower are 1 lb. rice, ½ lb. dates, and 2 oz. ghee (clarified butter) per man per diem.
The dates are sold at Aden and Berbera, compressed into a solid mass. They are very good eating even for an European, when they are fairly fresh, and they keep in good condition for a few months.
The ghee is required for mixing with the daily allowance of boiled rice. In the early days of our Protectorate the ghee ration was fixed for Government followers at 1 oz., but as nearly all the complaints and caravan troubles were traced to insufficiency of ghee, my brother and I always gave 2 oz. in our later expeditions, and then everything went smoothly. We found that the extra ounce made all the difference between a set of intriguing rascals and a cheerful, contented caravan.
It will be found in practice that the ghee disappears most quickly, being the most popular part of the ration; the dates come next, and the rice last. Dates often come in very handy when a native has to be sent on a two or three days’ errand through the bush. Half a dozen pounds of dates tied up in the free end of his tobe, with a well here and there and the shelter of a bush, will be all the board and lodging he will require for nearly a week’s outing.
It has been my custom to take into the interior a spring-balance or steelyard reading to about 90 lbs., and every fortnight to check the consumption of rice, dates, and ghee in bulk. A gallon measure and a pair of small scales should not be forgotten.
Daily at the camps several natives will appear at about meal-time as self-constituted guests. To such it should be explained politely, but firmly, that there is water in the well and grass upon the plain, but no food in camp for loafers. No work, no food, should be the rule. A present of a pinch of tobacco will then turn the applicant into a friend for life.
It is desirable to set aside a proportion, however, for necessary guests, and after calculating the rations for the members of the expedition I usually add the following:—
Rice, ⅙
Dates, ¼
Ghee, ½
The rice ration for 14 Somális for 42 days will be 588 lbs.; add ⅙ for guests, and we have 686 lbs. Rice is sold in bags containing each about 170 lbs.; and before starting on a trip each bag should, for convenience of loading, be broken up into three long sausage-shaped bags, called loghs. Two bags of rice, or six loghs, make a camel-load.
Thus we have, rice, 2 camel-loads. The dates ration for 14 Somális for 42 days will be 294 lbs.; add ¼ for guests, and we have 368 lbs.
Dates are sold by the gosra, weighing about 130 lbs., enclosed in a rough reed basket or bag. For convenience of transport this is divided into two parts, and two gosras, or four half gosras, go upon one camel.
Thus we have, dates, 1½ camel-loads.
The ghee ration for 14 Somalis for 42 days will be 1176 oz.; add for guests, and we have 1764 oz., or 110 lbs. The ghee is sold by the gumba, a goatskin bag closed at the mouth by a framework of sticks and a lump of clay. Each gumba contains 25 lbs. ghee or less. We will suppose the 110 lbs. ghee is carried in five gumbas, weighing with their contents 145 lbs. Thus we have, ghee, ½ camel-load.
It tends to cheerfulness if a small supply of native coffee, tobacco, and salt be carried for the men. The tobacco is chewed, and the coffee is drunk before early marches on cold mornings. These extras weigh very little.
Next we have to calculate for the stores of one European for 42 days. I recommend that several wooden boxes be made, measuring about 1 foot 6 inches by 2 feet 3 inches, and 1 foot 3 inches deep, capable of being padlocked, with the cover on hinges, and two rope handles for convenience of handling. All the liquids which have to be kept in bottles may go in one box, and all the tinned and other stores in another, the pair containing a fortnight’s supply, and each loading up to about 65 lbs.
The liquids will be something like the following (a fortnight’s supply):—
| Whisky | 2 bottles |
| Carbolic oil (for sores of men or perhaps camels) | 1 bottle |
| Carbolic acid, strong | 1 small bottle |
| Cocoanut oil for lamps | a supply |
| Turpentine for preparing skins | about 6 bottles |
| Oil for cleaning rifles | a supply |
| Two or three bottles of tart fruits. | |
| A bottle of pickles. |
Other articles, which could be stored in bottles, would suggest themselves—
The stores will be something like the following (for one fortnight):—
Tea
Coffee
Cocoa
Sardines
Candles
Matches
Tinned potato
Soap
Pepper57
Mustard57
Salt57
Potted meats
Biscuits
Rice
Jams
Swiss milk
Sugar57
Tinned butter
Tinned soups
Oatmeal
Flour57
Powdered alum57 (for preparing skins)
Tinned fruits
Of Swiss milk very little need be taken, as milk goats can be bought and driven along with the caravan.
Soups are most useful, and I usually take about ten tins for a fortnight.
Fresh potatoes can be bought in Aden, and will last for the first three weeks of the trip. They would go in a separate sack. Onions may be taken in the same way.
Biscuits and small tins of potted meats, provided salt kinds such as anchovy and bloaters are omitted, are useful to carry in the pocket when out for a day’s hunting. The salt kinds are of course objectionable, as they induce thirst. I seldom carried any large tins of meat. Dried game meat can always be saved, to be used in case of emergency.
I only used lamp oil for two bull’s-eye lanterns which I kept for theodolite work. They make good night referring points if fixed half a mile away. I had candle lanterns for camp use, and spring candlesticks with glass globes for the tent.
Four of these boxes, containing stores or liquors, will go on one camel.
Thus we have, European rations and stores for 42 days, 1½ camel-loads. For private baggage, tent, instruments, cooking-pots, and bedding, allow 2 camel-loads. For cloth, large cooking-pot for the men, bags of spare ammunition for sporting rifles, and extras, we will allow 1 camel-load. The men will carry thirty rounds each in their cartridge belts or pouches, and for such a short trip it will not be necessary to have more than fifty rounds per man carried in one box. A little buckshot and blank ammunition would also be carried, the latter being useful for drill and firing salutes.
Sporting ammunition should be carried in haversacks or magazines distributed about the loads, each rifle having its own bag of ammunition; and a little should be carried in a couple of haversacks on the riding camel, ready to hand. The sporting cartridges for the day’s use would be carried in the pockets of the sportsman and his two hunters. If one large box of spare sporting ammunition and one box of Snider ball ammunition be also carried, we must allow—spare ammunition, ½ camel-load.
The camel-loads for the ten baggage camels will be as follows:—
| Camel-loads. | |
|---|---|
| (a) Native rations | 4 |
| (b) European rations | 1½ |
| (c) Private European baggage | 3 |
| (d) Ammunition | ½ |
| (e) Cloth and other extras | 1 |
| Total | 10 |
The expenses of such a trip may be conveniently grouped as follows:—
(1) Purchase of tent, rifles, and kit of all sorts in London or Bombay.
(2) Passages to and from Aden.
(3) Hotel expenses in Aden.
(4) Purchase of necessaries at Aden.
(5) Passages from Aden to the Somáli coast and back.
(6) Purchase and sale of necessaries at the coast.
(7) Purchase and sale of camels at the coast.
(8) Petty expenses in the interior.
(9) Pay of men of the caravan.
Only in the case of the last four items—that is, the sums which will be actually spent in Somáliland itself—can I give estimates; but it is just in these items the local knowledge is so valuable.
The currency used at Aden and the Somáli coast ports is silver, usually rupees, or dollars (worth 2⅛ rupees); and the rupee is constant as regards purchasing power. The value of a rupee in English money can be found daily in the newspapers. When I was last at Aden a sovereign was worth about 16 rupees.
Purchase of Tent, Rifles, and Other Kit
I recommend a double fly 80 lb. “Cabul” tent. Somális, who take shelter from rain under camel-mats, do not require a tent. I consider that in a comparatively dry country like Somáliland camp furniture is superfluous. My tent arrangements are very simple. Between the two tent poles five of the wooden store-boxes are placed side by side. One set of soft camel-mats (the Somáli substitute for a packsaddle) is spread over the boxes, and my blankets and pillow go over all. When marching fast I never pitch the tent at all, and in this case all the boxes are piled to windward, to form a rampart about five feet high. Camel-mats are thrown over for a roof, and the bed is spread out on the ground beneath. The mats may be thrown off when it is not raining, as in fine weather I prefer to have nothing to shut out the sky. This arrangement gives less trouble to the men, who may be tired after a long march, than pitching the tent; and it is much easier to load up for the early morning march. By day, when marching fast, I halt for three hours about noon, without pitching the tent, if two good trees are to be found.
When the tent is pitched the bed is arranged on the store-boxes, taking care that those which contain “expense stores” are not so used, as it is annoying if the cook is constantly disturbing the bedding to open boxes. Against one pole rests a jar of water, which is constantly kept cool by the wind blowing upon the porous earthenware. This jar is carried on the camels in a framework of sticks. It can be bought in Berbera for half a rupee, and the butler can be rewarded with two rupees if it is brought back to the coast unbroken. The iron tent-pegs58 should similarly be handed to the same official, and, say, two annas given for every peg which finds its way back to the coast. The Somális, though not naturally petty thieves, cannot resist iron tent-pegs; they are easily secreted, and disposed of to jungle natives, who make spears with the iron. All cutlery if not looked after is apt to disappear in the same way. At the back of my tent I usually stood a large bucket of water and waterproof sheet, or an india-rubber bath. Table and chairs I seldom took. In case of meeting Europeans, a very fine substitute for a dining-table and chairs can be arranged by the help of the store-boxes, draped with different coloured blankets.
The first thing after the tent has been pitched, two auss, or smooth grass camel-mats, are laid down as a substitute for floorcloth. To the right of the bed, on the ground, are laid all small articles which may be required at a moment’s notice, including the favourite rifle and cartridge belt. At night this rifle is kept loaded, and a strip of white paper is gummed along the central rib from the back-sight to the muzzle. When a leopard jumps into the middle of the camp, or there is a “war-scare,” one or other of which incidents occurs on an average once a week in Somáliland, it is convenient not to have to waste valuable seconds in fumbling for these things in the dark. On the ground, to the left of the bed, are arranged haversacks, small camera, spare rifles, medicine bag, instruments, a pair of saddle-bags, and other such articles; and to the right of the pillow is placed one store-box, and on it a candle lantern, matches, and the favourite book, which is an absolute necessity for camp life. For the spare clothing, books, spare instruments, stationery, and other articles, I recommend strong tin uniform cases, or steel trunks, instead of leather trunks, because they can be left out in the rain without damage. Leather trunks are soon pulled out of shape by the loading ropes, and are liable to be utterly ruined by white ants in a single night. The tin cases may be painted white with ship’s paint; when painted black they absorb the sun’s rays and bake everything inside. Photograph plates and other very perishable articles should be carefully packed to avoid damage from excessive heat, the sun’s rays being so powerful; for instance, at noon in Guban a rifle barrel, if left lying exposed, very soon becomes too hot to touch.
The sporting battery which I should take were I now fitting out an expedition, would be—
One double.577 Express rifle (with 250 cartridges for six weeks).
One double 8-bore Paradox ball gun (with 150 ball cartridges and a few buckshot).
One double 12-bore Paradox ball gun (with 100 ball, 200 shot).
One single Lee-Metford.303 rifle (with 300 rounds).
The cartridges would be filled and soldered up in tin in convenient quantities by the gunmaker who sold the rifles. I have never taken the trouble to load rifle cartridges; a good maker will load them well, and if soldered up they will keep for years. I believe most of the letting off and wounding of game is due more to the inability to get close enough than to defects in rifle or cartridges. For the open plains, when the game is shy, the Lee-Metford will be very useful. The grass is often so short that shots may be taken on the back position. Every shot knocks up a puff of dust, enabling one to correct one’s aim. In the case of an antelope the neck should be aimed at, so that the animal will be missed or killed; and a very deadly shot is obtained when the animal is standing head on, so as to present the length of the body to a raking bullet. If the distance be very great, the animal will, if unwounded, stand for several shots. In this way, managed with science, long shots are not unsportsmanlike, and I must confess to a feeling of pleasure when an almost black bull hartebeest, whose horns have been admired at leisure through the telescope, and who has been standing four hundred yards away thinking himself out of range, drops stone dead as if struck by lightning after a few unsuccessful shots. To fire at random into a herd, unless meat is urgently required, of course is utterly indefensible.
In buying rifles there is a great choice of good makers. Personally I have nearly always gone to Messrs. Holland and Holland for my rifles and ammunition, and have been perfectly satisfied with the way in which I have been treated. Their eight-bore Paradox ball gun I consider the best weapon in the market for heavy game such as elephant or rhino. I had a four-bore rifle with fourteen drs. and hard spherical ball, but found that the conical steel-core projectile of the eight-bore gave greater shock and penetration.
Snider carbines are useful weapons for the escort, and it may be noted that the ammunition makes excellent practice at short ranges when fired out of a.577 Express. This can be done if the chamber happens to be of the right shape, and the knowledge has been useful to me more than once, although whether such a proceeding is good for the rifle is questionable. A revolver or pistol is a useful weapon to carry, especially if one wanders about in the bush alone. I recommend, if a double shikár pistol be taken, that one of about.577 or twelve-bore be chosen, with one trigger for both barrels on the Lancaster principle. When after lion or leopard, and not well backed up by the gunbearer, a situation may arise where such a pistol would be handy. In a home charge the rifle would be knocked out of the hands, but the pistol, being on the belt, would always be ready. I have known two cases of a native trying to beat off a lion with his bare hands. One man was successful and the other lost his life. I feel sure that in the latter case a good pistol would have made all the difference. It is worth remembering that when buying a Lee-Metford rifle of military pattern, the bayonet should be supplied with it, as it is a perfect shikár knife for the belt.
In disturbed country, where an attack by robbers may be apprehended, the eight-bore Paradox gun loaded with S.S.G. slugs would be a good night weapon to rely upon. I therefore recommend that a few cartridges be so loaded for this and the twelve-bore. Among the.577 Express bullets should be about 10 per cent of hardened solid bullets. They may be very useful in finishing off heavy game.
When after thick-skinned game, such as elephant or rhino, I think the Lee-Metford would be a useful rifle, provided a quiet head shot could be obtained with the animal standing still, both barrels of the double eight-bore being kept in reserve for use if it should get into motion. Although I have always believed in large-bore rifles, I think there is a great future in store for the very small bores of the Lee-Metford class, having a long bullet and plenty of powder. Although the section is so small, the great remaining velocity of the Lee-Metford bullet causes a considerable shock to the animal, especially if the latter has been standing end on, and the bullet has raked forward for some distance. I consider the Lee-Metford about the best rifle for oryx-shooting in uninhabited country, and have in my latter trips had great success with it. I used the ordinary military cartridge.
With each of the sporting rifles there should be a good strong magazine bag, which can be slung over any of the laden camels. Half the spare ammunition would be carried in this way, while the rest of the spare ammunition for all the sporting battery would be packed in one box, weighing about 50 lbs. Several leather or canvas haversacks should be made to carry food and small articles.
For the Snider carbines I recommend that for a six weeks’ trip thirty rounds per man be carried in the belts, with a few rounds of buckshot for the use of sentries; besides this belt ammunition, about fifty rounds per man would be in a box, and some blank ammunition for skirmishing drill and complimentary displays. If it is proposed to give the men much ball practice while in the interior, more ball ammunition should of course be taken. I strongly recommend an hour of target practice once a week, in some deep river-bed with precipitous banks, if the men are to be of any use as an escort. A pair of compasses, a bundle of thin lathes, a dozen screws and a screwdriver, half a quire of cartridge paper, packet of drawing pins, and some ink pellets, are all that is required to be taken to make very good targets. When the men have been well grounded in ball practice it will be interesting to pile up stones to the height of a man and bring them down with a crashing volley at a hundred yards. The men take a lively interest in the shooting and drill, and a list should be kept of good, bad, or indifferent shots, so that the fact may be endorsed on their written characters when they are dismissed at the coast.
Some form of hand camera is invaluable, I suggest that no large camera be used, nor chemicals, but that small photographs be taken with the hand camera and developed and enlarged on return to England.
When ordering clothes it should be remembered that Somáliland can be extremely hot and also very cold. I recommend that thin “kháki” drill be the usual costume, and that a good thick ulster be taken for cold night-marches or for sitting up over a “kill.” A few pairs of red rubber or cotton-soled shoes are useful for stalking koodoo and other game inhabiting stony ground. Above all, a really good sun hat is a necessity.
Information regarding the cost of passages to and from Aden can be obtained at any shipping offices, so I will merely remark that it takes about three weeks to get to Aden from London by sea, or about thirteen days if advantage be taken of the overland train to Brindisi. But in the latter case only a small hand-bag could be taken, baggage having previously been sent round by sea. There is generally great trouble about the shipping of loaded cartridges, and they should be sent on ahead.
When staying at an hotel in Aden I usually went to the Hotel de L’Europe, in the Crescent, Steamer Point. The accommodation at all the hotels in Aden is very primitive. So far as I can remember, board and lodging in Aden would come to between 7 and 14 rupees per diem.
At Aden the following articles, if considered necessary, may be purchased or made to order:—
Coats for the men, of “kháki” or drab-coloured drill (3 rupees), cartridge belts to contain thirty rounds (1 rupee), also pouches (½ rupee), brown blankets for followers (3 rupees). Six wooden boxes to contain stores or liquors, as before described, can be made in the bazaar for between 1 and 2 rupees each, or they may be obtained in London with a fortnight’s supplies in each box. If a camel-pad is required it can be got in Aden for 10 rupees.59
The two Parsi firms with which I have had most dealings are Messrs. Pallonjee Dinshaw and Messrs. Cowasjee Dinshaw Bros., both of the Crescent, Aden. The latter is probably the larger firm, and does a great deal of business with the shipping passing through Aden. But when I have not had time to get what I wanted from one I have tried the other. Cowasjee is in correspondence with Mr. Mahomed Hindi, a Hindustáni merchant permanently living in Berbera; and Pallonjee is also accustomed to do business with the Somáli coast.
All information concerning passages to and from the Somáli coast can be obtained by applying to either of the two Parsi firms named. Two coasting steamers visit the coast ports of Berbera, Bulhár, and Zeila once a week each. The usual charge was 20 rupees for one European and his baggage, and 5 rupees for each native.
Under the heading of purchase and sale of necessaries at the coast will come the following:—
| Purchase before leaving coast. | Sale on return. | |
|---|---|---|
| Rupees. | Rupees. | |
| 11 sets of hério, or camel-mats | 35 | 12 |
| 11 leather loading ropes | 11 | 3 |
| 9 native axes | 5 | 2 |
| 6 hangol, or wooden crooks | 2 | 1 |
| 4 knives for cutting camel-rope | 2 | .. |
| Several bundles of common loading rope | 10 | 2 |
| 20 iron tent-pegs | 5 | .. |
| Cloth for payment in interior | 150 | .. |
| Cash for payment on journey (in small silver) | 100 | .. |
| Rations for Somális:— | ||
| Rice, 4 bags | 36 | .. |
| Dates, 3 gosra | 22 | .. |
| Ghee, 5 gumba | 50 | .. |
| Extras | 10 | .. |
| Total | 438 | 20 |
Thus we have 418 rupees expenditure after deducting the proceeds of the selling-off auction, so that 450 rupees should well cover expenses under this head; the hério are the sets of camel-mats which are the Somáli substitute for a packsaddle. Three auss, or grass mats, and one kibit, or soft bark mat, make a complete set.
The axes are for cutting brushwood for the zeríba, and some of them may be made specially heavy for cutting out ivory. Good axes from England might be useful for this purpose.
The hangol are crooked sticks used for pulling about thorny brushwood.
The cloth required might be made up of:—
| 3 Khaili, or coloured tobes | at | 7 rupees | 21 rupees |
| 8 Bafta tobes | ″ | 2⅛ rupees | 17 ″ |
| 56 Merikáni tobes | ″ | 2 rupees | 112 ″ |
| 150 rupees |
The purchase of twelve camels will cost about 480 rupees, and their sale at the end of the trip (allowing for one death) will produce about 330 rupees.
The petty expenses in the interior have been provided for by 150 rupees worth of cloth and 100 rupees in cash, already included under the heading of expenses in Berbera. A common native engaged for a day’s work will usually get 8 annas or the equivalent in cloth. Presents for game bagged may be given according to taste, from 30 rupees for a good bull elephant to 20 rupees for a lion, or 4 rupees for a bull oryx. The present for one animal should be distributed among those who aided in bringing it to bag, however slight their services; in fact, for a good trophy it has been my custom to reward slightly every member of my caravan. A sheep costs from 3 to 4 rupees; a heifer about 15 rupees; a camel, 20 to 40 rupees (either for the butcher or transport); a pony, 60 rupees and upwards; a goat for the butcher, 1½ to 2 rupees; a milk goat, 5 to 8 rupees; a donkey, 12 rupees. The latter animal is a long way the best for tying up at night as a bait for lions, as the lion likes no flesh better, and the loud bray attracts any that may be near. A white goat, which is young enough to bleat, is the best bait for a leopard.
The pay for the men of the caravan for six weeks will be approximately as follows:60—
| Rate per month. | ||
|---|---|---|
| Rupees. | Rupees. | |
| 35 | 1 caravan leader or headman | 52½ |
| 25 | 1 butler | 37½ |
| 25 | 1 cook | 37½ |
| 30 | 1 hunter | 45 |
| 20 | 1 assistant hunter | 30 |
| 17 | 1 groom, or personal camelman | 25½ |
| 15 | 4 baggage camelmen | 90 |
| 18 | 1 makadam, or head camelman | 27 |
| 15 | 2 guides (engaged temporarily) | 45 |
| 12 | 1 sheep-boy (engaged temporarily) | 18 |
| Shooting presents may be paid for from the cash and cloth taken to the interior. | ||
| At the close of the trip a parting present will be expected by each man. Add 15 per cent | 62 | |
| Add pay of headman, butler, and cook, for a week before and a week after the trip, to help in organising and breaking up the expedition | 43 | |
| Total | 513 |
Thus, the money spent in Somáliland itself for a six weeks’ trip should be in round numbers as follows:—
| Rupees. | |
|---|---|
| Purchase and sale of necessaries at coast, and expenses on trip | 450 |
| Purchase and sale of camels | 330 |
| Pay of men of the caravan | 520 |
| Total | 1300 |
Of this expenditure, part will occur when starting and part when breaking up the caravan at the close of the trip. The whole of this money should be placed in the charge of a native merchant or banker at Berbera, and any Somáli follower may then be paid off either at the coast or in the interior by an order for the necessary sum, written on a scrap of paper.
Example II
We will assume that one European is going to travel for two months, purely for sport, in the Haud and the most accessible parts of Ogádén. The distance across the Haud by the usual road from Hargeisa to Milmil is covered in five and a half days, going two marches a day, and for all journeys going far into the Haud, or crossing to Ogádén, arrangements should be made for carrying at least seven days’ water. To the east of Milmil the Haud becomes much wider. From the experience of eight journeys across the Haud, I have found that a gallon per man per diem for all purposes is the proper allowance for a Somáli who is on ordinary rations, a gallon and a half for a native of India, and two gallons for an European. Half of the water is used by the Somáli for boiling with his rice, the other half for drinking; and it is a thing worth knowing that if his ration is of camel meat instead of rice, he will be perfectly satisfied with half a gallon per diem for all purposes. For the purposes of our calculation, however, we will allow a gallon per diem, because an eating camel is not always to be had, and a full day’s halt is necessary to enable the men to cut up and sun-dry the meat, causing vexatious delay. The Somáli, although he bathes at every pool where water is to be had, does not try to wash in the Haud. It is comforting, however, for an European or native of India to keep up the appearance of cleanliness so far as a damp sponge and a little water in a saucer will permit.
Somáli camels require no water for any march under ten days, and can do longer at a pinch. If water is plentiful they would be watered every five days or so. Donkeys, sheep, and goats should have a few pints every second day, and Somáli ponies should have about two gallons per diem, or four gallons every second day, though at a pinch they can go, according to the natives, from three to four days without water. Of course with an ordinary caravan this cruelty is unnecessary.
On one trip I took an Arab pony from India for three and a half months. He did excellently, and was faster and up to more weight than Somáli ponies. But he, of course, required grain and a much larger allowance of water than a Somáli pony. I think we carried for him five gallons per diem. If an Arab riding camel be imported from Aden, it must be remembered that it is ordinarily accustomed to drink at least once a day, and in the Haud must be given four gallons every second day.
As regards transport of water, a full load for a camel is two 12-gallon casks; a gallon of water weighs 10 lbs., and there is the weight of the casks to take into account.
In order to calculate the number of baggage camels and camelmen required, we shall have to add up the number of camel-loads coming under the following headings:—
| Camel-loads. | |
|---|---|
| Rations for 9 natives for 56 days (with percentage added) | 4½ |
| Rations, 56 days, 1 European | 2 |
| Private baggage of European | 3 |
| Spare ammunition for European and for 9 of the escort | 1 |
| Cloth and extras | 1 |
| Water for 1 European and 9 natives for 7 days (assuming no animals but Somáli camels are taken across the Haud) | 3½ |
| Total | 15 |
The rations for 56 days for one camelman (with percentage added) will be 66 lbs. rice, 38 lbs. dates, 10 lbs. ghee; add his spare ammunition 5 lbs., and water for 7 days 70 lbs., and we get a total of 189 lbs., or about ⁸/₁₁ of a camel-load.
By a calculation similar to that employed in Example I., we shall find that the number of camels required will be 24, and the number of baggage camelmen, 12.
The composition of our caravan will therefore be as follows:—
1 European. 1 headman. 5 personal servants.
(3 temporary jungle servants engaged from day to day will be allowed for in the pay, ration, and water estimate, though they will not start with the caravan.)
12 camelmen.
24 baggage camels; 1 Somáli camel to ride; 2 spare camels. Total, 27 camels.
This is what the preliminary calculation has given us; and when the loads have all been accurately worked out in detail it will probably be found that the 24 baggage camels can carry them.
In calculating the ammunition I am assuming that every permanent member of the caravan can shoot and will be provided with a rifle. It is a good rule to go by, although not always absolutely necessary, provided suitable escorts for different districts are taken.
To those whom I know to be unused to firearms I issue no ball ammunition till they have had several lessons in skirmishing drill with blank ammunition, and a certain amount of target practice. The laws of blood-feuds are too serious to be disregarded, and therefore a Somáli has a wholesome fear of letting off his rifle by accident. I have found that when once they have been properly taught they can be trusted with ball ammunition.
Example III
A trip of four months to distant parts of Ogádén, and to the Webbe Shabéleh river. In this case we will add a pony or mule and two fast Arab camels, luxuries which it may be worth while taking on a long trip.61 Unlike the Somáli ones, the Arab camels each require about 7 lbs. jowári grain per diem. It can be bought in Aden or Berbera, and costs rather less than rice. There will in this case be six personal servants instead of five, as the two Arab camels will require one man, and the pony will require a groom (syce in Hindustáni). I have also slightly increased the European baggage on account of ammunition and trade goods.
As a basis for our rough calculation we shall have:—
| Camel-loads. | |
|---|---|
| Rations, 10 natives, 12 days | 10 |
| Rations 1 European | 2 |
| Private European baggage | 4 |
| Spare ammunition for 10 natives and 1 European | 1½ |
| Cloth and trade goods and extras | 2 |
| Water for 1 European and 10 natives; and for 2 Arab camels, 1 pony, 1 donkey, 2 milk goats (19 gallons, 7 days) | 5½ |
| 4 months’ grain for 2 Arab camels | 4 |
| 29 |
A man’s rations for 112 days (with percentage added) will be:—
| 130 | lbs. | rice | |
| 70 | ″ | dates | |
| 20 | ″ | ghee | |
| add ammunition | 10 | ″ | |
| water 7 days | 70 | ″ | |
| 300 | lbs. |
Say 1⅟₁₁ camel-loads.
By another calculation similar to those previously employed, we shall find that we would want 64 camels and 32 baggage camelmen.
Thus we have our caravan composed as follows:—
| 1 | European. | |
| 1 | headman. | |
| 1 | personal camelman. | |
| 1 | syce. | |
| 1 | cook. | |
| 1 | butler. | |
| 2 | hunters. | |
| 32 | baggage camelmen. | |
| 3 | temporary jungle servants. | |
| Total | 42 | Somális, 1 European. |
| 2 | Arab trotting camels. | |
| 1 | pony for European. | |
| 64 | baggage camels. | |
| 6 | spare camels. |
In my last trip to the Webbe, occupying three months, I had 55 camels and 30 men. The trip cost me about £300 altogether.
The expenses can be calculated on the lines of Example I. There will, however, be certain modifications.
Somális have a prejudice against going to the Webbe. They have great fear of fever and mosquitoes; and they have a great dread of Gállaland. They will, therefore, expect higher pay to go to these countries. On my last trip my ordinary camelmen, who would take 15 rupees per month for trips in Guban, Ogo, Haud, and Ogádén, would take nothing less than 18 rupees throughout the journey if we reached the Webbe, and 20 rupees if we reached the Gálla tribes. Circumstances have combined to place all Somáli wages at a very high figure. The pay of an Indian body servant is in India about 10 rupees per month, but if taken to Aden, the same man requires double pay, or 20 rupees per month. The Somáli, who is trained to domestic service in Aden, naturally says he will not take less than the Indian who does the same work. The Somáli at Berbera requires the same wages which he has been accustomed to get at Aden, and similar causes, together with intense laziness, independence, and avarice combined, tend to raise the price of labour in Somáliland.
If Somális are really starving, they have only to make their way somehow to the karias of their own tribe, and they will be kept in board and lodging, for up country every fighting man is worth his keep.
The Arab trotting camels, which I have recommended, could be bought in Aden, including light coolie saddles (without stirrups), for about 170 rupees each. Great care should be taken in choosing these animals, an Arab expert who can be trusted being employed. The attendant for these camels should be a Somáli accustomed to them. There are many Somális who have served in the Berbera camel police who have this qualification, but an ordinary Somáli knows nothing about them. Besides jowári and water at regular intervals, about a quart of sweet or other suitable oil per month should be carried for each trotting camel. It is a peculiarity of these camels that a large maggot is often found filling up the nostril, and when it becomes so large as to impede breathing the nostril is drenched with oil, and the maggot, sometimes half an inch thick and over an inch long, tumbles out.
In a long trip, such as is given in Example III., a rapid survey of the route would probably be made. I recommend the following instruments:—
Boiling-point thermometer and aneroid barometer.
Common thermometer.
Note-books.
6-inch transit theodolite.
Prismatic compass and stand.
First-class astronomical watch.
Two common watches.
I found the theodolite infinitely more handy than the sextant, and think the traverse, often at the rate of twenty-five miles a day, too rapid for comfortable plain table work. The tribesmen, too, would probably object to the imposing plain table and strained square of paper. The theodolite is also an imposing instrument, but it would be most used for star observations at night, when natives would be away from camp. Of the smaller instruments, duplicates should be taken. Instructions on surveying are to be found in the Royal Geographical Society’s publication, Hints to Travellers, and practical lessons in this and other special subjects are given under the auspices of the same Society.
When arranging for an expedition in which water has to be carried, 12-gallon casks should be taken out to Aden, or bought beforehand in Aden by letter. It will be advantageous to be able to padlock them, and for the bunghole to be large enough for a man’s arm to be passed in when cleaning the cask. I recommend common casks, for I have taken different shapes of specially-designed water-vessels suited (in theory) for camel transport; but Somális, who are good judges, say camels do well with a pair of large common casks. It is worth remembering that wooden or plaited bark water háns, carrying on an average seven gallons, are always to be had at Berbera (costing about 4 rupees). They go four to six on a camel, and being light, twenty-eight gallons can easily be carried in one load. But owing to incessant leakage, and to breaking, through the falling of camels and knocking against trees, there is a very great loss of water. On the other hand, if the casks are good, one is sure of the twenty-four gallon load, and the supply can be accurately controlled. Casks should be filled with water over-night and allowed to stand by the well side before a long waterless journey, so that the wood of the casks may have time to swell. Casks which have lost no water by morning may be trusted, and those which have leaked should be filled again and marked, so that they may be the first to be drawn upon on the march.
In one of my long trips I took forty-four water háns, but they caused so much vexation through leakage and so much expense for repairs, that I resolved never to use them again when I could get casks. They are, however, always to be had at Berbera, if casks have been forgotten. In buying háns it should be noted that drinking water for Europeans should be carried in wooden háns, as they taint the water much less than the bark ones. I recommend, for water-bottles, common quart whisky-bottles, which can be slipped into a leather case provided with a sling, so that it can be carried by one of the hunters. It is very convenient to have in addition half a dozen flat water-bottles made to contain a gallon each, of tin covered with thick leather; one of these could be carried on the camel which is ridden. These would, of course, most easily be made in a civilised country.
On the Webbe Shabéleh a little jowári grain can generally be purchased at the villages, though the natives, I believe, only grow it for home consumption and not for export. I would never count on getting either jowári or ghee in the interior, as every purchase of this kind means a vexatious delay, and exorbitant prices are demanded. Milk is obtainable in abundance at every karia; and, as a special favour, if it is asked for, the natives will produce fresh butter as good as that sold in England when not tainted by the wooden cup of the natives. It soon becomes sour, and it should not be counted on as a supply. I always keep two milk goats to supply milk for my own use. Somáli cow’s milk is generally allowed to get sour and much tainted by the bark vessels. Good milk may be got by sending a clean bucket for it, and having the cow milked into it.
Besides the tobes mentioned in the estimates for Example I., the following are useful minor presents in Somáliland:—
Looking-glasses.
Beads. (These should be chosen by a Somáli and bought in Aden or Berbera.)
Clasp knives.
Red shawls. (These are very much in request, and are picked to pieces and made into tassels for saddlery ornaments. They can be bought in Aden for ¼ rupee each.)
Korans or Mahomedan Bibles, which cost from 1 rupee to 3 rupees in Aden, are good presents for mullahs.
Tusbas, or praying chaplets, of ebony or sandalwood, ½ rupee to 1 rupee, procurable in Aden.
Files for sharpening spears.
Coloured handkerchiefs.
Red blankets or coloured plaids. (These and common brown blankets make good presents for important natives, and are always useful to have about the tent.)
In choosing presents it must be remembered that Somális, being very sensible people, will not be burdened in their nomad life with unnecessary articles, and will not be satisfied with glittering but useless things which might pass among negroes. Each present must be really good and useful. A Somáli will examine a gift blanket very critically.
Presents and trade articles for Gállaland can be got in Aden, and should be chosen by a Somáli or Gálla expert, who knows something of the districts to be visited. Wiláyati (European) cotton cloth, something similar to Merikáni (American), but narrower and half the price, is there the most useful kind.
If it is intended to cross the Webbe, a rope (say 2 to 3 inches in circumference and 60 fathoms long) should be taken to be stretched across the river. At Karanleh the river is some 90 yards wide, except in flood time. When this rope has been stretched across the river, the native rafts can be attached to it by running loops made of bruised creeper, and the rafts pulled to and fro hand over hand. The rope enables a caravan to cross in one day, whereas without it the passage might occupy seven days. Such a rope is easily obtainable in Aden, and weighs 40 to 60 lbs.
On very important and distant expeditions it may be worth while to take a folding boat, in order to be independent of the avaricious river negroes, who will strike for higher wages if they think you depend on their help.
When fitting out an expedition which may in the course of the journey have to change to mule or human transport, as would occur at Harar or in parts of Gállaland, it may be worth considering whether the loads should not be capable of subdivision. Thus the boxes I have recommended for holding European stores, if not very full and made a little lower, would weigh about 55 lbs. Four of these would conveniently go on a camel, two on a mule, one on a man.
I have said that “no work, no pay” should be the rule for jungle tribesmen, but in the wilder parts of Somáliland it has hitherto been the custom for passing caravans to make small presents to the heads of clans for the privilege of going through the country. This payment is something similar to the Masai hongo. The usual etiquette is for a dozen horsemen or so to arrive from a distance and perform equestrian games (dibáltig); afterwards the performers and one or two elders are given presents, and then the caravan is free to go on its way. In the territory of tribes which I know I make the present very small, say one red shawl and half a tobe to each horseman, and I give a display with blank cartridge with the men formed up in skirmishing order, as a return compliment, which is always highly appreciated.
In expeditions to Ogádén and Gállaland I recommend that Sheikh Mattar of Hargeisa, if met with on the way, be asked to write Arabic letters of introduction to Mahomedan sheikhs and mullahs. He is widely known, and has often helped me in this way. He has also assisted me by taking care of loads which I have had, on occasions, to leave temporarily at Hargeisa.
Sometimes it may be worth while to hire extra camels (at 1 rupee per diem for a camel and ½ rupee for a man) for the first few days of a journey. In my calculation I make no allowance for trophies, because of course as a trip goes on the food-loads lighten.
As regards arrangements for the security of a caravan, I consider that unless the escort is well in hand and thoroughly up to its duties it will be worse than useless when an emergency arises. I do not believe in engaging a certain proportion of the men for the special purpose of forming the escort. If so engaged they will refuse to do all other work, and will give themselves airs over the camelmen and servants. I have tried the system, and found it lead to jealousy and the shirking of duties.
In most of my expeditions I have engaged my men as headman, camelmen, servants, and guides, having first explained that every Somáli of the caravan will take his share in the common defence. When I have been making up my caravans I have first calculated the number of servants I require, and have engaged them myself satisfying myself on the spot that each either understands the use of a rifle or is capable of soon learning it. The headman has been present, so that if he has any personal objection to any of the men he may state it. I have then told the headman to bring up for engagement the number of camelmen I require, allowing him to choose his own friends; and if I find that any of these are unfit to be trusted with firearms I discard them, and tell the headman to bring others in their place. To each man I explain the special duties he is engaged for, and the duties which he will share with all the members of the caravan, and ask if he is satisfied. When the men have all been engaged at the coast I appoint a time of parade and a convenient spot on the shore, and each man fires two or three rounds of ball ammunition at a mark, under my superintendence. The ball ammunition should be brought to the spot in a bag, not served out to the men. In fact I seldom serve out any ball ammunition till the caravan has made about two marches from the coast. If it is a large amount it may be taken out for this distance on a hired camel.
After these first few shots at a mark I hold two or three parades, serving out ten rounds of blank ammunition per man at each, and practise the men in skirmishing.
The rough drill which I have always used is as follows:—
The men form up in line about half a pace apart, with carbines held perpendicularly in the right hand and close to the side (the carbine “shoulder”).
On the word “Advance” all run forward steadily, keeping a fairly good line.
On the word “Halt” they drop to a sitting position (squatting naturally, as natives do, on both heels).
“Ready”—the men load with blank cartridge.
“Present”—the aim is taken.
“Fire”—the trigger is pressed.
“Advance”—the men run forward again, taking care to take out any unexploded cartridge or to open the breech.
“Halt”—they sit as before, and wait for the word “Ready” or “Advance.”
It might be advisable, if actually attacked when on the march, to retire upon the camels the better to protect them; so the men should be practised in retiring steadily and sitting down facing the enemy to fire, on the words “Retire” and “Halt.” The Somáli should in all these practices be told the supposed direction of the enemy, and also that whenever he is given the word “Halt” he is to squat down facing the enemy. I always carry a good whistle; and when the men are advancing, retiring, or halted ready for firing volleys, I sound an alarm on the whistle, and train the men to run to me and form a rough double circle round me, outer circle squatting on their heels, inner circle standing. We then fire volleys, the idea being that the enemy is trying to overwhelm the escort by a rush to close quarters.
On the word “Advance” the men run out in a rough line facing the enemy. It is wonderful how quickly Somalis get to understand the few English words of command which are necessary, and how well they grasp the idea in each movement. This is because they are brought up from childhood among raids and skirmishes.
The headman, if he is any good, will soon learn to command the men at drill, and he should be often practised in this. The men take the greatest delight in these drills, especially if plenty of blank cartridge is given them, and when it is desirable to gain the firm friendship of a tribe and at the same time to impress the tribesmen with the efficiency of the escort, there is nothing like giving a display of this kind.
During the first few days’ march from the coast, when in uninhabited country, I accustom the men to run out quickly to defend the line of camels. Moving out to the front, flank, or rear, I blow the alarm whistle, and the men run out and sit down in line, facing the supposed enemy. A few of the worst shots should be told off permanently, their duty being to stay among the camels and guard and look after them, so that the bulk of the men will be free to attack the enemy. This duty of holding camels in an emergency is not popular, and this will be an incentive to the men to try and shine at the target practices.
The natural habit of Somális when marching with a caravan is for the two or three camelmen who are required to lead the strings of camels to be with them, while the bulk of the men either lead the way or lag behind with the last camel. The camel makadam should be among these, and whenever a camel falls or shifts its load it is Somáli etiquette for every man near to run up to its assistance. It is not generally necessary, therefore, except in very disturbed country, to tell off a rear-guard, and I do not believe in constantly worrying tired men with theories when things are practically going on well.
In very disturbed country it is advisable to make only one long march in the morning, and to devote the afternoon to fortifying the camp with a good zeríba. While it is still daylight every man should be shown his place in case of a night alarm, and at dusk, having first given notice to the men, the alarm whistle should be blown, and they should jump to their places and then be dispersed. When night falls it is the duty of the headman to see the watch-fires lit and to post the sentry or sentries required. The fires should be outside the zeríba, and screened by it, or by a bush, from the eyes of the sentry. If the glare of the fire is in his face he will not be able to see out into the darkness.
The relief of sentries, and all arrangements connected with them, are best left to the headman. I found that Somális, once posted, as a rule make very faithful and reliable sentries. The usual challenge is, “War kumá?” (Who’s there?)
By day it is not usually necessary to keep a sentry, but there are two occasions when Somális are particularly off their guard. First, at about 8 P.M., if they are grouped together eating camel meat and shouting to one another, so that nothing else can be heard; secondly, between 1 and 2 P.M., when they are generally all asleep, scattered under the shade of different trees outside the camp. If I had the conduct of an attack on Somális, I would choose one of these occasions for effecting a surprise.
The zeríba can be arranged in many ways, the principle being that it should be low enough to fire over and wide enough to prevent a rush. The zeríba of the Somáli nomads, which is often twelve feet high, shuts out all view of the outside ground, and is only a trap for men armed with rifles. From four to five feet high and twelve feet wide is a good zeríba. The great difficulty is where to place the camels, and Somális are prejudiced in favour of a circular zeríba with the camels occupying the centre, which would not, I should say, be the European way. When the camels are out grazing, or a few are sent with empty casks to a distant well, enough men with firearms should be with them to defend them, if necessary, and one man should be placed in command.
It often occurs in bush country that men lose themselves, and guiding shots are required, especially at night. The men should have blank ammunition for this purpose, and should be fined for every ball cartridge wasted in this way or fired indiscriminately at game. Firing at game by men of the caravan, except under special circumstances, should be strictly prohibited, as it causes danger to any natives or live stock that may be about in the bush, and may land the traveller in a troublesome blood-feud. Men who are paid off and sent to the coast towards the end of a trip, or who are sent down in charge of camels, should, if they are trustworthy, be allowed to take their rifles with them, and they should be given cheques for their back pay, arrangements having been made so that the cheques will not be honoured till the rifles have been safely given up. It is not fair to expect a man to go through the territory of strange tribes without his rifle, or, at any rate, a spear and something to show that he is the servant of an Englishman.
If I were organising a Somáli expedition I would begin by writing to the authorities at Aden mentioning where I wished to go, and asking whether political conditions were favourable, whether I would be allowed to enter the country through British ports,62 and what escort I should be required to provide myself with. I would, at the same time, write to one of the Aden firms which I have named for information regarding the times of sailing of coasting steamers. The securing of a headman, on whom so much depends, may be seen to at the same time; the most reliable quarter to go to for information on this point would probably be friends who have already been a trip and can nominate a man. The name of a reliable headman, who is available, having been obtained, he should be ordered to meet the intending traveller at Aden on a named date.
Meanwhile all such articles as coats, cartridge belts, store-boxes, or Arab camel-saddle, which, if wanted at all, have to be made to order, may be prepared by the Parsi firms. On arrival at Aden the traveller, having already prepared a list of the number of men, camels, and caravan kit he will require, can procure them with the help of the headman. It may be advisable, if time is limited, for the headman to be sent to Berbera (I am assuming Berbera as the starting-point) to buy camels, camel-mats, axes, and other caravan kit, and have them ready by the time his master comes out to Aden, the funds being provided for the headman through the Aden firm acting as banker.
The simplest course, and one I have generally adopted, has been to go over to Berbera, stay in camp there four or five days, and to purchase camels and necessaries myself, with the assistance of the headman. If, however, more than forty camels are wanted, this may involve a delay of perhaps ten days.
When returning from the interior I have found it saves a good deal of worry to stay a few days in camp in the hills, and there pay off the bulk of the caravan with cheques on the Berbera agent. The men’s characters would be at the same time given them, and they would be told firmly that they need expect to get nothing more by coming up in Berbera. The bulk of the animals and kit would be sent down with the men, to be handed to the agent for sale by auction. Only a few necessary camels and men need be kept at the shooting camp, and during the two or three days’ halt the trophies can be prepared in bundles ready for transport by steamer, small delicate specimens going in the empty store-boxes; at the same time search-parties might be out looking for koodoo. During the Karíf wind it is pleasant in the hills, while at Berbera there are constant sand-storms, and so for half the day nothing can be done.
Both for a week before and after the expedition it is advisable to keep the headman, body servant, and cook to assist in the arrangements at Aden and Berbera. Berbera has been named as the most convenient port, but a start may also be made from Bulhár or Zeila; and the camels, if a very large number be required, may perhaps with advantage be collected simultaneously from all three places.