Chapter IV The Western Rite of the Coronation of an Emperor at Rome
The Western coronation rite came into existence on the foundation of the Neo-Roman or Holy Roman Empire by Charlemagne. The rite by which he was crowned was evidently regarded as the equivalent to that used at Constantinople, for the contemporary accounts claim that the ceremony was carried out ‘more antiquorum.’
The two earliest accounts of the coronation of Charlemagne agree closely but give only scanty details. The Chronicle of Moissac37 describes the event thus. ‘Now on the most holy day of the Nativity of the Lord, when the king arose from prayer at Mass before the tomb of the blessed apostle Peter, Leo the Pope with the counsel of all the bishops and priests and the Senate of the Franks and also of the Romans, set a golden crown on his head, in the presence also of the Roman people, who cried: “To Charles the Augustus crowned of God, great and pacific Emperor of the Romans, life and victory.” And after the Laudes had been chanted by the people, he was also adored by the Pope after the manner of the former princes.’
Very much the same is the account given by the Liber Pontificalis38. ‘After these things, the day of the Nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ arriving, they were all again gathered together in the aforesaid basilica of the blessed Apostle Peter. And then the venerable and beneficent pontiff with his own hands crowned him with a most precious crown. Then all the faithful Romans, seeing the great care and love he had towards the holy Roman Church and its Vicar, unanimously with loud voice cried out, by the will of God and the blessed Peter, key-bearer of the kingdom of the heavens, “To Charles, the most pious Augustus crowned of God, great and pacific Emperor of the Romans, life and victory.” Before the sacred tomb of the blessed Apostle Peter, invoking many saints39, thrice was it said; and he was constituted by all Emperor of the Romans. In the same place the most holy priest and pontiff anointed with holy oil Charles, his most noble son, as king, on that same day of the Nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ.’
The forms by which Charlemagne was crowned have not survived and we have only such short descriptions as these as to what took place, and a comparison in other cases of such descriptions with the rites actually used warns us how precarious it is to rely too much on the accounts even of eyewitnesses.
In the two accounts given above it will be noticed that the Chronicle of Moissac seems to desire to keep up the old fiction of a constitutional election when it speaks of the coronation as taking place ‘with the counsel of all the bishops and priests, and the Senate of the Franks and also of the Romans’; and also some sort of recognition by the people seems to be implied by the statement of the Liber Pontificalis that Charlemagne ‘was constituted by all Emperor of the Romans.’
Einhard40, in his Life of Charles, expressly states that Charles had no idea beforehand of the intention of the Pope to crown him as Emperor, and that if he had known he would not have entered St Peter’s on that eventful Christmas Day. But the words of the Chronicle of Moissac certainly imply that it was a prearranged thing, and if Charlemagne was really taken by surprise, it was probably the method of the coronation, at the hands of the Pope, which constituted the surprise. The occurrence of the Laudes need not present any difficulties to the view that the whole affair was unexpected, for as we have seen they were a familiar part of great public functions, and it is possible that the people were led on such occasions by official cantors, as we know was the practice at Constantinople.
But the most important question connected with Charlemagne’s coronation is, Was Charles anointed? There is no reference whatever to any anointing in the contemporary accounts of the Chronicle of Moissac and the Liber Pontificalis, nor yet in other almost contemporary matter such as the verses of the Poeta Saxo41, or the Chronicle of Regino42. To this must be added the fact, inconclusive in itself, that there is no mention of any unction in the earliest extant Order of the Western imperial rite, that of the Gemunden Codex. On the other hand it is expressly stated by a contemporary eastern historian, Theophanes, that Charlemagne was anointed ‘from head to foot43,’ and this statement is repeated by a later Greek writer of the twelfth century, Constantine Manasses, who adds, ‘after the manner of the Jews44.’
If Charlemagne was not anointed but only crowned by the Pope, then his coronation was strictly in accordance with the rite of Constantinople, for it is probable that there was no unction in the Eastern rite at this date, and thus the Western rite on its first introduction into the West would be similar in its outstanding feature to the Eastern rite.
Of course the use of an unction at the consecration of a king had long been the central feature of the Western rite of the consecration of a King. But it must be borne in mind that Charlemagne was here being crowned as Roman Emperor, and that he had been anointed as King of the Franks on the occasion long ago of his father Pippin’s anointing as Frankish King at the hands of Pope Stephen. Moreover it is added in the Liber Pontificalis that after the coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor, the Pope anointed his son Charles as King. Duchesne finds here the explanation of the statement of Theophanes that Charlemagne was anointed, and thinks that he has confused the two events which took place on the same occasion, the coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor, and the anointing of the younger Charles as King.
It may be noticed, before we leave Charlemagne, that at the coronation of his grandson Louis the Pious in 813 as associate in the Empire, he himself crowned Louis with his own hands, thus following exactly the Eastern precedent in such a case. It may be that here we have the explanation of the alleged dissatisfaction and surprise of Charlemagne at his coronation on Christmas Day, 800. He may have intended to crown himself instead of being crowned by the Pope.
I
The earliest Roman forms used at the coronation of an Emperor are found in the Gemunden Codex, and constitute Martène’s Ordo III45. This rite is very early, being of the ninth century, and it is possible that with some such forms as these Charlemagne himself was crowned.
The rite begins with a short prayer for the Emperor: Exaudi Domine preces nostras et famulum tuum illum, etc., and then follows at once the prayer Prospice Omnipotens Deus serenis obtutibus hunc gloriosum famulum tuum illum, etc., at the end of which the Emperor is crowned with a golden crown with the words, Per eum cui est honor et gloria per infinita saecula saeculorum. Amen. Next follows the Traditio Gladii, with the form Accipe gladium per manus episcoporum licet indignas, vice tamen et auctoritate sanctorum Apostolorum consecratas tibi regaliter impositum, nostraeque benedictionis officio in defensione sanctae ecclesiae divinitus ordinatum; et esto memor de quo Psalmista prophetavit dicens: Accingere gladio super femur tuum potentissime, ut in hoc per eundem vim aequitatis exerceas.
The Laudes46 are then chanted.
Cantors. Exaudi Christe.
R. Domino nostro illi a Deo decreto summo Pontifici et universali Papae vitam.
C. Exaudi Christe.
R. Exaudi Christe.
C. Salvator mundi.
R. Tu illum adiuva.
C. Exaudi Christe.
R. Domino nostro illi Augusto, a Deo coronato magno et pacifico imperatori vitam.
C. Sancta Maria (thrice).
R. Tu illum adiuva.
C. Exaudi Christe.
R. Tuisque praecellentissimis filiis regibus vitam.
C. Sancte Petre (thrice).
R. Tu illos adiuva.
C. Exaudi Christe.
R. Exercitui Francorum, Romanorum, et Teutonicorum vitam et victoriam.
C. Sancte Theodore (thrice).
R. Tu illos adiuva.
C. Christus vincit, Christus regnat, Christus imperat. (Twice, and R. the same.)
C. Rex regum, Christus vincit, Christus regnat. (R. the same.)
Here follow a series of acclamations.
Rex noster Christus vincit, Christus regnat. Spes nostra Christus vincit. Gloria nostra Christus vincit. Misericordia nostra Christus vincit. Auxilium nostrum Christus vincit. Fortitudo nostra Christus vincit. Victoria nostra Christus vincit. Liberatio et redemptio nostra Christus vincit. Victoria nostra Christus vincit. Arma nostra Christus vincit. Murus noster inexpugnabilis Christus vincit. Defensio nostra et exaltatio Christus vincit. Lux, via, et vita nostra Christus vincit. Ipsi soli imperium, gloria, et potestas per immortalia saecula, Amen. Ipsi soli virtus, fortitudo, et victoria per omnia saecula saeculorum, Amen. Ipsi soli honor, laus, et iubilatio per infinita saecula saeculorum, Amen.
In conjunction with this rite Martène gives another very close to it but differing in some respects. The form at the crowning is different, Accipe coronam a Domino Deo tibi praedestinatam. Habeas, teneas, possideas, ac filiis tuis post te in futurum ad honorem, Deo auxiliante, derelinquas. Then follows at once the prayer Deus Pater aeternae gloriae. The Collect is given of the Mass, Deus regnorum. It is to be noted that the earliest Milanese rite47 of the coronation of a king, of the ninth century, is almost identical with this rite of the Gemunden Codex.
II
What may be regarded as a second recension of the Roman rite is the Order of the Coronation of an Emperor given in Hittorp’s Ordo Romanus48. This is of the tenth or eleventh century. It differs considerably from the last recension, and is more fixed and definite in character, but is still definitely Roman.
First the Emperor takes the oath as follows: In nomine Christi promitto, spondeo, atque polliceor ego N. imperator coram Deo et beato Petro apostolo, me protectorem ac defensorem esse huius ecclesiae sanctae Romanae in omnibus utilitatibus in quantum divino fultus fuero adiutorio, secundum scire meum ac posse.
As he enters St Peter’s the Cardinal Bishop of Albano meets him at the silver door, and recites the prayer, Deus in cuius manu corda sunt regum, a new form. Inside the church the Cardinal Bishop of Porto says the prayer Deus inenarrabilis auctor mundi, another new form, and after the Litany has been said, before the Confessio of St Peter, the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia anoints the Emperor on the right arm and between the shoulders with the oil of catechumens, using the form Domine Deus Omnipotens cuius est omnis potestas—again another new form, which however is found in the rite by which Pope John VIII crowned Louis II of France at Troyes in 877. The Pope then crowns the Emperor, using one of three forms which are given, Accipe signum gloriae in nomine Patris, etc., or (alia) Accipe coronam a Domino Deo praedestinatam, or (alia) with the prayer Deus Pater aeternae gloriae.
III
A third recension of the Roman rite may be seen in a group of orders of the twelfth century, that of the Pontifical of Apamea49, the Order of the Pontifical of Arles50, and Ordo III of Waitz51. It must be borne in mind that the rite was in a continual process of developement in all lands, and therefore however convenient it may be to trace its history by means of recensions, yet these ‘recensions’ must be to some extent arbitrary, and indeed even in a group chosen to illustrate any given recension the documents vary to some extent from each other.
The second of the orders mentioned above was that by which the Emperor Frederick I was crowned in 1155.
The Emperor first takes the oath on the Gospels in the church of St Mary in Turri to defend the Roman Church; thither he is attended by two archbishops or bishops of his own realm, and thence he proceeds to St Peter’s, where he is met at the entrance by the Bishop of Albano, who says the prayer Deus in cuius manu. Inside the church the Bishop of Porto says the prayer Deus inenarrabilis auctor mundi. The Emperor then goes up into the choir, and the Litany is said, he lying prostrate the while before the altar of St Peter. The Litany over, he is anointed by the Bishop of Ostia on the right arm and between the shoulders, before the altar of St Maurice. The three orders do not quite agree in the prayers of consecration. In the two orders of Martène the prayer of anointing is Domine Deus cuius est omnis potestas, or Deus Dei Filius, this latter perhaps a non-Roman form, and here first found in the Roman rite. In the Ordo of Waitz the consecration prayer is Deus qui es iustorum gloria, the unction being made at the words Accende, quaesumus, cor eius ad amorem gratiae tuae per hoc unctionis oleum, unde unxisti sacerdotes, etc., followed by Domine Deus omnipotens cuius est, etc. Then the Pope sets the crown on his head, with the form (M. VIII and W.) Accipe signum gloriae, W. also adding the prayer Coronet te Deus.
M. VI is more developed here. After the anointing the Pope gives the Emperor the sword at the altar of St Peter, Accipe gladium imperialem ad vindictam quidem malorum, etc., and kisses him; he then girds the sword on him with the words Accingere gladio tuo super femur, etc., and kisses him; and the Emperor brandishes it and then returns it to its sheath. Then the sceptre is delivered with the words Accipe sceptrum regni, virgam videlicet virtutis; and finally the Pope crowns him, saying: Accipe signum gloriae, and once more kisses him. The Teutons then chant the Laudes in their own tongue, and Mass is celebrated.
The rite is still simple at this period, but two developements in the ceremonial have taken place. The Emperor from this time forward takes the oath in the church of St Mary in Turri; and is no longer anointed before the Confessio of St Peter, but in the chapel of St Maurice, no one henceforth being anointed before the Confessio but the Pope at his consecration52.
Note
The account given by Robert of Clary53 of the coronation of the first Latin Emperor of Constantinople, Baldwin of Flanders, in 1204, shews it to have been a purely Western ceremony.
The Emperor accompanied by the clergy and nobles went in procession from the imperial palace to the church of St Sophia. Here he was arrayed in his royal vesture in a chamber specially prepared for him. He was anointed kneeling before the altar, and was then crowned by all the bishops. There is no mention of any other investiture, though the sword, sceptre, and orb are all referred to. Finally he was enthroned holding the sceptre in his right hand and the orb in his left, and Mass was celebrated.
The account given by Robert is very meagre, but the rite described is clearly Western, and apparently one very similar to the third recension of the Roman rite.
IV
The end of the twelfth century is marked by a further developement in the rite contained in the Liber Censuum of Cardinal Cenci54. This particular rite was probably used at the coronation of Henry VI and the Empress Constantia by Pope Celestine III in 119155.
The Emperor and Empress go in procession to St Mary in Turri, the choir singing Ecce mitto angelum, and there the Emperor takes the oath to defend the Roman Church. The oath has become longer and the Emperor swears fealty to the Pope and to his successors and that he will be a defender of the Roman Church56, and kisses the Pope’s foot. The Pope gives him the Peace, and the procession sets out to St Peter’s, singing Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel. At the silver door of St Peter’s the Bishop of Albano meets the Emperor and recites the prayer Deus in cuius manu sunt corda regum. As the Pope enters the Responsory Petre amas me is sung. Then under the Rota the Pope puts to the Emperor a series of questions concerning his faith and duty, and while the Pope retires to vest, the Bishop of Porto recites the prayer Deus inenarrabilis auctor mundi. Next the Emperor is vested in the chapel of St Gregory with amice, alb and girdle, and is led to the Pope, who ‘facit eum clericum,’ and he is thereupon vested with tunic, dalmatic, pluviale, mitre, buskins, and sandals. The Bishop of Ostia then proceeds to the silver door, where the Empress has been waiting, and recites the prayer Omnipotens aeterne Deus fons et origo bonitatis, and she is then led to St Gregory’s altar to await the Pope’s procession. The Pope proceeds to the Confessio of St Peter and Mass is begun. After the Kyrie the Litany is said by the archdeacon, the Emperor and Empress lying prostrate the while. The Emperor is then anointed (apparently before the altar of St Maurice)57 by the Bishop of Ostia with the oil of exorcism on the right arm and between the shoulders with the prayer Dominus Deus Omnipotens cuius est omnis potestas, followed by the prayer (once an alternative) Deus Dei Filius. The benediction of the Empress follows, Deus qui solus habes immortalitatem, and she is anointed on the breast with the form Spiritus Sancti gratia humilitatis nostrae officio copiosa descendat, etc. The Pope, the anointing over, descends to the altar of St Maurice, on which the crowns have been deposited, and delivers a ring to the Emperor with the form Accipe anulum signaculum videlicet sanctae fidei, etc., followed by a short prayer, Deus cuius est omnis potestas, a much shortened form of the prayer already used at the anointing; next the sword is girt on with the form Accipe hunc gladium cum dei benedictione tibi collatum, and the prayer Deus qui providentia; and he crowns the Emperor with the form Accipe signum gloriae, etc. The Empress is then crowned with the form Accipe coronam regalis excellentiae, etc. The Pope delivers the sceptre to the Emperor with the form Accipe sceptrum regiae potestatis, virgam scilicet rectam regni, virgam virtutis, etc., followed by the prayer Omnium Domine fons bonorum. Then at the altar of St Peter the Gloria in excelsis is sung, and the special collect Deus regnorum omnium follows. The Laudes are now sung and then the Mass proceeds, the Emperor offering bread, candles, and gold; and the Emperor offering wine, the Empress the water for the chalice. Both communicate, and on leaving St Peter’s the Emperor swears, at three different places, to maintain the rights and privileges of the Roman people.
The most noticeable thing in this recension is the appearance of the investiture with the ring, which comes from non-Roman sources and disappears again in the next recension.
V
In the fourteenth century further developements appear. The order used at the coronation of Henry VII58, and the Ordo Romanus XIV of Mabillon59, may be taken as representative of this period.
The oath is slightly varied. It is made, as usual, in the church of St Mary in Turri, where the Emperor is received by the canons as a brother canon, and the Emperor swears that he will be the protector of the Roman Church, but does not swear fealty to the Pope and his successors as in the preceding recension. In St Peter’s the Bishops of Albano and Porto say their accustomed prayers, and the Litany is said before St Peter’s altar. Then the Bishop of Ostia, before the altar of St Maurice, anoints the Emperor on the right arm and between the shoulders with the prayers Domine Deus Omnipotens cuius est omnis potestas and Deus Dei Filius. After the anointing the Pope kisses the Emperor ‘sicut unum ex diaconibus’ and Mass is begun at the altar of St Peter, the collect Deus regnorum omnium being said after the collect for the day. After the gradual the Pope first sets a mitre on the Emperor’s head, and then crowns him with the form Accipe signum gloriae: the Sceptre and Orb are then delivered, though no forms of delivery are given, and lastly the Sword is delivered with the form Accipe gladium ad vindictam, etc., a longer form than hitherto used containing the words ‘per nostras manus, licet indignas, vice tamen et auctoritate beatorum apostolorum consecratas imperialiter tibi concessum,’ and girt on with the words Accingere gladio tuo super femur, etc., and the Emperor thereupon kisses the Pope’s feet. After the gradual the Laudes are sung. At the offertory the Emperor offers first gold, and then acting as sub-deacon (more subdiaconi) offers the chalice and water-cruet to the Pope.
The Empress is met at the entrance of St Peter’s and the prayer Omnipotens sempiterne Deus fons et origo, etc., is there said. When the Empress has been crowned she is brought to the Pope, who, after reciting the prayer Deus qui solus habes immortalitatem, anoints her with the form Spiritus Sancti gratia, this form being longer than in the last recension. Then he places the mitre on her head ‘ita quod cornua mitrae sint a dextris et a sinistris,’ and finally crowns her with the form Officio nostrae indignitatis in imperatricem solemniter benedicta accipe coronam imperialis excellentiae, etc.
After the Communion it is added that the Pope may, if he wish, say the prayers Prospice, quaesumus, Domine Omnipotens Deus serenis obtutibus, Benedic, Domine, quaesumus, hunc principem, or (alia) Deus Pater aeternae gloriae, all of which occur in earlier Roman rites.
VI
The final recension of the Roman rite appears in the Pontifical of 152060. There is very little difference between this and the last recension. It is mentioned that the Emperor is clad in surplice and almuce at his reception as a canon at St Mary in Turri. The old privileges of the Cardinal bishops of Albano, Porto, and Ostia have passed away, and any Cardinal bishop may officiate in their place. The order of the investitures is different, first the delivery of the Sword, which the Emperor thrice brandishes after it has been girt on him; secondly the Sceptre and Orb, which are delivered, the Orb in his right hand and the Sceptre in his left, under one form, Accipe virgam virtutis atque veritatis; lastly the Crown, after which the Emperor kisses the Pope’s feet. The Empress is crowned as before. At the offertory the Emperor serves the Pope as a sub-deacon. After the Communion the Emperor kisses the Pope’s cheek and the Empress his hand, and the Pope can say, if he wish, the three prayers allowed in this place in the last recension.
Here we leave the Roman imperial rite at the last stage of its developement. It may be noted that the Roman Emperor was three times crowned; first at Aachen, later sometimes at Frankfort, as King of the Eastern Franks, or after the time of Henry II as King of the Romans61; secondly at Milan (or more often as a matter of fact at Monza) as King of Italy or King of the Lombards; thirdly at Rome by the Pope as Roman Emperor. Until he had been crowned at Rome he was only Imperator Electus or Erwählter Kaiser. As a matter of fact no Emperor was crowned at Rome after the time of Frederick III (1440), though Charles V was crowned as Emperor at Bologna.