III Fra Angelico at Florence
[1436-1445.]
SAN MARKO
The church of San Giorgio—writes Vasari—“had at this time been given to the monks of San Domenico da Fiesole, but they did not occupy it longer than from about the middle of July to the end of January, because Cosimo de’ Medici and Lorenzo his brother had obtained for them, from Pope Eugenius, the church and convent of San Marco, which had previously been occupied by Salvestrine monks, to whom San Giorgio was given in exchange. Moreover, they (Cosimo and Lorenzo de’ Medici), being much devoted to religion, and zealous for the divine service and worship, gave orders that the above-named convent of San Marco should be entirely rebuilt according to the design and model of Michelozzo, commanding that it should be constructed on the most extensive and magnificent scale, with all the conveniences that those monks could possibly desire.”37 And in the year 1436, the said monks made their entry with pomp and solemn fêtes, in which the three bishops of Taranto, Treves and Parentino, took part, preceded by the mace-bearers of the Signoria who were sent to give greater magnificence to the scene. Fra Cipriano, Vicar general of the new congregation of the “Osservanza,” took possession of the convent in the name of that Order.38
“The first part completed,” continues the Aretian biographer, “was that above the old refectory and opposite to the ducal stables, which had formerly been erected by the Duke Lorenzo de’ Medici. In this place twenty cells were made, the roof was put on, and the various articles of wood-work brought into the refectory, which was finished as we see it in our day.”39
“The library was afterwards erected, it was vaulted above and below, and had sixty-four bookcases of cypress wood filled with the most valuable books. The dormitory which was in the form of a square, was next built, and finally the cloister was completed, with all the other truly commodious apartments of that convent, which is believed to be the most perfectly arranged, the most beautiful and most convenient building of its kind that can be found in Italy, thanks to the skill and industry of Michelozzo, who gave it up to its occupants entirely finished in the year 1452.40 Cosimo de’ Medici is said to have expended 36,000 ducats on this fabric; it is added that while it was in course of construction, he gave the monks 366 ducats every year for their support.”41
In 1439, two years after the building was begun, the principal chapel was finished, and the work of restoring and embellishing the church was commenced. This was completed in 1441.
While the architect was engaged in restoring the church of San Marco, Fra Giovanni was probably commissioned to paint the altar-piece for the great altar. Vasari writes of it: “But exquisite and admirable above all is the picture of the High Altar in that church; for besides that the Madonna in this painting awakens devotional feeling in all who regard her, by the pure simplicity of her expression; and that the saints surrounding her have a similar character; the predella, in which are stories of the martyrdom of St. Cosmo, St. Damian, and others, is so perfectly finished, that one cannot imagine it possible for any thing to be executed with greater care, nor can figures more delicate, or more judiciously arranged, be conceived.”42 Unfortunately the picture, now in the Academy of the Belle Arti, is in such bad condition that we are not able to confirm Vasari’s judgment, for the tints have faded, in some parts leaving the undercolouring exposed, in others it is corroded even down to the white of the plaster ground work.
The Virgin is enthroned, holding on her lap the child, whose right hand is uplifted to bless, while the left holds a globe. Beside the throne are groups of angels, in front on the right St. Dominic, St. Francis and St. Peter Martyr; on the left St. Laurence, St. Paul and St. Mark; above them kneel Sts. Cosmo and Damian, protectors of the Medici family, placed here in homage to the liberality of the Medici towards the Order.
In the predella, now divided, were represented various stories relative to the lives of Sts. Cosmo and Damian, which may be recognised in two little pictures (Nos. 257-258, Catalogue of 1893) at the Belle Arti, and in those now at the Gallery at Munich (Nos. 989, 990, 991).
In the first of the two at Florence, the saints have cut off the leg of a sick man, and placed that of a negro in its stead. In the second is represented their burial together with the brethren. In those at Munich the scenes are:—the saints constrained by the judge Lisia to sacrifice to idols; the saints thrown into the sea and saved by angels, while the judge is liberated from two demons by their prayers; and lastly their crucifixion, while stones and arrows are aimed against them, but rebound on the executioners.43
Other similar subjects are represented in six “stories” divided into two panels (No. 234, Catalogue of 1893) in the Belle Arti. In the first the saints are seen exercising the healing art without receiving payment; they cure Palladia, who in her gratitude prays St. Damian in the name of God to accept a gift, her brother being wrathful not knowing the cause. In the second the judge Lisia obliges the saints and their three brethren to sacrifice to idols; in the third the angels save them from drowning; in the fourth they are condemned to be burnt alive, and sing psalms in the midst of the flames; in the fifth is the stoning; and lastly the decapitation.
These works, however, do not always show equal execution, therefore we might judge that the artist sometimes availed himself of the hand of an assistant.
From the records remaining to us, it does not appear that Fra Giovanni worked at any other pictures for his church, so it is probable he gave all his attention to adorning the convent, which on account of the works he has left there, may fairly be considered one of the finest monuments of Italian art.
It was not the first time that Fra Angelico had painted large mural frescoes. As he had already shown at Fiesole his mastery in that more minute style, which was to find more complete expression in the Roman pictures, so the convent of San Marco gave him scope to prove his genius also in this freer branch of art. In the cloisters, the corridors, the cells, and the rooms in which the monks met together, we find specimens of his artistic work, and in these various pictures all his favourite personages reappear one by one in larger proportions, but without losing that original grace and sentiment with which his smaller works are imbued. Indeed these show that he had studied from the life with independence and sincerity of purpose, and could render it with greater facility and decision.
A very noteworthy change in the character of Fra Angelico’s art may be observed in these mural paintings. He must have perceived, after painting the tabernacle for the Linen Weavers’ Guild, that a deeper study of the real was necessary to give life to his figures, especially when these should assume larger proportions.
To give intelligent expression even to dreams, visions and ideality of thought, a material and technical part is necessary; the mind may wander free in fantasy, through indefinite space, but it needs a firm hand to render the conception evident; and the clearer the expression is, the greater ability in the creation of his works does it show in the artist. Thus Fra Angelico, placing his figures in ideal surroundings, believed at first that refined thought was sufficient to make a perfect picture, and he illuminated his little figures with superficial delicacy, surrounding them with azure and gold, and so idealized them that they are more like diaphanous apparitions than human beings.
But he soon learned that by merely enlarging these little pictures, he could not succeed in giving them even that individuality to which he was led by natural taste and mode of life. In fact, what a difference lies between the figures of the Linen Weavers’ Tabernacle painted in 1433, and those of the picture in the church of San Marco done in 1438! The first: void, weak and without expression; the second: full of life and character; and note that this difference strikes the eye even now, notwithstanding the difficulty of comparison owing to the wretched condition to which the panel at San Marco is reduced.
In this cloister, therefore, where the pictures assume larger proportions and more importance, and the figures greater character and individuality of form, more solidity of artistic execution,—it is here we perceive that far as he still was from the world and worldly things, yet with earnest study and thought he had not failed to avail himself of the progressive development of art around him to improve his style and give more grandeur to his design.
We do not know whether the cause which influenced his mind was, that in coming down to Florence from the Fiesole cloister he was brought into more immediate contact with other styles of art, and artists who followed a different, even opposite method. The distance of his convent from the city was not, however, so great as to have prevented his visiting the immortal works which enriched Florence, or to diminish the relations of friendship or acquaintance which he surely had formed with his greater colleagues. In fact, Fra Angelico and Ghiberti must have already consulted together about the Tabernacle of the Linen Guild; and the works which the pious monk sent from Fiesole to the churches and convents of Florence could not have been unknown there, any more than the works of the other artists in the city were to him.
Certain changes independent of external causes sometimes take place naturally, we might say spontaneously, in strong artistic temperaments. Fra Angelico felt and understood as he continued his work, that something was wanting in him before he could succeed in giving reality to his thoughts and sentiment; he necessarily perfected his studies, and investigated truth more conscientiously—the result was the new style, a natural consequence of artistic individual progress.
Opposite the entrance in the pretty cloister of the Florentine convent we may admire the figure of the crucified Christ who turns His eyes to St. Dominic kneeling below, and embracing the cross with both hands, while raising his head to meet the glance of the Saviour. In the five lunettes of the doors in the cloister, Fra Angelico has represented St. Peter Martyr, St. Dominic, Christ issuing from the sepulchre, Christ in the dress of a pilgrim, and St. Thomas Aquinas. The figure of the crucified Saviour is nobly beautiful in its simple and intelligent outline, firm design and life-like colouring. That of St. Peter Martyr is full of character; it is a half figure holding with his left hand the palm of martyrdom and a book which he rests on his side; the first finger of the right hand is placed on his mouth, indicating the silence of the cloister. St. Dominic has the book of his rules in one hand and the discipline, or rope for scourging in the other, as though to demonstrate that both moral and material influence should govern a religious community. The “Christ of the resurrection” shows His wounds, and St. Thomas Aquinas holds his book of theology in both hands.
In the arch of the hospice the painter has represented two Dominicans welcoming Christ, to remind the brethren that to offer hospitality to the poor and the pilgrims, was the same as receiving Christ.
The Redeemer with his hat hanging behind His shoulders leans on His pilgrim’s staff; one of the brethren presses His left hand, and taking Him by the right arm invites Him to rest. The heads of the two devotees are full of character and expression, and on their faces beam the joy and love they feel for their unexpected guest. The second monk who clasps the Saviour’s arm with both hands as though he can scarcely believe his own eyes, is drawn with such natural feeling that nothing greater can be desired or attained.
Equally beautiful is the pilgrim Christ with His long beard and curls flowing on His shoulders; the whole scene in fact is given with great nobility and exquisite grace.
In the chapter-house of the convent Fra Angelico repeated the scene of the Crucifixion. Vasari writes of it thus: “Fra Giovanni was so greatly beloved for his admirable qualities by Cosimo de’ Medici, that the latter had no sooner completed the church and convent of San Marco, than he caused the good father to paint the whole story of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ on one of the walls of the chapter-house. In this work figures of all those saints who have been heads and founders of religious bodies, are mourning and bewailing at the foot of the cross on one side; and on the other, St. Mark the Evangelist beside the Mother of the Son of God, who has fainted at sight of the crucified Saviour. Around the Virgin are the Maries, who are sorrowing with and supporting her; they are accompanied by the saints Cosimo and Damian.
“Beneath this work, in a frieze above the dado the master executed a figure of St. Dominic standing at the foot of a tree; on the branches of which are medallions, wherein are all the popes, cardinals, bishops, saints, and masters in theology who had belonged to Fra Giovanni’s Order of the Preaching Friars, down to his own day.”44
In this masterly work Fra Angelico pours out with full hands the most vivid and intense feelings of his soul, and if he does not attain to grand dramatic power, he at least succeeds in depicting with rare ingenuity the varied expressions of sorrow, despair, hope and faith which animate each person, and in giving natural and life-like character and attitude to the various heads.
The group of the fainting Virgin may possibly seem conventional, but what sweet piety is in the feeling of the other figures! St. Dominic, devoutly kneeling, inclines his head (cleverly foreshortened and marvellously expressed) and extends his arms to the Redeemer; St. Zenobi (or St. Ambrose the archbishop) standing upright, points with his right to the Saviour; St. Jerome, in hermit’s dress, bends forward and clasps his hands in prayer; St. Augustine holds his pen in one hand, his book and pastoral staff in the other; St. Francis brings his hand to his brow in an attitude of melancholy indefinable sadness. The Saints Benedict, Bernard and Romuald follow, then St. Thomas Aquinas with a most beautiful head full of life and character (it must certainly be a portrait, so life-like is the expression), next St. Peter Martyr with his hands on his breast; and lastly in the foreground an unknown monk (Padre Marchese thinks it is St. John Gualbert) who weeps, with his left hand over his eyes.45
On the left of the fresco, near the swooning Virgin, stands St. John Baptist pointing to the Saviour; St. Mark kneeling shows his gospel; St. Laurence clasps his hands on his breast; and St. Cosmo wrings his hands as he contemplates the Cross; while St. Damian turns, covering his eyes, and weeping the mournful loss of the Lord.
In the ornamentation of the simulated frame which surrounds the fresco, are hexagonal spaces containing half figures of prophets with labels, containing texts referring to the passion of Christ; and below them on the right, the Erythrean Sibyl. In the lower part of the frieze, are ten rounds, containing portraits of the most illustrious members of the Dominican Order. In the centre St. Dominic, on the left Pope Innocent V., Cardinal Ugone, Father Paulo the Florentine, the Archbishop St. Antonino (this must surely have been added later), the blessed ones Giordano of Saxony, Niccolò, Remigius the Florentine and Buoninsegna the martyr. On the right are the blessed brethren John Dominici, Peter of the Marshes, Albertus Magnus, St. Raymond, Chiaro of Sesto, St. Vincent Ferreri and Bernard the martyr.
Retouches and restorations are not wanting in this picture, the drapery has been repainted in several parts and the background has been smudged with that reddish colour, which, in altering the tone of the whole fresco, has injured the limpidity of colour and original refinement of harmony.
The chronicles of the convent of San Marco record another Crucifixion by Fra Angelico in the refectory of the monks, “probably,” writes Padre Marchese, “a replica of that which he had already painted in the Fiesolan convent.” This now no longer exists, it appears to have been destroyed to make space for Sogliani’s great fresco of St. Dominic at table with his brethren, when they were supplied with bread by angels. But in the cells and dormitories of the Florentine convent Fra Angelico scattered lovely proofs of his genius and sentiment, pouring out on them with rare talent the most exquisite grace of his brush, and tenderest thoughts of his soul. From the “Annunciation” to the various scenes from the life of Christ; from the “Virgin among the saints,” in the corridor, to the decoration of the room which Cosimo had built for himself in his favourite convent, all breathe such sweet poesy in the grace and simplicity of the varied scenes, that one cannot look at them unmoved.
Facing the entrance of the upper corridor of the cloister he painted the Angel bringing the glad tidings to the Virgin. We have already noted in regard to this subject as created by him at Cortona, how the representation finds its greater development here, where the artist succeeds better in rendering the feeling of veneration on the part of the heavenly messenger, and the submissive humility of the Virgin.
The same subject is repeated in a cell (No. 3), but in this design, which breathes the same sentiment of sweetness and piety, St. Dominic in reverent attitude is looking on.
On the wall at the left of the entrance is a Crucifixion, with St. Dominic on his knees, embracing the cross, the figures are about half life size, the design similar to that which we have already seen in the cloister, but showing less ability. Nor are these the only Crucifixions which our artist painted. He has reproduced the subject in several cells, always varying either the attitude of the Saviour, or the persons who adore Him, but the serene attitude of the Son of God is unalterable. Without exaggerated contractions or violent action He remains fixed on the cross, His head bowed in mute contemplation of the figures below Him. These, on the contrary, are the prey of sorrow and despair, they cover their faces, or weep distractedly at His feet.
Some of these frescoes of the Crucifixion with St. Dominic kneeling below, may be classed as decidedly by other hands, the execution being weak, the drawing incorrect, and the sentiment inefficiently expressed. These variants are doubtless attributable to the assistants he employed in their execution.
In the fresco representing the Noli me tangere Angelico gives us a work full of freshness and life, idealized in Giottesque style. The figure of Christ is majestic, as with a sign He withdraws Himself from the kneeling Magdalene, who supplicatingly extends her arms towards Him.
Most lovely are the composition and feeling of the figures in the “Nativity,” where the Virgin and St. Joseph with joined hands kneel in adoration of the Babe stretched on a heap of straw on the ground. A little above, on the right stands St. Dominic, and behind the Virgin on the left a female saint kneels, her hands clasped in prayer. In the background beneath a humble shed are the bull and the ass, and four adoring angels above.
In the “Transfiguration on Mount Tabor” the figure of the ascending Christ with outstretched arms and noble features is one of Fra Angelico’s best works, but the attitudes of the Apostles are conventional; the kneeling figure on the left with hands upraised to express confusion and surprise at the resurrection, is too mannered, and by its pose and action disturbs the serene harmony of the picture.
In the “Institution of the Holy Sacrament,” Fra Angelico, in true Giottesque style, represented the Apostles at the mystic feast, and Christ giving them the consecrated wafer, while He holds the chalice in His left hand. Here the figures of the disciples admirably express varied feelings of devotion and joy in receiving the divine food from the hand of the Master. But the fresco which surpasses all, in nobility of line and simple grandeur of conception, is the “Coronation of the Virgin.”
Christ and the Virgin are seated in glory above the light clouds, the Son places the celestial crown on the head of the Mother who humbly bows her whole form towards Him, with hands crossed on her bosom. Her face is irradiated by an ineffable and heavenly smile, the supreme expression of happiness; the drapery of both is white and delicate, enveloping the limbs with well defined folds.
The figures without being ineffectual, indeed they are even forcible, yet appear aerial apparitions, and veritable visions of divinity. Six saints in ecstasy assist at the triumph, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Paul, St. Dominic, St. Francis, St. Peter Martyr and St. Benedict, three on the right and three on the left, in a semicircular composition, all in attitudes of contemplative ecstasy.
The frescoes of the Maries at the Sepulchre, may also be considered one of our artist’s masterpieces. The risen Christ emerges to half His figure from the clouds which envelop Him, while the holy women contemplate the empty sepulchre, and the angel seated in it points out the miracle which has happened. Other scenes worthy of notice are the “Presentation in the Temple,” “Christ in Hades,” and the “Buffeting of the Saviour,” and “The Prayer in the Garden.”
In one of the last cells, the “Crucifixion” is reproduced in a new manner, which represents Christ having ascended the ladder and offering Himself to death: His Mother faints at his feet in the arms of Mary Magdalene.
Marchese asserts that this composition was inspired by a legend of St. Mary Magdalene in the language of the 14th century. “And I thought that Messer Gesù, ascended the cross by a ladder voluntarily, offering His hands and feet. A centurion who was afterwards saved saw the deed, and like a wise man he said within himself, oh, what a marvel is here! that this prophet appears to willingly place himself on the Cross, neither murmuring nor resisting! And while he stood admiring, Messer Gesù had ascended sufficiently high, and turning on the ladder opened His kingly arms, and extended His hands to those who were waiting to nail them.”46
Lastly in the room which Cosimo de’ Medici had prepared for his own use in the convent and where he often talked with the Prior Fra Antonino, Fra Angelico painted an “Adoration of the Magi.” As Pope Eugene IV. slept in this room when he came to Florence in 1442 to assist at the consecration of the church, it is probable that this Adoration allusive to the Epiphany, at which time the consecration took place, was painted at that epoch.
The fresco, rich in figures and beauty, is executed with real mastery. The personages of the royal cortège vary in type and character, in expression and sentiment, showing the great pains our artist had taken in the painting of this important work, which now, unhappily restored and injured, only allows us to guess at the wonderful beauty with which it was once filled.
We see his own hand more completely in the fresco in the corridor representing the Virgin enthroned, with the child seated on her knee and several saints at the sides. On the right are St. Paul, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Laurence, and St. Peter Martyr; on the left St. Mark, St. Cosmo and St. Damian, and St. Dominic, holding an open book where it is written: Caritatem habete; humilitatem servate; paupertatem voluntariam possidete. Maledictionem Dei et meam imprecor possessiones inducenti in meo Ordine.
This painting, one of the most perfect in the convent, is one of Angelico’s best, and shows what a high degree of ability he had reached. The gentle head of the Virgin bends down to look at her Son with the golden curls, whose face with sparkling eyes breathes an infantile grace. The execution is accurate, the figures well designed, full of character, nobility and life; the delicacy of tone, just balance of composition and freshness of colouring, are mingled with the most profound sentiment and intimate knowledge of truth.
Rio thinks this fresco was done while Fra Angelico was in Tuscany after 1450; his adieu, as it were, to his brethren; a last legacy to that devout household with whom he had shared joys and sorrows, and from which he was about to be separated. There is nothing to refute this; but it appears to us that he who had painted the great Crucifixion of the chapter-house might well have done at the same time this fresco. It is a compendium of all his technical qualities and feeling, and demonstrates how little by little he succeeded, while still preserving his own spirit, in reaching the real in art, and giving it life in a manner all his own. But in comparing the pictures of the chapel of Pope Nicholas V. in Rome, with this fresco, we cannot avoid noticing in those a greater freedom of composition and grouping of the figures, a greater majesty of design, a truth and depth of observation, not recognisable in any of his earlier works, nor even in the large Crucifixion, which is justly considered one of the pious monk’s best works.