Contents
Events in English History not noticed in the text, or only referred to, are printed in Italics.
| CHAPTER I. CAUSES OF THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR. | ||
| Section I.—Political Institutions of Germany (1440-1517). | ||
| PAGE | ||
| National institutions of Germany defective | 1 | |
| (a) As regarded the Emperor | 1 | |
| (b) As regarded the great vassals | 3 | |
| Attempts made to introduce order by giving a regular form to the Diet | 5 | |
| These, though only partially successful, are not altogether useless | 6 | |
| Constitution of the Diet | 6 | |
| Section II.—Protestantism in Germany (1517-1570). | ||
| Protestantism acceptable to the majority of the nation, but rejected by the Emperor and the Diet | 8 | |
| The result is a civil war, resulting in a compromise, called the Peace of Augsburg (1555). Its terms being ambiguous on some important points, give rise to controversy | 10 | |
| But as Protestantism is on the increase, the ambiguous points are, at first, construed by the Protestants in their own favour | 11 | |
| The main points at issue relate to the right of Protestants to hold bishoprics, and to the right of Protestant princes to secularize church lands | 12 | |
| Section III.—Reaction against Protestantism (1570-1596). | ||
| Theological controversies are carried on with bitterness amongst the Protestants | 13 | |
| The Catholics, accordingly, begin to gain ground | 14 | |
| And having the Emperor and Diet on their side, are able to use force as well as persuasion | 14 | |
| Want of any popular representation prevents any fair settlement of the dispute | 15 | |
| Section IV.—Three Parties and Three Leaders (1596-1612). | ||
| Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists are respectively guided by Maximilian Duke of Bavaria, John George Elector of Saxony, and Christian of Anhalt | 15 | |
| Character and policy of Maximilian dangerous to the Protestants | 15 | |
| The Protestants of the south more alive to the danger than the Protestants of the north | 17 | |
| Spread of Calvinism, especially in the south, accounted for by the greater danger from Catholic States | 17 | |
| Character and policy of Christian of Anhalt | 18 | |
| 1603 | Accession of James I. of England | |
| 1605 | Gunpowder Plot | |
| 1607 | Donauwörth occupied by Maximilian | 19 |
| 1608 | Formation of the Protestant Union and the Catholic League | 21 |
| 1609 | The quarrel for the succession of Cleves does not result in open war | 21 |
| 1612 | John George fruitlessly attempts to mediate between the Catholics and the Calvinists | 22 |
| 1613 | Marriage of Frederick V., Elector Palatine, to Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England | |
| CHAPTER II. THE BOHEMIAN REVOLUTION. | ||
| Section I.—The House of Austria and its Subjects (1600-1618). | ||
| Political and religious dissensions between the rulers and their subjects | 24 | |
| 1609 | The Emperor Rudolph, as King of Bohemia, grants the Royal Charter to Bohemia | 25 |
| 1611 | He is succeeded by Matthias in spite of the intrigues of Christian of Anhalt | 26 |
| Matthias evades the charter | 27 | |
| 1617 | Ferdinand accepted by the Bohemian Diet as King by hereditary right | 28 |
| 1618 | The Protestant churches on ecclesiastical lands declared illegal by the government of Matthias; one at Braunau shut up, one at Klostergrab pulled down | 29 |
| Section II.—The Revolution at Prague (March-May 1618). | ||
| Mar. 5. | Meeting of the Protestant Estates of Bohemia | 29 |
| May 23. | Attack headed by Thurn upon the Regents at Prague. Martinitz and Slawata thrown out of window. Beginning of the Thirty Years’ War | 30 |
| Appointment of Thirty Directors as a Revolutionary Government in Bohemia | 31 | |
| Section III.—The War in Bohemia (May 1618-February 1619). | ||
| Aug. 13. | Bohemia invaded by the Emperor’s general, Bucquoi. | |
| The Bohemians look abroad for help. Mansfeld brings troops to them. He besieges Pilsen, whilst Thurn makes head against Bucquoi | 33 | |
| Nov. 21. | Pilsen surrenders | 34 |
| Christian of Anhalt urges Frederick V., Elector Palatine, to intervene on behalf of the Bohemians, and asks the Duke of Savoy to help them | 34 | |
| 1619 Feb. | The Duke of Savoy talks of dividing the Austrian dominions with Frederick | 35 |
| Section IV.—Ferdinand on his Defence (March-November 1619). | ||
| Mar. 20. | Death of Matthias | 36 |
| June 5. | Vienna besieged by Thurn. Ferdinand threatened by a deputation from the Estates of Lower Austria | 36 |
| He is delivered by a regiment of horse, and Thurn raises the siege | 37 | |
| Aug. 28. | Ferdinand II. elected Emperor | 38 |
| Aug. 26. | Frederick, Elector Palatine, elected King of Bohemia, Ferdinand having been previously deposed | 38 |
| Nov. 4. | Frederick Crowned at Prague | 39 |
| CHAPTER III. IMPERIALIST VICTORIES IN BOHEMIA AND THE PALATINATE | ||
| Section I.—The Attack upon Frederick (November 1619-January 1621). | ||
| 1619 | Maximilian of Bavaria prepares for war | 39 |
| Vienna fruitlessly attacked by Bethlen Gabor | 40 | |
| Frederick finds no support in the Union | 41 | |
| 1620 Mar. | The North German Princes agree to neutrality at Mühlhausen | 42 |
| June 3. | Spinola, the Spanish General, prepares to attack the Palatinate, and the Union, being frightened, signs the treaty of Ulm, by which it agrees to observe neutrality towards the League | 42 |
| June 23. | Maximilian, with Tilly in command of his army, enters Austria and compels the Austrian Estates to submit, whilst Spinola reduces the Western Palatinate | 42 |
| Maximilian joins Bucquoi, and enters Bohemia | 43 | |
| Sep. 28. | Frederick, having failed to organize resistance, joins the Bohemian army | 44 |
| Nov. 8. | Defeat of Frederick at the Battle of the White Hill, 1619 and submission of Bohemia to the Emperor | 45 |
| Jan. 22. | Frederick put to the Ban of the Empire | 46 |
| Section II.—The War in the Upper Palatinate (January-October 1621). | ||
| 1621 Jan. | Frederick does not abandon hope of regaining Bohemia | 47 |
| Ap. 12. | The Treaty of Mentz dissolves the Union | 47 |
| Bad character of Mansfeld’s Army | 48 | |
| May. | Mansfeld takes the offensive | 49 |
| Aug. | Recommencement of the War in the Lower Palatinate | 50 |
| Oct. | Mansfeld unable to hold out in the Upper Palatinate | 50 |
| Oct. 10. | Signs an engagement to disband his forces, but escapes with them to Alsace | 50 |
| Section III.—Frederick’s Allies (October 1621-May 1622). | ||
| 1621 | James I. of England proposes to take Mansfeld into his pay, but he cannot agree with the House of Commons, and is therefore in want of money | 50 |
| 1622 | He then tries to obtain a settlement of the German disputes with the aid of Spain | 51 |
| May. | A conference for the pacification of Germany held at Brussels | 52 |
| Frederick prepares for War, with the help of Mansfeld, the Margrave of Baden, and Christian of Brunswick, the latter being a Protestant Administrator of the Bishopric of Halberstadt | 53 | |
| He ravages the diocese of Paderborn | 55 | |
| Section IV.—The Fight for the Lower Palatinate (April-July 1622). | ||
| Ap. 12. May 6. | Frederick joins Mansfeld. Tilly defeats the Margrave of Baden at Wimpfen | 57 |
| June. | Frederick, hopeful of success, refuses to consent to a treaty, and seizes the Landgrave of Darmstadt | 58 |
| But is driven by Tilly to retreat | 59 | |
| June 30. | Defeat of Christian of Brunswick at Höchst | 59 |
| July. | Mansfeld abandons the Palatinate, and Frederick, after taking refuge at Sedan, retires to the Hague | 60 |
| CHAPTER IV. MANSFELD AND CHRISTIAN IN NORTH GERMANY. | ||
| Section I.—Mansfeld’s March into the Netherlands (July-November 1622). | ||
| 1622 | Tilly proceeds to reduce the fortified places in the Lower Palatinate | 60 |
| 1623 Feb. 13 | The Electorate transferred from Frederick to Maximilian | 61 |
| 1622 | Change of feeling in North Germany | 61 |
| Aug. | Mansfeld and Christian establish themselves in Lorraine, and then try to cut their way through the Spanish Netherlands to join the Duke | 63 |
| Aug. 28. | Battle of Fleurus. Christian loses his arm | 63 |
| Nov. | Mansfeld establishes himself in East Friesland | 64 |
| Section II.—Christian of Brunswick in Lower Saxony (November 1622-August 1623). | ||
| 1622 | The Lower Saxon Circle urged by Tilly to join him against Mansfeld, and by Christian of Brunswick to join him against Tilly | 64 |
| 1623 Feb. | Warlike preparations of the Circle | 65 |
| Aug. 6. | Christian expelled from the Circle, and defeated by Tilly at Stadtlohn | 66 |
| Section III.—Danger of the Lower Saxon Circle (August-December 1623). | ||
| 1623 | The North German Protestant Bishoprics in danger | 66 |
| Aug. | Alarm in the Lower Saxon Circle | 68 |
| Dec. | But nothing is done, and its troops are disbanded | 68 |
| Section IV.—England and France (October 1623-August 1624). | ||
| Oct. | Foreign Powers ready to interfere | 69 |
| Return of the Prince of Wales from Madrid | 70 | |
| 1624 Feb.‑May | Divergence between the English House of Commons and James I. upon the mode of recovering the Palatinate | 70 |
| Position of the Huguenots in France | 72 | |
| Section V.—Rise of Richelieu (August 1624-September 1625). | ||
| Aug. | Lewis XIII. makes Richelieu his chief minister. He is divided between a desire to combat Spain and a desire to reduce the Huguenots to submission | 72 |
| Richelieu’s position less strong than it afterwards became. He has to make great allowances for the King’s humour | 74 | |
| Dec. | French attack upon the Spanish garrisons in the Valtelline | 75 |
| 1625 Jan.‑June | Failure of Mansfeld’s expedition intended by James to recover the Palatinate | 76 |
| Jan. | Richelieu’s plans for engaging more deeply in the war frustrated by the rising of the Huguenots of Rochelle | 77 |
| Sept. | The Huguenot fleet is defeated, but Rochelle holds out | 77 |
| CHAPTER V. INTERVENTION OF THE KING OF DENMARK. | ||
| Section I.—Christian IV. and Gustavus Adolphus (1624). | ||
| Character and position of Christian IV., King of Denmark | 78 | |
| Genius of Gustavus Adolphus | 79 | |
| Sketch of the earlier part of his reign | 80 | |
| His interest in German affairs | 82 | |
| Section II.—English Diplomacy (August 1624-July 1625). | ||
| 1624 Aug. | The Kings of Denmark and Sweden asked by James I. to join him in recovering the Palatinate | 84 |
| 1625 Jan. | The English Government, thinking the demands of Gustavus exorbitant, forms an alliance with Christian IV. | 85 |
| June. | Meeting of the first Parliament of Charles I. | |
| June | Gustavus directs his forces against Poland | 86 |
| Mar. 27. | Death of James I. Accession of Charles I. | 86 |
| July 18. | Christian IV., at the head of the Circle of Lower Saxony, enters upon war with the army of the League commanded by Tilly | 87 |
| Aug. | Dissolution of the first Parliament of Charles I. | |
| Section III.—Wallenstein’s Armament (July 1625-February 1626). | ||
| The Emperor needs more forces | 87 | |
| Wallenstein offers to raise an army for him. Account of Wallenstein’s early life | 89 | |
| The system by which the army is to be supported is to be one of forced contributions | 90 | |
| Oppressive burdens laid thereby on the country | 91 | |
| Wallenstein enters the dioceses of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, and lies quietly there during the winter | 92 | |
| 1626 Feb. | Failure of negotiations for peace | 93 |
| Section IV.—Defeat of Mansfeld and Christian IV. (February-August 1626). | ||
| 1626 Feb. | Numerical superiority on the side of the King of Denmark, but the Imperialists are superior in other respects | 94 |
| Failure of the supplies promised to Christian by Charles I. | 95 | |
| Feb. | Meeting of the second Parliament of Charles I.—Impeachment of Buckingham | |
| Ap. 25. | Mansfeld defeated by Wallenstein at the Bridge of Dessau | 96 |
| June. | Dissolution of the second Parliament of Charles I. | |
| Aug. 27. | Christian IV. defeated by Tilly at Lutter | 97 |
| Wallenstein pursues Mansfeld into Hungary | 97 | |
| CHAPTER VI. STRALSUND AND ROCHELLE. | ||
| Section I.—Fresh Successes of Wallenstein (August 1626-October 1627). | ||
| 1626 | Divergence between the League and Wallenstein | 98 |
| Nov. | Wallenstein advocates religious equality and the predominance of the army | 98 |
| 1627 Jan. | He persuades Ferdinand to increase his army, and is created Duke of Friedland, in spite of the growing dissatisfaction with his proceedings | 100 |
| May‑Aug. | The King of Denmark hopes to resist Tilly, but Wallenstein returns from Hungary, and gains possession of Silesia | 101 |
| Sept. 20. | Defeat of the Margrave of Baden at Heiligenhafen | 102 |
| Oct. | Christian IV. flies to the Island of Fünen, leaving Jutland to Wallenstein | 102 |
| Section II.—Resistance to Wallenstein in the Empire (October 1627-February 1628). | ||
| 1627 Oct. | Meeting of the Electors at Mühlhausen. They complain of Wallenstein | 103 |
| 1628 | The commercial towns of North Germany jealous of Wallenstein | 105 |
| Feb. | The Emperor declares the Dukes of Mecklenburg to have forfeited their lands and titles, and pledges the territory to Wallenstein | 106 |
| Wallenstein tries in vain to gain over the Hanse Towns | 106 | |
| He attempts to establish himself on the coast of the Baltic by getting possession of the towns | 108 | |
| Section III.—The Siege of Stralsund (August-February 1628). | ||
| Feb. | As Stralsund refuses to admit a garrison, it is attacked by Wallenstein’s orders | 108 |
| May | It is succoured by Denmark and Sweden | 109 |
| Aug. 3. | The siege is raised | 110 |
| Section IV.—The Siege of Rochelle (1625-1628). | ||
| 1625 | Richelieu would have made peace with the Huguenots if he had been able | 112 |
| 1626 | An agreement is effected, but comes to nothing through the jealousy of Charles I. | 112 |
| 1627 | War between France and England, Buckingham’s expedition to Rhé | 113 |
| Nov. | Richelieu besieges Rochelle | 114 |
| 1628 Mar | Meeting of the third Parliament of Charles I. | |
| May | Failure of an English fleet to succour Rochelle | 115 |
| June | The Petition of Right granted | |
| Aug. | Murder of the Duke of Buckingham | 115 |
| Nov. 1. | Surrender of Rochelle | 115 |
| Contrast between France and Germany. Toleration granted to the Huguenots | 116 | |
| CHAPTER VII. THE EDICT OF RESTITUTION. | ||
| Section I.—Oppression of the Protestants (March 1628-May 1629). | ||
| 1628 Mar. | Surrender of Stade to Tilly | 117 |
| 1629 Jan. | Wallenstein fails to take Glückstadt | 117 |
| Mar. | Dissolution of the third Parliament of Charles I. | |
| May 22. | Peace of Lübeck between Christian IV. and the Emperor | 118 |
| Wallenstein invested with the Duchy of Mecklenburg | 118 | |
| 1628 | The Protestants oppressed in the South of Germany | 119 |
| 1629 Mar. 29. | Issue of the Edict of Restitution | 120 |
| Section II.—French Intervention in Italy (1628-1630). | ||
| 1628 | War in Italy for the succession to the Duchy of Mantua | 121 |
| 1629 Mar. | Richelieu enters Italy, and compels the Spaniards to raise the siege of Casale | 122 |
| Rebellion of Rohan in the south of France | 123 | |
| 1629 | Richelieu again enters Italy, seizes Pignerol and Saluces, and again forces the Spaniards to raise the siege of Casale | 123 |
| 1630 | Negotiations between France and Sweden | 124 |
| Section III.—Wallenstein deprived of his Command (March 1629-September 1630). | ||
| 1629 | Wallenstein increases his forces | 125 |
| Jealousy between him and the Catholic Electors | 126 | |
| 1630 | Assembly at Ratisbon | 127 |
| July 3. | It demands that Wallenstein be deprived of his command | 127 |
| July 4. | Landing of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany | 128 |
| Sept. | Dismissal of Wallenstein | 129 |
| Tilly in command | 130 | |
| Section IV.—The Swedes establish themselves on the Coast of the Baltic (July 1630-January 1631). | ||
| July. | Discipline in the Swedish Army | 130 |
| The Duke of Pomerania submits to him, but the Elector of Brandenburg declares himself neutral | 130 | |
| 1651 | The treaty of Bärwalde between France and Sweden | 132 |
| Section V.—The Fall of Magdeburg (January-May 1631). | ||
| Jan. | Success of Gustavus on the Baltic coast | 133 |
| March. | The Electors of Saxony hold a Protestant Assembly at Leipzig | 133 |
| Tilly attacks the Swedes, but is driven to retreat | 134 | |
| Ap. 26. | Treaty of Cherasco between France and the English | 135 |
| May 15. | Convention between Gustavus and the Elector of Brandenburg | 136 |
| May 20. | Magdeburg stormed, plundered, and burnt | 136 |
| The Emperor refuses to cancel the Edict of Restitution | 137 | |
| CHAPTER VIII. THE VICTORIES OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. | ||
| Section I.—Alliance between the Swedes and the Saxons (June-September 1631). | ||
| June 21. | Gustavus compels the Elector of Brandenburg to an alliance | 138 |
| July. | Gustavus at the Camp of Werben | 138 |
| Aug. | Tilly summons the Elector of Saxony to submit | 139 |
| Sept. | He attacks Saxony, upon which the Elector forms an alliance with Gustavus | 139 |
| Gustavus joins the Saxons | 140 | |
| Section II.—Battle of Breitenfeld (September 1631). | ||
| Sept. 17. | Victory of Gustavus over Tilly at Breitenfeld | 141 |
| Wallenstein’s intrigues with Gustavus | 142 | |
| Wallenstein and Gustavus unlikely to agree | 143 | |
| Political and military designs of Gustavus | 144 | |
| He looks for a basis of operations on the Rhine | 146 | |
| Section III.—March of Gustavus into South Germany (October 1631-May 1632). | ||
| Oct. | March of Gustavus to Mentz | 148 |
| 1632 | In spite of the objections of the French, he attacks Bavaria | 149 |
| Ap. 14. | Tilly defeated and mortally wounded at the passage of the Lech | 149 |
| May 17. | Gustavus enters Munich | 150 |
| Section IV.—Wallenstein’s Restoration to command (September 1631-June 1632). | ||
| Sept. | Wallenstein breaks off all intercourse with Gustavus | 151 |
| Nov. | Attempts to reconcile the Elector of Saxony with the Emperor | 152 |
| Dec. | Is reinstated temporarily in the command of the Imperial Army | 153 |
| 1632 | Character of that Army | 153 |
| April | Wallenstein permanently appointed Commander | 155 |
| May | Offers peace to the Saxons, and drives them out of Bohemia | 155 |
| June | Gustavus does not approve of the terms of peace offered by Wallenstein | 156 |
| Section V.—Struggle between Gustavus and Wallenstein (June-October 1632). | ||
| June | Gustavus and Wallenstein opposed to one another at Nüremberg | 157 |
| Efforts of Gustavus to maintain discipline | 159 | |
| Sept. 4. | Fails to storm Wallenstein’s lines | 160 |
| Sept. 18. | Gustavus leaves Nüremberg | 160 |
| Oct. | Wallenstein marches into Saxony | 160 |
| Section VI.—The Battle of Lützen (October-November 1632). | ||
| Oct. | Gustavus follows Wallenstein into Saxony | 161 |
| Nov. 16. | Battle of Lützen | 162 |
| Death of Gustavus | 163 | |
| Victory of the Swedes | 164 | |
| Irreparable loss by the death of Gustavus to the Protestants | 164 | |
| CHAPTER IX. THE DEATH OF WALLENSTEIN AND THE TREATY OF PRAGUE. | ||
| Section I.—French Influence in Germany (November 1632-April 1633). | ||
| 1633 | Differences between Bernhard and Oxenstjerna | 166 |
| Ap. 23. | The League of Heilbronn signed | 167 |
| Firm establishment of Richelieu’s authority in France | 168 | |
| Richelieu’s interposition in German affairs | 169 | |
| Section II.—Wallenstein’s Attempt to dictate Peace (April-December 1633). | ||
| 1633 | Wallenstein’s peace negotiations with the Swedes and Saxons | 170 |
| Oct. | He drives the Saxons out of Silesia | 172 |
| Nov. | Ratisbon taken by Bernhard | 173 |
| Spanish opposition to a peace which would leave Spain exposed to French attacks | 173 | |
| Dec. | Wallenstein thinks of making peace, whether the Emperor consents or not | 175 |
| Section III.—Resistance to Wallenstein’s Plans (January-February 1634). | ||
| 1634 Jan. | Oñate, the Spanish Ambassador, persuades the Emperor that Wallenstein is a traitor | 175 |
| Ferdinand determines to displace Wallenstein | 176 | |
| Feb. 19. | Wallenstein engages the Colonels to support him | 177 |
| Section IV.—Assassination of Wallenstein (February 1634). | ||
| Feb. 18. | Wallenstein declared a traitor | 179 |
| Feb. 21. | The garrison of Prague declares against him | 179 |
| Feb. 24. | Wallenstein at Eger | 179 |
| Feb. 25. | He is assassinated | 181 |
| Comparison between Gustavus and Wallenstein | 181 | |
| Section V.—Imperialist Victories and the Treaty of Prague (February 1634-May 1635). | ||
| 1634 Feb. | The King of Hungary reorganizes the imperial army | 181 |
| Sept. 6. | In conjunction with the Cardinal-Infant, he defeats Bernhard at Nördlingen | 183 |
| Consequent necessity of an increased French intervention | 184 | |
| 1635 | Peace of Prague | 184 |
| May 30. | It is not universally accepted | 185 |
| Miserable condition of Germany. Notes of an English traveller | 187 | |
| CHAPTER X. THE PREPONDERANCE OF FRANCE. | ||
| Section I.—Open Intervention of France (May 1635). | ||
| 1635 | Protestantism not out of danger | 189 |
| May. | Close alliance of some of the Princes with France | 190 |
| Importance of the possession of Alsace and Lorraine | 191 | |
| May 19. | France declares war against Spain | 192 |
| Section II.—Spanish Successes (May 1635-December 1637). | ||
| 1635 | Failure of the French attack on the Spanish Netherlands | 192 |
| 1636 | Spanish invasion of France | 193 |
| Oct. 4. | Baner’s victory at Wittstock | 194 |
| 1637 Feb. 15. | Death of Ferdinand II. Accession of Ferdinand III. | 194 |
| Imperialist success in Germany | 195 | |
| Section III.—The Struggle for Alsace (January 1638-July 1639). | ||
| 1638 | Bernhard’s victories in the Breisgau and Alsace | 195 |
| July 8. | Death of Bernhard | 196 |
| Section IV.—French Successes (July 1639-Dec. 1642). | ||
| French maritime successes | 197 | |
| 1639 | Spanish fleet taking refuge in the Downs | 198 |
| It is destroyed by the Dutch | 198 | |
| 1640 | Insurrection of Catalonia | 199 |
| Nov. | Independence of Portugal | 200 |
| 1641 | Defeat of the Imperialists at Wolfenbüttel | 201 |
| 1642 | Defeat of the Imperialists at Kempten | 201 |
| Aug. | Charles I. sets up his standard. Beginning of the English Civil War | |
| Dec. 4. | Death of Richelieu | 201 |
| Section V.—Aims and Character of Richelieu (December 1642-May 1643). | ||
| Richelieu’s domestic policy | 201 | |
| Contrast between France and England | 202 | |
| Richelieu’s foreign policy | 203 | |
| Moderation of his aims | 204 | |
| 1643 May 14. | Death of Lewis XIII | 205 |
| Section VI.—More French Victories (May 1643—August 1645). | ||
| 1643 | Rule of Cardinal Mazarin | 205 |
| May 19. | Enghien defeats the Spaniards at Rocroy | 206 |
| The French kept in check in Germany | 207 | |
| 1644 | Enghien and Turenne. Battle of Freiburg | 208 |
| July | Battle of Marston Moor | |
| 1645 Aug. 3. | Second Battle of Nördlingen | 208 |
| Mar. 6. | Swedish victory at Jankow | 209 |
| CHAPTER XI. THE END OF THE WAR. | ||
| Section I.—Turenne’s Strategy (June 1645-October 1648). | ||
| 1645 | Negotiations for peace begun | 209 |
| June. | Battle of Naseby | |
| Aims of the Emperor and the Duke of Bavaria | 210 | |
| 1646 | Turenne outmanœuvres the Imperialists | 212 |
| 1647 May‑Sept. | Truce between the French and the Bavarians | 213 |
| 1648 May 17. | Defeat of the Bavarians at Zusmarshausen | 213 |
| Section II.—The Treaty of Westphalia (Oct. 1648). | ||
| 1648 | Terms of the peace | 213 |
| Oct. 24. | How far was toleration effected by it | 214 |
| General desire for peace | 217 | |
| Section III.—Condition of Germany. | ||
| Debasing effects of the war | 217 | |
| Decrease of the population | 218 | |
| Moral and intellectual decadence | 218 | |
| Disintegration of Germany | 220 | |
| Protestantism saved, and with it the future culture of Germany | 220 | |
| Section IV.—Continuance of the War between France and Spain (1648-1660). | ||
| 1648 | Recognition of the independence of the Dutch Republic | 221 |
| 1649 | Execution of Charles I. | |
| The Fronde | 222 | |
| Continuance of the war with Spain | 223 | |
| Alliance between France and Cromwell | 223 | |
| 1660 | Treaty of Pyrenees | 224 |
| French greatness based on Tolerance | 225 | |
| Intolerance of Lewis XIV. and downfall of the French monarchy | 226 | |