Origin of Cultivated Plants

Part III

Summary and Conclusion.

Chapter I General Table of Species, With Their Origin and the Epoch of Their Earliest Cultivation

The following table includes a few species of which a detailed account has not been given, because their origin is well known, and they are of little importance.

Explanation of the signs used in the table: (1) annual, (2) biennial, perennial perennial, small shrub small shrub, small shrub shrub, small tree small tree, small shrub tree. The letters indicate the certain or probable date of earliest cultivation. For the species of the old world: A, a species cultivated for more than four thousand years (according to ancient historians, the monuments of ancient Egypt, Chinese works, and botanical and philological indications); B, cultivated for more than two thousand years (indicated in Theophrastus, found among lacustrine remains, or presenting various signs, such as possessing Hebrew or Sanskrit names); C, cultivated for less than two thousand years (mentioned by Dioscorides and not by Theophrastus, seen in the frescoes at Pompeii, introduced at a known date, etc.). For American species: D, cultivation very ancient in America (from its wide area and number of varieties); E, species cultivated before the discovery of America, without showing signs of a great antiquity of culture; F, species only cultivated since the discovery of America.

General Table of Species

SPECIES NATIVE TO THE OLD WORLD.
Cultivated for the Subterranean Parts.
Name and duration.			Date.	Origin.
Radish—Raphanus sativus (1).			B.	Temperate Asia.2177
Horse-Radish—Cochlearia Armoracia, perennial.			C.	Eastern temperate Europe.
Turnip—Brassica Rapa (2).			A.	Europe, western Siberia (?).
Rape—Brassica Napus (2).			A.	Europe, western Siberia (?).
Carrot—Daucus Carota (2).			B.	Europe, western temperate Asia (?).
Parsnip—Pastinaca sativa (2).			C.	Central and southern Europe.
Tuberous Chervil—Chærophyllum bulbosum (2).			C.	Central Europe, Caucasus.
Skirret—Sium Sisarum, perennial.			C.	Altaic Siberia, northern Persia.
Madder—Rubia tinctorum, perennial.			B.	Western temperate Asia, south-east of Europe.
Salsify—Tragopogon porrifolium (2).			C. (?)	South-east of Europe, Algeria.
Scorzonera—Scorzonera hispanica.			C.	South-west of Europe, south of the Caucasus.
Rampion—Campanula Rapunculus (2).			C.	Temperate and southern Europe.
Beet—Beta vulg. (2), perennial.	|.	Vegetable.	B.	Canaries, Mediterranean basin, western temperate Asia.
		Root.	B.	A result of cultivation.
Onion—Allium Cepa (2).			B.	Desert of the Kirghis, in western temperate Asia.
Garlic—Allium sativum, perennial.			A.	Persia, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Palestine (?).
Welsh Onion—Allium fistulosum, perennial.			C.	Siberia (from the land of the Kirghis to Baikal).
Shallot—Allium ascalonicum, perennial.			C.	Modification of A. cepa (?), unknown wild.
Rocambole—Allium Scorodopra sum, perennial.			C.	Temperate Europe.
Chives—Allium Schænoprasum, perennial.			C.	Temperate and northern Europe, Siberia, Khamschatka, North America (Lake Huron).
Taro—Colocasia antiquorum, perennial.			B.	India, Malay Archipelago, Polynesia.
Apé—Alocasia macrorrhiza, perennial.			(?)	Ceylon, Malay Archipelago, Polynesia.
Konjak—Amorphophallus Konjak, perennial.			(?)	Japan (?).
Ya—		Dioscorea sativa, per.	B. (?)	Southern Asia [especially Malabar (?), Ceylon (?), [Java (?)].
		Dioscorea Batatas, perennial.	B. (?)	China (?).
		Dioscorea japonica, perennial.	(?)	Japan (?).
		Dioscorea alata, perennial.	(?)	East of the Asiatic Archipelago.
Cultivated for the Stems or Leaves.
1. Vegetables.
Cabbage—Brassica oleracea (1), (2), small shrub.			A.	Europe.
Chinese Cabbage—Brassica chinensis (2).			(?)	China (?), Japan (?).
Water-Cress—Nasturtium officinale, perennial.			(?)	Europe, northern Asia.
Garden-Cress—Lepidium sativum (1).			B.	Persia (?).
Sea Kale—Crambe maritima, perennial.			C.	Western temperate Europe.
Purslane—Portulaca oleracea (1).			A.	From the western Himalayas to southern Russia and Greece.
New Zealand Spinach—Tetragonia expansa (1).			C.	New Zealand and New Holland.
Garden Celery—Apium graveolens (2).			B.	Temperate and southern Europe, northern Africa, western Asia.
Chervil—Anthriscus cerefolium (1).			C.	South-east of Russia, western temperate Asia.
Parsley—Petroselinum sativum (2).			C.	Southern Europe, Algeria, Lebanon.
Alexanders—Smyrnium Olus-atrum (2).			C.	Southern Europe, Algeria, western temperate Asia.
Corn Salad—Valerianella olitoria (1).			C.	Sardinia, Sicily.
Artichoke—Cynara Cardunculus. (2), perennial.		Cardoon.	C.	Southern Europe, northern Africa, Canaries, Madeira.
		Artichoke.	C.	Derived from the cardoon.
Lettuce—Latuca Scariola (1), (2).			B.	Southern Europe, northern Africa, western Asia.
Wild Chicory—Cichorium Intybus, perennial.			C.	Europe, northern Africa, western temperate Asia.
Endive—Cichorium Endivia (1).			C.	Mediterranean basin, Caucasus, Turkestan.
Spinach—Spinacia oleracea (1).			C.	Persia (?).
Orach—Atriplex hortensis (1).			C.	Northern Europe and Siberia.
Amaranth—Amarantus gangeticus (1).			(?)	Tropical Africa, India (?).
Sorrel—Rumex acetosa, perennial (1).			(?)	Europe, northern Asia, mountains of India.
Patience Dock—Rumex patientia, perennial.			(?)	Turkey in Europe, Persia.
Asparagus—Asparagus officinalis, perennial.			B.	Europe, western temperate Asia.
Leek—Allium ampeloprasum, perennial.			B.	Mediterranean basin.
2. Fodder.
Lucern—Medicago sativa, perennial.			B.	Western temperate Asia.
Sainfoin—Onobrychis sativa, perennial.			C.	Temperate Europe, south of the Caucasus.
French Honeysuckle—Hedysarum coronarium, perennial.			C.	Centre and west of the Mediterranean basin.
Purple Clover—Trifolium pratense, perennial.			C.	Europe, Algeria, western temperate Asia.
Alsike Clover—Trifolium hybridum, (1).			C.	Temperate Europe.
Italian Clover—Trifolium incarnatum (1).			C.	Southern Europe.
Egyptian Clover—Trifolium alexandrinum (1).			C.	Syria, Anatolia.
Ervilla—Ervum Ervilia (1).			B.	Mediterranean basin.
Vetch—Vicia sativa (1).			B.	Europe, Algeria, south of the Caucasus.
Flat-podded Pea—Lathyrus Cicera (1).			B.	From Spain and Algeria to Greece.
Chickling Vetch—Lathyrus sativus (1).			B.	South of the Caucasus.
Ochrus—Lathyrus ochrus (1).			B.	Italy, Spain.
Fenugreek—Trigonella fœnum-græcum (1).			B.	North-east of India and western temperate Asia.
Bird’s-Foot—Ornithopus sativus (1).			B. (?)	Portugal, south of Spain, Algeria.
Nonsuch—Medicago lupulina (1), (2).			C.	Europe, north of Africa (?), temperate Asia.
Corn Spurry—Spergula arvensis (1).			B. (?)	Europe.
Guinea Grass—Panicum maximum, perennial.			C. (?)	Tropical Africa.
3. Various Uses.
Tea—Thea sinensis, shrub.			A.	Assam, China, Mantschuria.
Flax anciently cultivated—Linum angustifolium, perennial (2), (1).			A.	Mediterranean basin.
Flax now cultivated—Linum usitatissimum (1).			A. (?)	Western Asia (?), derived from the preceding (?).
Jute—Corchorus capsularis (1).			C. (?)	Java, Ceylon.
Jute—Corchorus olitorius (1).			C. (?)	North-west of India, Ceylon.
Sumach—Rhus coriaria, small tree.			C.	Mediterranean basin, western temperate Asia.
Khât—Celastrus edulis, small shrub.			(?)	Abyssinia, Arabia (?).
Indigo—Indigofera tinctoria, small shrub.			B.	India (?).
Silver Indigo—Indigofera argentea, small shrub.			(?)	Abyssinia, Nubia, Kordofan, Senaar, India (?).
Henna—Lawsonia alba, small shrub.			A.	Western tropical Asia, Nubia (?).
Blue Gum—Eucalyptus globulus, small shrub.			C.	New Holland.
Cinnamon—Cinnamonum zeylanicum, small shrub.			C.	Ceylon, India.
China Grass—Bœhmeria nivea, perennial, small shrub.			(?)	China, Japan.
Hemp—Cannabis sativa (1).			A.	Dahuria, Siberia.
White Mulberry—Morus alba, small tree.			A. (?)	India, Mongolia.
Black Mulberry—Morus nigra, small tree.			B. (?)	Armenia, northern Persia.
Sugar-Cane—Saccharum officinaram, perennial.			B.	Cochin-China (?), south-west of China.
Cultivated for the Flowers or their Envelopes.
Clove—Carophyllus aromaticus, small tree.			(?)	Moluccas.
Hop—Humulus lupulus, perennial.			C.	Europe, western temperate Asia, Siberia.
Carthamine—Carthamus tinctorius (1).			A.	Arabia (?).
Saffron—Crocus sativus, perennial.			A.	Southern Italy, Greece, Asia Minor.
Cultivated for the Fruits.
Shaddock—Citrus decumana, small shrub.			B.	Pacific Islands, to the east of Java.
Citron, Lemon—Citrus medica, small tree.			B.	India.
Bitter Orange—Citrus Aurantium Bigaradia, small tree.			B.	East of India.
Sweet Orange—Citrus Aurantium sinense, small tree.			C.	China and Cochin-China.
Mandarin—Citrus nobilis, small tree.			(?)	China and Cochin-China.
Mangosteen—Garcinia mangostana, small tree.			(?)	Sunda Islands, Malay Peninsula.
Ochro—Hibiscus esculentus (1).			C.	Tropical Africa.
Vine—Vitis vinifera, small shrub.			A.	Western temperate Asia, Mediterranean basin.
Common Jujube—Zizyphus vulgaris, small tree.			B.	China.
Lotus Jujube—Zizyphus lotus, small tree.			(?)	Egypt to Marocco.
Indian Jujube—Zizyphus Jujuba, small tree.			A. (?)	Burmah, India.
Mango—Mangifera indica, small tree.			A. (?)	India.
Tahiti Apple—Spondias dulcis, small tree.			(?)	Society, Friendly, and Fiji Isles.
Raspberry—Rubus idæus, small shrub.			C.	Temperate Europe and Asia.
Strawberry—Fragaria vesca, perennial.			C.	Temperate Europe and western Asia, east of North America.
Bird-Cherry—Prunus avium, small shrub.			B.	Western temperate Asia, temperate Europe.
Common Cherry—Prunus cerasus, small tree.			B.	From the Caspian to western Anatolia.
Plum—Prunus domestica, small tree.			B.	Anatolia, south of the Caucasus, north of Persia.
Plum—Prunus insititia, small shrub.			(?)	Southern Europe, Armenia, south of the Caucasus, Talysch.
Apricot—Prunus Armeniaca, small tree.			A.	China.
Almond—Amygdalus communis, small tree.			A.	Mediterranean basin, western temperate Asia.
Peach—Amygdalus Persica, small tree.			A.	China.
Common Pear—Pyrus communis, tree.			A.	Temperate Europe and Asia.
Chinese Pear—Pyrus sinensis, small shrub.			(?)	Mongolia, Mantschuria.
Apple—Pyrus Malus, small tree.			A.	Europe, Anatolia, south of the Caucasus.
Quince—Cydonia vulgaris, small tree.			A.	North of Persia, south of the Caucasus, Anatolia.
Loquat—Eriobotrya japonica, small tree.			(?)	Japan.
Pomegranate—Punica granatum, tree.			A.	Persia, Afghanistan, Beluchistan.
Rose Apple—Jambosa vulgaris, small tree.			B.	Malay Archipelago, Cochin-China, Burmah, north-east of India.
Malay Apple—Jambosa malaccensis, small tree.			B.	Malay Archipelago, Malacca.
Bottle Gourd—Cucurbita lagenaria (1).			C.	India, Moluccas, Abyssinia.
Spanish Gourd—C. maxima (1).			C. (?)	Guinea.
Melon—Cucumis Melo (1).			C.	India, Beluchistan, Guinea.
Water-Melon—Citrullus vulgaris (1).			A.	Tropical Africa.
Cucumber—Cucumis sativus (1).			A.	India.
West Indian Gherkin—Cucumis Anguria (1).			C. (?)	Tropical Africa (?).
White Gourd-Melon—Benincasa hispida (1).			(?)	Japan, Java.
Towel Gourd—Luffa cylindrica (1).			C.	India.
Angular Luffa—Luffa acutangula (1).			C.	India, Malay Archipelago.
Snake Gourd—Trichosanthes anguina (1).			C.	India (?).
Gooseberry—Ribes grossularia, small shrub.			C.	Temperate Europe, north of Africa, Caucasus, western Himalayas.
Red Currant—Ribes rubrum, small shrub.			C.	Northern and temperate Europe, Siberia, Caucasus, Himalayas, north-east of the United States.
Black Currant—Ribes nigrum, small shrub.			C.	Northern and central Europe, Armenia, Siberia, Mantschuria, western Himalayas.
Kaki—Diospyros Kaki, small tree.			(?)	Japan, northern China.
Date Plum—Diospyros lotos, small tree.			(?)	China, India, Afghanistan, Persia, Armenia, Anatolia.
Olive—Olea europea, small tree.			A.	Syria, southern Anatolia and neighbouring islands.
Aubergine—Solanum melongena (1).			A.	India.
Fig—Ficus Carica, small tree.			A.	Centre and south of the Mediterranean basin, from Syria to the Canaries.
Bread-Fruit—Artocarpus incisa, small shrub.			(?)	Sunda Isles.
Jack-Fruit—Artocarpus integrifolia, small shrub.			B. (?)	India.
Date-Palm—Phœnix dactylifera, small shrub.			A.	Western Asia and Africa, from the Euphrates to the Canaries.
Banana—Musa sapientum, small tree.			A.	Southern Asia.
Oil Palm—Elæis guineensis, small shrub.			(?)	Guinea.
Cultivated for the Seeds.
1. Nutritive.
Litchi—Nephelium Litchi, small tree.			(?)	Southern China, Cochin-China.
Longan—Nephelium longana, small tree.			(?)	India, Pegu.
Rambutan—Nephelium lappaceum, small tree.			(?)	India, Pegu.
Pistachio—Pistacia vera, small shrub.			C.	Syria.
Bean—Faba vulgaris (1).			A.	South of the Caspian (?).
Lentil—Ervum lens (1).			A.	Western temperate Asia, Greece, Italy.
Chick-Pea—Cicer arietinum (1).			A.	South of the Caucasus and of the Caspian.
Lupin—Lupinus albus (1).			B.	Sicily, Macedonia, south of the Caucasus.
Egyptian Lupin—Lupinus termis (1).			A.	From Corsica to Syria.
Field-Pea—Pisum arvense (1).			C. (?)	Italy.
Garden-Pea—Pisum sativum (1).			B.	From the south of the Caucasus to Persia (?) northern India (?).
Soy—Dolichos soja (1).			A.	Cochin-China, Japan, Java.
Pigeon-Pea—Cajanus indicus, small shrub.			C.	Equatorial Africa.
Carob—Ceratonia siliqua, small shrub.			A. (?)	Southern coast of Anatolia, Syria, Cyrenaica (?).
Moth—Phaseolus aconitifolius (1).			C.	India.
Three-lobed Kidney Bean—Phaseolus trilobus, perennial (1).			B.	India, tropical Africa.
Green Gram—Phaseolus Mungo (1).			B. (?)	India.
Wall—Phaseolus Lablab, perennial (1).			B.	India.
Lubia—Phaseolus Lubia (1).			C.	Western Asia (?).
Bambarra Ground Nut—Voandzeia subterranea (1).			(?)	Intertropical Africa.
Buckwheat—Fagopyrum esculentum (1).			C.	Mantschuria, central Siberia.
Tartary Buckwheat—Fagopyrum tartaricum (1).			C.	Tartary, Siberia to Dahuria.
Notch-seeded Buckwheat—Fagopyrum emarginatum (1).			(?)	Western China, eastern Himalayas.
Kiery—Amarantus frumentaceus (1).			(?)	India.
Chestnut—Castanea vulgaris, small shrub.			(?)	From Portugal to the Caspian Sea, eastern Algeria. Varieties: Japan, North America.
Wheat—Triticum vulgare and varieties (?), (1).			A.	Region of the Euphrates.
Spelt—Triticum spelta (1).			A.	Derived from the preceding (?).
One-grained Wheat—Triticum monococcum (1).			(?)	Servia, Greece, Anatolia (if the identity with the Triticum bœoticum be admitted).
Two-rowed Barley—Hordeum distichon (1).			A.	Western temperate Asia.
Common Barley—Hordeum vulgare (1).			(?)	Derived from the preceding (?).
Six-rowed Barley—Hordeum hexastichon (1).			A.	Derived from the preceding (?).
Rye—Secale cereale (1).			B.	Eastern temperate Europe (?).
Common Oats—Avena sativa (1).			B.	Eastern temperate Europe (?).
Eastern Oats—Avena orientalis (1).			C. (?)	Western Asia (?).
Common Millet—Panicum miliaceum (1).			A.	Egypt, Arabia.
Italian Millet—Panicum italicum (1).			A.	China, Japan, Indian Archipelago (?).
Sorghum—Holcus sorghum (1).			A.	Tropical Africa (?).
Sweet Sorghum—Holcus saccharatus (1).			(?)	Tropical Africa (?).
Coracan—Eleusine coracana (1).			B.	India.
Rice—Oryza sativa (1).			A.	India, southern China (?).
2. Various Uses.
Poppy—Papaver somniferum (1).			B.	Derived from _P. setiferum_ of the Mediterranean basin.
White Mustard—Sinapis alba (1).			B.	Temperate and southern Europe, north of Africa, western temperate Asia.
Black Mustard—Sinapis nigra (1).			B.
Gold of Pleasure—Camelina sativa (1).			B. (?)	Temperate Europe, Caucasus, Siberia.
Herbaceous Cotton—Gossypium herbaceum, small shrub (1).			B.	India.
Tree Cotton—Gossypium arboreum, small shrub.			B. (?)	Upper Egypt.
Arabian Coffee—Coffea arabica, small tree.			C.	Tropical Africa, Mozambique, Abyssinia, Guinea.
Liberian Coffee—Coffea liberica, tree.			C.	Guinea, Angola.
Sesame—Sesamum indicum (1).			A.	Sunda Isles.
Nutmeg—Myristica fragrans, small tree.			B.	Moluccas.
Castor-Oil Plant—Ricinus communis, small shrub.			A.	Abyssinia, Sennaar, Kordofan.
Walnut—Juglans regia, small shrub.			(?)	Eastern temperate Europe, temperate Asia.
Black Pepper—Piper nigrum, small shrub.			B.	India.
Long Pepper—Piper longum, small shrub.			B.	India.
Medicinal Pepper—Piper officinalis, small shrub.			B.	Malay Archipelago.
Betel Pepper—Piper Betle, small shrub.			B.	Malay Archipelago.
Areca Nut—Areca Catechu, small tree.			B.	Malay Archipelago.
Cocoa Nut—Cocos nucifera, tree.			(?)	Malay Archipelago (?), Polynesia (?).
SPECIES OF AMERICAN ORIGIN.
Cultivated for the Underground Parts.
Arracacha—Arracacha esculenta, perennial (1).			E.	New Granada (?).
Jerusalem Artichoke—Helianthus tuberosus, perennial.			E. (?)	North America (Indiana).
Potato—Solanum tuberosum, perennial.			E.	Chili, Peru (?).
Sweet Potato—Convolvulus batatas, perennial.			D.	Tropical America (where?).
Manioc—Manihot utilissima, small shrub.			E.	East of tropical Brazil.
Arrowroot—Maranta arundinacea, perennial.			(?)	Tropical (continental?) America.
Cultivated for the Stems or Leaves.
Maté—Ilex paraguariensis, small tree.			D.	Paraguay and western Brazil.
Coca—Erythroxylon Coca, small tree.			D.	East of Peru and Bolivia.
Quinine—Cinchona Calisaya, small tree.			F.	Bolivia, southern Peru.
Crown Bark—Cinchona officinalis, small tree.			F.	Ecuador (province of Loxa).
Red Cinchona Bark—Cinchona succirubra, small tree.			F.	Ecuador (province of Cuenca).
Tobacco		Nicotiana Tabacum (1).	D.	Ecuador and neighbouring countries.
		Nicotiana rustica (1).	E.	Mexico(?), Texas(?), California(?).
American Aloe—Agave americana, small shrub.			E.	Mexico.
Cultivated for the Fruits.
Sweet Sop—Anona squamosa, small tree.			(?)	West India Isles.
Sour Sop—Anona muricata, small tree.			(?)	West India Isles.
Custard Apple—Anona reticulata, small tree.			(?)	West India Isles, New Granada.
Chirimoya—Anona Cherimolia, small tree.			E.	Ecuador, Peru (?).
Mammee Apple—Mammea americana, tree.			(?)	West India Isles.
Cashew Nut—Anacardium occidentale, tree.			(?)	Tropical America.
Virginian Strawberry—Fragaria virginiana, perennial.			F.	Temperate North America.
Chili Strawberry—Fragaria chiloensis, perennial.			F.	Chili.
Guava—Psidium guayava, small tree.			E.	Continental tropical America.
Pumpkin and Squash—Cucurbita Pepo and Melopepo (1).			E.	Temperate North America.
Prickly Pear—Opuntia ficus indica, small tree.			E.	Mexico.
Chocho—Sechium edule (1).			E.	Mexico (?), Central America.
Star-Apple—Chrysophyllum Caïnito, small tree.			E.	West India Isles, Panama.
Caïmito—Lucuma Caïmito, small tree.			E.	Peru.
Marmalade Plum—Lucuma mammosa, small tree.			E.	Valley of the Orinoco.
Sapodilla—Sapota achras, small tree.			E.	Campeachy, Isthmus of Panama, Venezuela.
Persimmon—Diospyros virginiana, small tree.			F.	Eastern States of America.
Annual Capsicum—Capsicum annuum (1).			E.	Brazil (?).
Shrubby Capsicum—Capsicum frutescens, small shrub.			E.	From the east of Peru to Bahia.
Tomato—Lycopersicum esculentum (1).			E.	Peru.
Avocado Pear—Persea gratissima, tree.			E.	Mexico.
Papaw—Papaya vulgaris, small tree.			E.	West Indies, Central America.
Pine-Apple—Ananassa sativa, perennial.			E.	Mexico, Central America, Panama, New Granada, Guiana (?), Bahia (?).
Cultivated for the Seeds.
1. Nutritious.
Cacao—Theobroma Cacao, small tree.			D.	Amazon and Orinoco Valley, Panama (?), Yucatan (?).
Sugar Bean—Phaseolus lunatus, perennial.			E.	Brazil.
Quinoa—Chenopodium quinoa (1).			E.	New Granada, Peru (?), Chili (?).
Maize—Zea mays (1).			D.	New Granada (?).
2. Various Uses.
Arnotto—Bixa orellana.			D.	Tropical America.
Barbados Cotton—Gossypium barbadense, tree.			(?)	New Granada (?), Mexico (?), West Indies.
Earth Nuts—Arachis hypogæa (1).			E.	Brazil (?).
Madia—Madia sativa (1).			E.	Chili, California.
Cryptogam Cultivated for the Whole Plant.
Mushroom—Agaricus campestris, perennial.			C.	Northern hemisphere.

Common Haricot—Phaseolus vulgaris (1).
Musk Gourd—Cucurbita moschata (1).
Fig-leaved Gourd—Cucurbita ficifolia, perennial.