Chapter VII Conclusion
Scientific investigation has proved the great age of the earth and the enormous length of time which has elapsed since the first appearance of human beings upon its surface. Concerning the career of man during the countless millions of years which followed his advent upon the earth, little is known down to a comparatively recent time—a time commonly designated as the historic period.
When considering the past one is inclined to ask the question: “Does the history of mankind represent an unbroken line of progress, or, on the contrary, does it reflect a series of alternating periods of development and decay?”
We have observed that in recent times through the study of tribes and races in the various stages of development much has been learned concerning the origin of organized society and the development of human institutions. We have also seen that through the legends, traditions, and myths of the earliest historic peoples much reliable information has been gained regarding the conditions which prevailed at a still earlier period of human existence.
Notwithstanding the proofs which in recent times have been obtained relative to the law of periodicity which has thus far regulated human progress the idea prevails that in our own time mental activity has reached a stage never before witnessed. It is assumed that throughout the entire history of mankind material and intellectual development has never attained to such colossal proportions. It is evident that our egoism has obscured our normal vision. We lack perspective.
There is no evidence to prove that the present brain capacity of human beings exceeds that of the earliest ages of human history, neither is there any proof that the moral sense has been in the least reinforced. The lofty moral and spiritual precepts which abound in the Upanishads have never been surpassed—possibly never equalled. We are heirs of all the ages. The accumulated knowledge of the past is responsible for present achievements.
Those who have made a study of tribes and races in the various stages of development find much evidence going to prove that extant savage tribes do not represent man as he first emerged from the animal type, but, on the contrary, that they are the degenerate descendants of an extinct civilized race differing little from our own. If this be true, if human development which thus far seems to have been wholly material contain within itself the seeds of its own destruction, would it not be wise for the present generation to examine existing conditions in order to ascertain if we too have not already entered upon the path of degeneracy or decay?
Possibly this will be regarded as a pessimistic suggestion, but as has already been observed, a comparison between the conditions existing in prehistoric times and those which prevail under the present so-called civilized régime fully justifies this suggestion.
Those persons who have acquainted themselves with the available facts underlying the growth of organized society and the development of existing institutions, and who have co-ordinated these facts with the present situation are able to trace not only the growth of the destructive principle in human affairs but are able to forecast with a considerable degree of accuracy the results which must inevitably follow. Without a knowledge of the past it is impossible to understand or interpret the present.
We are living in a remarkable age. It is to be doubted if throughout the entire historic period there has been a time when passing events moved so swiftly or when they assumed the magnitude of those now taking place. Causes which were set up during prehistoric times have reached a climax. The inevitable results from those causes are upon us.
In order to compare the past and the present it becomes necessary briefly to recall some of the already recorded facts relative to existing conditions under early organized society.
When human beings lived closer to nature and before the natural checks to the lower or disintegrating forces had been withdrawn, the basic principles underlying human action were equality and liberty. No member of a communal group could claim any right or privilege not enjoyed by all. There was no poverty and no crime. Disease as we know it was unknown. As the lands were held in common, women were absolutely free and independent. They chose their mates and were responsible for the well-being of their offspring. As women controlled the sexual relation and themselves regulated prenatal conditions, the children inherited strong bodies and healthy minds. Dissensions over property did not occur, and jealousy and a desire for personal aggrandizement had not been developed.
The religious worship of primitive people consisted for the most part in invocations to the Great Mother, the fructifying principle throughout nature, from whom were derived all earthly benefits. Later the Great Mother came to be worshipped under various appellations, namely, Cybele, or Astarte, in Asia Minor, Athene in Greece, Minerva in Rome, and Isis or Neith in Egypt. Finally, as is well known, these goddesses were dethroned by an all-powerful male God, an anthropomorphic deity whose chief attribute was virile might. This change in the god-idea was coincident with, and dependent upon, a corresponding change in the relations of the sexes which took place at a certain period in human history. The god-idea is now and ever has been in strict accord with the existing conceptions concerning the relative importance of the sex-functions in human beings.
During thousands of years of life on “earth” the mother was the only recognized parent. As the giver of life and the protector of offspring she was regarded as the Creator and Preserver of the race. She represented the constructive element in human society. Later, however, when man began to contest the supremacy of woman, her hitherto unquestioned prerogatives began to be claimed by him. It was at this juncture in human affairs that the contention arose over the relative importance of the sexes in the processes of reproduction. Not only in the traditions and legends of early historic peoples but in their histories as well there is much evidence given to prove that this contention was as fierce as that which at the present time is going on between the sexes. As a result of this contention both female and male gods were worshipped. Those who recognized the mother as the giver of life continued to worship the female principle, while those who accepted the new doctrine enunciated by Apollo, namely, that the soul of the child is derived from the father and the mother is only a nurse to his heaven-born offspring, accepted the new religion. When the dominion of man over woman was complete the female principle throughout nature and in the god-idea was practically unrecognized or wholly ignored. Throughout the historic period male power has been supreme not only on the earth but also in heaven. Classical history is not wanting in references to this change in the relations of the sexes and in the god-idea which took place at a certain stage of human development.
We are informed that in Greece, probably about 1100 years B.C., Cecrops “instituted marriage and established a new religion.” The new religion instituted by Cecrops was the doctrine that the father is the only parent, that the soul of the child is derived from him, and that the mother performs simply the office of nurse to his offspring. Woman was no longer the creator or giver of life. She was matter while man, who was henceforth to be her lord and master, was spirit. Marriage as instituted by Cecrops was the natural and inevitable outcome of the new religion. It was the first attempt of the Greek tribes to legalize and control the sex-functions of women. The deeper one delves into the mysteries of the past the more apparent does it become that the sexual degradation of women is deeply rooted in religion.
For untold ages early organized society proceeded along the line of uninterrupted evolutionary progress. Although humanity was traversing an unknown path the arts of life steadily increased. The production of farinaceous food by means of which an exclusive meat diet was avoided was an achievement of the utmost importance to the race. The idea of government which at first included only the members of related groups was extended to the tribe and even to the nation.
Equality, freedom, and justice constituted the fundamental principles of early organized society. Finally, however, through causes which have already been set forth in these pages, this system gradually gave place to a regime founded on selfishness, or egoism. At this time in human affairs related groups could no longer defend themselves against the aggressions of powerful hostile foes; jealousies arose and alien tribes began to make war upon one another, the stronger appropriating the lands of the weaker and making slaves of the people. The women of the subjugated groups became the sexual slaves of the conquerors. As native women were free, foreign women who could be controlled were greatly in demand. Therefore frequent attacks were made on foreign groups for the sole purpose of “carrying off” the women.
The lands which had been held in common by all the members of the tribe were now parcelled out among individual chieftains. The prestige given to these “lords of the soil,” and the advantage gained by them through the control of the natural resources and the means of subsistence, soon gave rise to a privileged class—a class which in process of time became masters of the masses of the people. When wars for conquest and spoliation became general and when the communal system under which the principles of liberty and equality had been established gave place to a system founded on force the entire habitable globe became a battle-ground upon which each and every individual struggled fiercely with every other individual not only for place and power, but for the means of subsistence as well. When the principles of democracy established under gentile institutions gave place to a system of governmental control under which only the rights of the few were recognized, and when the unchecked disruptive forces had gained the ascendency over the constructive elements developed in human nature, the degeneracy of the race began. It is not difficult to trace the steps by which this degeneracy has been accomplished.
Although we of the present boast of our material achievements, and although we arrogate to ourselves a most remarkable degree of intelligence, enlightenment, and even culture, it is evident that we have not risen above a plane of the grossest materialism, and that in the truly human qualities, those which distinguish man from the animal, we are sadly deficient. That in these later days the moral sense has become atrophied is shown in the fact that our present tooth and claw system, under which each individual must array himself against every other individual in his struggle for existence, is regarded as a practical exemplification of the principle of the “Survival of the Fittest.” According to this interpretation, not those who are best endowed, physically, mentally, and morally are the fittest to survive, but on the contrary those who are best able to appropriate to themselves the opportunities and advantages which belong to others. In other words it is claimed that by the Survival of the Fittest is meant the survival of those who because of their material advantages are able to exploit their fellowmen. A few of the processes involved in the control of the many by the few have already been mentioned. To maintain the authority of the privileged class and to strengthen their hold on the liberties of the people, Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Ecclesiasticism were established and the Divine Right of Kings proclaimed. Intrenched behind these mighty bulwarks the position of the usurpers has been impregnable. Through enforced ignorance and superstition the “common people” came to regard their situation not only as natural and unavoidable but as representing the will of the Almighty. If they were faithful to their masters in this world, in the world to come they would be furnished with free transport to Fields Elysian. Strange to relate this belief still prevails.
At the present time the principle of human freedom is still struggling for recognition, but the great mass of human beings, although boasting of their civilization and enlightenment, continue to uphold the principle that the few should rule the many. They regard their rulers as superior beings whose authority may not be questioned. At the present time we have before us the dismal spectacle of half a dozen hereditary monarchs who with their satellites claim the right to rule over nearly the whole of Europe and a large portion of Asia. Twenty-five millions of men are now engaged in a deadly conflict to further the commercial and territorial interests of their masters.
When we compare present conditions with those which existed under early organized society at a time when every individual member of a group was equal in responsibility and power with every other member of the same group we are enabled to perceive the path which mankind has taken on its onward course.
When one reflects on the peculiar trend of human development one may feel no surprise over the fact that at this juncture in human affairs there should arise a ruler in whom the desire for world-dominion is clearly apparent. That such a potentate has already appeared is shown in the following from Emperor William II. of Germany.
“On me as Germany’s Emperor the spirit of God has descended. I am His weapon, His sword, his vicegerent. Woe unto the disobedient. Death to the unbeliever.” Here it is observed that this ruler aspires not only to earthly dominion but also to divine recognition.
To strangle the growing principles of liberty and to establish a system founded on force under which the individual was to become only an instrument to do the bidding of his lord and master was doubtless the original object of those who instigated the present war.
During the ages since the establishment of the authority of the few over the many, the latter until a comparatively recent time have offered little resistance to the tyranny exercised over them. Mentally dwarfed the proletariat have not yet reached the degree of intelligence necessary for a combination of interests. They have therefore remained like dumb driven cattle subject only to the will of their masters.
About sixty years ago through the efforts of a few leaders who had begun to realize the situation, a certain degree of unrest began to manifest itself among them, and forty years later the proletariat succeeded in establishing an international organization ostensibly for their own benefit as opposed to the interests of the ruling class. They, however, lacked solidarity. The natural tendency of their sex toward separateness or disintegration was not easily overcome. This is shown in the case of the present European conflict. When the war broke out instead of standing together they at once hastened to obey the mandates of their respective rulers, and with no higher idea than patriotism or nationality they at once began their brutal assault upon one another. It was evident from the beginning that the German socialists, they who had been the most conspicuous in the international movement, were first, last, and all the time Germans and that after all they were actuated only by one desire, namely, national aggrandizement. So lacking are men in the principle of solidarity, and so deeply rooted within them is the idea of separateness, that it is to be doubted if, without the aid of woman, they will ever be able to free themselves from the tyranny of the past.
In very recent times a foe has arisen which threatens to be a greater menace to the liberties of the masses of the people than were the foes by which they were originally enslaved. I refer to the money power, or plutocracy.
During the last few years, through the application of scientific methods to industry, and through mechanical inventions by means of which the power and efficiency of labour have been greatly increased, the accumulation of wealth has reached a point never before witnessed in the history of the world, yet strange to relate, along with this enormous increase in wealth there has been a corresponding increase in poverty and crime. This immense wealth has not been shared by those who produced it but has gone into the pockets of those who exploit labour for profits. Along with this enormous increase in wealth is observed a general lowering of standards both in private and public life. There are in this country alone ten millions of people who are deprived of the necessary food, clothing, and shelter to insure a healthful existence. In the public schools of New York City it is reported that six hundred thousand children are victims of malnutrition. In winter thousands of hungry men and women go up and down the streets of our large cities begging for an opportunity to earn a living. Our jails and prisons are filled to overflowing. Our almshouses and insane asylums are insufficient to meet the demands. Imbecility and other forms of mental degeneracy are increasing at an alarming rate. Epilepsy and other congenital diseases prevail among all classes and conditions of the people. Five-sixths of the children born are diseased at birth.
The basic principle underlying our present economic system is profits. To secure large profits labour must be cheap and plentiful, and that labour may be cheap and plentiful an enormous population must be produced. In order to produce this enormous population women must be enslaved. Although existing conditions are such as to make life a curse instead of a blessing, the cry for “babies, more babies” is heard on every hand, and this notwithstanding the fact that a large proportion of the children born die before the age of five because this environment is unfavourable to life.
The clamour for an ever increasing birth-rate never ceases. It is believed that Providence alone is responsible for human ills. Poverty and disease are accepted as natural and unavoidable evils.
The fears expressed lest the human race fail to perpetuate itself would be pathetic were the reason for these fears less obvious. When we reflect that the labour market must be constantly supplied with cheap labour, and that millions of soldiers must be produced to protect the commercial and territorial interests of the ruling class the true inwardness of this insatiate cry for constantly increasing numbers is revealed.
Ecclesiasticism, the faithful ally of Plutocracy, mindful of the fact that its strength lies in an excess of numbers, has ever jealously guarded the injunction to increase and multiply. No doctrine of the so-called Christian church has been so fondly cherished and so faithfully preserved as has that of the subjection of women. Woman’s glorification under the Christian system has been exactly commensurate with her obedience to man. No offering from her to the Almighty is so acceptable as unrestrained reproductive energy.
The report of a declining birth-rate in any country of the globe is a signal for instant alarm, but although publicists and politicians have attempted to control the birth-rate not only by threats and promises but by legal enactments regulating marriage, still it is observed that in all countries of Europe, with the exception of Ireland, Bulgaria, and Roumania, the birth-rate during the last twenty-five years has steadily declined. Although numberless causes have been suggested to account for this phenomenon, and although various remedies have been proposed to lessen this “evil,” the actual cause underlying the declining birth-rate of our time remains unrecognized. Politicians, publicists, and ecclesiastics all refuse to acknowledge the obvious fact that the increasing economic independence of women is alone responsible for this phenomenon.
Notwithstanding the fact that during the last twenty-five years marked progress is observed in the social and economic conditions of women, still the sexual position of the great mass of women has steadily declined. The fact that so far as her sex relations are concerned civilized woman occupies a lower position than that occupied by the female animal has already been noted in these pages. The traffic in women is carried on in every country on the earth.
The existing sexual conditions are the direct result of the overstimulation of the disruptive characters inherited by man from his male progenitors among the lower orders of life, characters which among animals have been checked by the constructive forces developed in the female. Our sexual conditions and our present economic and industrial situation loudly proclaim the degeneracy of our time.
When the principles of equality and liberty, which were established by early organized society, gave place to a system founded on force and the control of the many by the few, and when through the subjection of women the natural checks to the disruptive tendencies developed in the male were withdrawn, the conditions now existing in so-called civilized society were foreshadowed.
A crisis has been reached in human affairs. The old regime has run its course and is about to disappear. A new era is about to dawn on the human race. The war which is now devastating Europe, and which will doubtless spread over the entire earth, is the beginning of the end. The effects of the causes which were set up in prehistoric times have reached their full measure of development and can no more be postponed or averted than can the thunderbolt which follows an electrical explosion. A thoroughly material civilization founded on selfishness and sensuality must be destroyed root and branch before the higher planes of activity for which humanity is destined may be reached. The present conflict therefore should not be regarded simply as a horrible calamity but as a necessary preliminary to these higher conditions. If the birth of the new regime can come only through blood and tears, if only through the throes of war is deliverance possible, then it is not only unwise but useless to bewail the present crisis.
Through the cleansing process involved in the present revolution, humanity will doubtless return to the legitimate path of evolutionary development. Either liberty and justice, the cardinal principles underlying early organized society will be re-established or the processes of disruption will complete the work of degeneration now so well under way. In the transformation which is to take place it is not likely that a vestige of the institutions which have produced the present regime will remain. The conflict now going on between the higher and lower forces developed in human life represents the struggle of Omnipotent Life for higher expression in matter.
It has been shown in this work that during the development of life on the earth two forces have been steadily at work, the one a conserving, cohesive element, the other a disruptive, disintegrating energy. The one tends toward combination or solidarity, the other toward separateness or individual sufficiency. The one is constructive, the other destructive. Had the constructive processes in human society been allowed their legitimate expression the scenes now being enacted in Europe would have been impossible.
The principal force which has been employed in the development of our present civilization has been male energy. In the past this enormous force has been necessary to subdue the earth and make of it a suitable habitation for civilized humanity. In later times, however, the discovery of hitherto unknown forces in nature, the application of scientific methods to industry, and the invention of mechanical devices for the lessening of human toil have done away with the necessity for an excess of human brawn. In other words the excessive male energy which has in the past been required for the development of our present civilization has become not only useless but an actual hindrance to further progress. As this enormous power is no longer needed for useful purposes it has been turned into channels of wantonness and destruction. It has become disruptive and dangerous to a degree which may be appreciated when we reflect on the present conditions not only in Europe, but over the entire earth. Among the cleansing processes involved in the present crisis is the elimination of a considerable number of the useless elements described above—elements which being no longer necessary for the maintenance of the common good have become a menace to society.
According to our narrow human conceptions by which passing events are regarded only in relation to their present effects, the eliminating processes now going on are cruel and inhuman. Nature, however, pays little heed to human suffering, but although she ignores human misery she will nevertheless demand an exact accounting for the deeds of selfishness and ignorance which are responsible for the present disorder. She will inaugurate no scheme of salvation; no “Vicarious Atonement” will be provided to save mankind from the consequences of their own folly.
The struggle now going on in nearly every quarter of the globe marks the beginning of the eliminating process. The useless elements in human society are wearing themselves out, destroying themselves by their own rashness and folly. Impelled by a desire which they do not understand and which they are unable to resist, these victims of a decaying civilization rush madly on to destruction. Those men who voluntarily seek war represent a dissatisfied or discontented class. True to the primitive instincts of the race they crave the peculiar excitement which war brings. It is not unlikely that many of them understand instinctively that something is wrong with the present regime, but they seem not to be able to analyse the situation.
Doubtless very many of those engaged in the present European struggle are actuated by patriotism. They want to maintain the existing territorial boundaries presided over by their respective rulers. They desire also to retain the institutions, social, political, economic, and religious which have grown up under a system where the few control the many. Evidently the idea of human liberty has not yet dawned upon them. If universal freedom awaits the birth of the new regime, which is being heralded by the present upheaval, then it is plain that the men in the trenches are quite unmindful of the significance of the conflict in which they are engaged. The belligerent countries of Europe may consent to a truce and there may be a lull in the universal unrest, but there will be no genuine peace until the principle of human liberty has been established on a firm and lasting basis.
That the removal of these superfluous men from their usual vocations will not materially interfere with the useful industries of Europe is shown in the fact that although 25,000,000 of them have been called to the war their withdrawal from the industrial field has not greatly disturbed the industrial situation, and this too notwithstanding the fact that many new occupations have been created by the war. The work formerly done by these men has been largely taken up by women.
It should be borne in mind that under the new conditions which are approaching, the constructive element developed in human society is again to assume command over the destructive forces which have been in control since the beginning of the historic period. As this element has been confided to women and as it is by them transmitted to offspring, it is not difficult to forecast the position which the women of the future will occupy.
The institution of marriage as it now exists will disappear. Only the most robust among women will propagate the race. These women, as did the women under early organized society, will choose their mates. They will exercise absolute control over the sex-functions. Thus will be avoided the terrible consequences which have resulted from the present form of marriage.
The numerical preponderance of women over men under the new regime is probable. Nor will the devastating processes of war be wholly responsible for this condition. Science informs us that not only among the lower orders of life but among human beings as well, certain conditions of nutrition produce more females than males. The more nutritious and wholesome the food the greater the excess of females over males. Under higher conditions, when the laws of health and life are better understood and especially when the subject of proper nutrition has received the attention which its importance deserves, it is not unreasonable to suppose that the excess of female births over those of males will be considerable.
Although there have doubtless been long lapses of time during which the human race has seemed to go backward, it is believed that the trend of humanity is now and ever has been upward. If, as is believed, human events move in cycles, if the civilizations which have risen in the past represent a spiral, each of these civilizations reaching a higher stage of development than its predecessor, then it may be inferred that the era which is now dawning will surpass in grandeur anything which the world has ever witnessed. If, as many persons believe, a stage of development has been reached in which human beings are to be endowed with a sixth sense, if the intuitive faculties which are closely allied to the constructive element and which mark a still greater distinction between man and the animal are to come into play it may be assumed that the mental and spiritual faculties will reach a stage of development scarcely dreamed of in our own time. Humanity will have come into its own, the animal in man will have been left behind.
The co-ordination of science and history not only illumines the past and explains the present, but the inevitable results of the natural sequence of events point unerringly to the conditions which must prevail in the future.
The philosophy of history proves to the earnest seeker after truth that the door of the future is not wholly closed.
Footnotes
1 Haeckel, History of Creation, 1884, vol. i., p. 75.
2 History of Creation, vol. i., p. 331.
3 History of Creation, 1884, vol. i., p. 187.
4 Darwin, The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 207.
5 Ibid., p. 208.
6 The Descent of Man, 1877, pp. 209-211.
7 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 220.
8 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 496.
9 Ibid., p. 367.
10 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 443.
11 Ibid., p. 416.
12 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 212.
13 Ibid., p. 523.
14 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 525.
15 It should be noted, in passing, that, according to this reasoning, the female of the human species would also be likely to exercise her will power in the selection of a mate. Evidences are indeed at hand going to prove that until a comparatively recent time in the history of the human race women controlled the sexual relation. As will be shown in Part II., during the primitive ages of human existence the position of woman was much higher than was that occupied by man. During the earlier ages, and under more natural conditions, women selected their mates, and among the human species, as among the lower orders, it became necessary for the male to please the female if he would win her favours; hence, through Sexual Selection, it is believed, was acquired the greater size of man.
16 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 211.
17 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 400.
18 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 232.
19 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 222.
20 Ibid., p. 227.
21 The Descent of Man, p. 224.
22 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 617.
23 Geddes and Thomson, The Evolution of Sex, 1890, p. 24.
24 The Evolution of Sex, 1890, p. 20.
25 The Evolution of Sex, p. 50.
26 Prof. W. K. Brooks, Pop. Science Monthly, vol. xxvi., p. 327.
27 Geddes and Thomson, The Evolution of Sex, 1890, p. 42.
28 Popular Science Monthly, vol. xxvi., p. 328.
29 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 212.
30 W. K. Brooks, Popular Science Monthly, vol. xxvi., p. 326.
31 Thomas Meehan, Native Flowers and Ferns, vol. i., p. 47.
32 Native Flowers and Ferns, vol. i., p. 39.
33 The Evolution of Sex, 1890, p. 26.
34 History of Creation, 1884, vol. i., p. 178.
35 The Descent of Man, 1887, p. 243.
36 History of Greenland, vol. i., p. 152.
37 Pop. Science Monthly, vol. xix., p. 567.
38 Pop. Science Monthly, vol. xxxi., p. 796.
39 American Nervousness, p. 207.
40 Maudsley, Physiology and Pathology of the Mind, p. 360.
41 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 102.
42 The Descent of Man, 1877, p. 559.
43 Maudsley, Physiology and Pathology of the Mind, p. 60.
44 The Evolution of Marriage and the Family, p. 29.
45 Geddes and Thomson, The Evolution of Sex, p. 276.
46 Letourneau, The Evolution of Marriage and the Family, p. 22.
47 The Evolution of Marriage and the Family, p. 34.
48 The Descent of Man, p. 105.
49 The Descent of Man, p. 130.
50 The Descent of Man, p. 564.
51 The Descent of Man, p. 565.
52 Geddes and Thomson, The Evolution of Sex, p. 266.
53 Letourneau, The Evolution of Marriage and the Family, p. 27.
54 J. G. Wood, Natural History, p. 262.
55 Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage, p. 11.
56 Brehm, Bird-Life.
57 Letourneau, The Evolution of Marriage and the Family, p. 27.
58 Ibid., p. 35.
59 Darwin, The Descent of Man, p. 590.
60 Letourneau, The Evolution of Marriage and the Family, p. 32.
61 Anthropology, p. 405.
62 Life in Abyssinia, vol. ii., p. 152.
63 Tylor, Anthropology, p. 406.
64 Quoted by Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, p. 61.
65 Burckhardt’s Travels in Nubia, p. 146.
66 Seeman, A Mission to Viti, p. 191.
67 History of Sumatra, p. 230.
68 Ibid., p. 226.
69 History of Greenland, vol. i., p. 145.
70 Epistle of St. Boniface to Ethelbald.
71 History of Human Marriage, p. 62.
72 The History of Human Marriage, p. 68.
73 Anthropology, chap, xvi., p. 405.
74 The Descent of Man, p. 594.
75 Ibid., p. 591.
76 Seeman, A Mission to Viti, p. 191.
77 Quoted by Sir John Lubbock, Origin of Civilization, p. 82.
78 Seeman, A Mission to Viti, p. 191.
79 The Malay Archipelago.
80 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 52.
81 Ancient Society, pp. 62, 63.
82 Tylor, Anthropology, p. 405.
83 Ancient Society, p. 76.
84 Totemism, p. 57.
85 Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, p. 14.
86 Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, pp. 26, 27.
87 Marriage and Kinship, p. 16.
88 Sociology vol. i., p. 665.
89 Descent of Man, p. 588.
90 Sociology, vol. i., p. 665.
91 Quoted by Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 588.
92 Ancient Society, p. 71.
93 Ancient Society, p. 455.
94 The Malay Archipelago.
95 McLennan, Studies in Ancient History, p. 103.
96 C. Staniland Wake, Marriage and Kinship, p. 306.
97 Studies in Ancient History, p. 103.
98 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 79.
99 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 80.
100 Quoted by Lubbock, Origin of Civilization, p. 96.
101 Uncivilized Races of the World, vol. i., p. 78.
102 Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia, vol. i., p. 174.
103 Early History of Mankind, p. 296.
104 Marriage and Kinship, p. 262.
105 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 82.
106 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 117.
107 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 85.
108 Ibid., p. 64.
109 W. Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, p. 73.
110 Deuteronomy, chap. xx., 13, 14, 15.
111 Studies in Ancient History, p. 40.
112 Quoted by Sir J. Lubbock, Origin of Civilization, p. 108.
113 Studies in Ancient History, p. 5.
114 Marriage and Kinship, p. 207.
115 Quoted by E. J. Wood, The Wedding Day, etc., p. 60.
116 Quoted by E. J. Wood, The Wedding Day, etc., p. 60.
117 History of Greenland, vol. i., p. 146.
118 Burckhardt, Travels in Nubia, p. 34.
119 Life in Abyssinia, vol. ii., p. 49.
120 Anthropology, p. 404.
121 Lycurgus.
122 Quoted by Tylor, Early History of Mankind, p. 290.
123 Travels through Central Africa, vol. i., p. 94.
124 See McLennan’s Studies in Ancient History, p. 189.
125 Prof. W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage, p. 69.
126 Ortolan, History of Roman Law, p. 80.
127 Kinship and Marriage, p. 75.
128 Quoted by C. S. Wake from Morgan’s System, etc., p. 428.
129 Darwin, The Descent of Man, p. 598.
130 Ibid., p. 598.
131 Marsden, History of Sumatra, p. 193.
132 Professor Smith, Kinship and Marriage, p. 79.
133 Uncivilized Races, etc., p. 78.
134 Ibid., p. 79.
135 Kinship and Marriage, p. 77.
136 Origin of Civilization, p. 127.
137 C. Staniland Wake, Marriage and Kinship, p. 199.
138 Maine, Ancient Law, p. 133.
139 Ortolan, History of Roman Law, p. 107.
140 Life in Abyssinia, p. 156.
141 Kinship and Marriage, p. 105.
142 Concerning one of the encounters of this warlike people, the following has been recounted by Plutarch (Theseus):
“And it appears to have been no slight or womanish enterprise; for they could not have encamped in the town, or joined battle on the ground about the Pynx and the Museum, or fallen in so intrepid a manner upon the city of Athens, unless they had first reduced the country round about. It is difficult, indeed, to believe (though Hellanicus has related it) that they crossed the Cimmerian Bosphorus upon the ice; but that they encamped almost in the heart of the city is confirmed by the names of places, and by the tombs of those that fell.”
143 Descent of Man, p. 594.
144 Origin of Civilization, p. 99.
145 Origin of Civilization, p. 2.
146 Origin of Civilization, p. 106.
147 History of Greece, vol. iii., p. 54.
148 George Rawlinson, book v., essay ii.
149 Ibid.
150 George Rawlinson, book v., essay i.
151 History of Greece, book ii., chap. i.
152 Vol. ii., p. 348.
153 Ancient Society, p. 262.
154 Ancient Society, p. 262.
155 The Iliad, book i., Bryant’s translation.
156 The Iliad, book i., Bryant’s translation.
157 Book ii.
158 Book iv.
159 Ancient Society, p. 247.
160 George Rawlinson, book v., essay ii.
161 Thucydides, The History of Peloponnesian War.
162 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 250.
163 Thucydides, book ii., 14.
164 Theseus.
165 Book i., 13.
166 Rawlinson, book v., essay ii.
167 Rawlinson, book v., essay ii.
168 Ibid.
169 Rawlinson, book i., 1.
170 Herodotus, book i., 173.
171 Herodotus, book v., 80.
172 The Supplicants.
173 The Seven Chiefs against Thebes.
174 The Iliad, book vi., Bryant’s translation.
175 The Influence of Women on the Progress of Knowledge.
176 European Morals, vol. ii., p. 295.
177 History of Greece, vol. ii., p. 83.
178 The Iliad, book xxiv., Derby’s translation.
179 The Iliad, book xxii.
180 Ibid., book vi.
181 A similar change had taken place in the god-idea. Jove was no longer the “terrible virgin” who “breathes out on crime, misery, and death,” but, on the contrary, had come to represent a male god who had given birth to Minerva.
182 Müller, History and Antiquity of the Doric Race, book i., 9, 13.
183 Grote, History of Greece, vol. ii., p. 345.
184 Rawlinson, book v., essay i.
185 Aristotle, Politics, book iii., Jowett’s translation.
186 Rawlinson, book v., essay i.
187 Politics, book ii.
188 Curtius, History of Greece, book ii., chap. i.
189 Rawlinson, book v., essay i.
190 Müller, History and Antiquity of the Doric Race, book iii., chap. v.
191 Lycurgus.
192 Aristotle’s Politics, book ii.
193 Plutarch’s Lycurgus.
194 Book i., essay i.
195 History of Greece, book ii., chap. i.
196 Plutarch’s Lycurgus.
197 Curtius, History of Greece, book ii., chap. i.
198 Ibid.
199 Politics, vol. ii., p. 9.
200 Ibid.
201 Ibid.
202 Politics.
203 Ibid.
204 Lycurgus.
205 Lycurgus.
206 As to the exercises of the virgins, and their appearing naked, C. O. Müller, in his History and Antiquities of the Doric Race observes:
“The female sex underwent in this respect the same education as the male, though (as has been above remarked) only the virgins. They had their own gymnasia, and exercised themselves, either naked or lightly clad, in running, wrestling, or throwing the quoit or spear. It is highly improbable that youths or men were allowed to look on, since in the gymnasia of Lacedæmon no idle bystanders were permitted; every person was obliged either to join the rest, or withdraw.”—Book iv., ch. v.-viii.
207 Lycurgus.
208 History of Greece, vol. ii., p. 385.
209 History and Antiquity of the Doric Race, book iv., ch. ii., p. 1.
210 We have the authority of Tacitus respecting the customs, character, and style of dress of the ancient Germans. Among this people, as is well known, the influence of women was in the ascendency over that of men, and the state of public morals was exactly that which might be expected. Respecting the dress of women, this writer says they “do not lengthen their upper garment into sleeves but leave exposed the whole arm, and part of the breast” (Germania, chap. xvii.). It is observed, however, that chastity was the characteristic virtue of this people among both sexes. The marriage bond was strict and severe, and we are informed that among the Saxons the women themselves inflicted the penalty for adultery. From an epistle of St. Boniface, Archbishop of Mentz, to Ethelbald, King of England, we have the following: “In ancient Saxony (now Westphalia), if a virgin pollute her father’s house, or a married woman prove false to her vows, sometimes she is forced to put an end to her own life by the halter, and over the ashes of her burned body her seducer is hanged.”
211 Plutarch’s Lycurgus.
212 Plutarch’s Lycurgus.
213 Plutarch’s Lycurgus.
214 History and Antiquity of the Doric Race, book iv., chap. iv.
215 Book i.
216 History of Greece, book i., Ward’s translation.
217 History of Roman Law, p. 79.
218 Ortolan’s History of Roman Law, p. 42.
219 Numa and Lycurgus compared.
220 Quoted by Plutarch.
221 Numa and Lycurgus compared.
222 Ibid.
223 Ibid.
224 See Hargrave Jennings, Phallicism.
225 Book i.
226 Book i.
227 Plutarch, Solon.
228 Plutarch, Solon.
229 Philemon. Quoted by Athenæus, book xiii.
230 Athenæus, book xiii.,
231 Demetrius.
232 Ueberweg, History of Philosophy, vol. i., p. 95. We are informed by Ueberweg that there exists an early monograph on Arete by J. C. Eck (Leipzig, 1776).
233 Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Hipparchia.
234 Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Hipparchia, iii.
235 Mayor, Ancient Philosophy, pp. 181, 182.
236 Athenæus.
237 Xenophon, Memorabilia of Socrates.
238 Plutarch, Pericles.
239 Athenæus, book xiii.
240 Plutarch, Pericles.
241 Plutarch, Pericles.
242 Ibid.
243 Plutarch, Pericles.
244 Xenophon, Banquet.
245 Ecclesiazusæ.
246 Athenæus, xiii.
247 Ibid.
248 Athenæus, xiii.
249 Book i.
250 Athenæus, book xiii.
251 Ibid., book xiii.
252 Ibid., book xiii.
253 Athenæus, book xiii.
254 Ibid., book xiii.
255 Ancient Law, p. 149.
256 Ancient Law, p. 144.
257 Ancient Law, p. 149.
258 Ancient Law, p. 150.
259 European Morals, vol. ii., p. 358.
260 Buckle’s Essays.
261 Ancient Law, p. 154.
262 Roman History. Appian, London, 1913.
263 The History of Rome. Titus Livius, p. 172.
264 Robert Mackenzie, The Nineteenth Century, p. 9.
265 Robert Mackenzie, The Nineteenth Century, p. 77.