Philosophical Classics for English Readers
Edited by WILLIAM KNIGHT, LL.D.,
Now ready—
Descartes, by Professor Mahaffy, Dublin.—Butler, by Rev. W. Lucas Collins, M.A.—Berkeley, by Professor Campbell Fraser, Edinburgh.—Fichte, by Professor Adamson, Owens College, Manchester.—Kant, by Professor Wallace, Oxford.—Hamilton, by Professor Veitch, Glasgow.—Hegel, by Professor Edward Caird, Glasgow.—Leibniz, by J. Theodore Merz.—Vico, by Professor Flint, Edinburgh.—Hobbes, by Professor Croom Robertson, London.—Hume, by the Editor.—Spinoza, by the Very Rev. Principal Caird, Glasgow.—Bacon: Part I. The Life, by Professor Nichol, Glasgow.—Bacon: Part II. Philosophy, by the same Author.—Locke, by Professor Campbell Fraser, Edinburgh.
In preparation.
Mill, by the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour.
FOREIGN CLASSICS FOR ENGLISH READERS.
Edited by Mrs OLIPHANT.
Contents of the Series.
Dante, by the Editor.—Voltaire, by General Sir E. B. Hamley, K.C.B.—Pascal, by Principal Tulloch.—Petrarch, by Henry Reeve, C.B.—Goethe, by A. Hayward, Q.C.—Molière, by the Editor and F. Tarver, M.A.—Montaigne, by Rev. W. L. Collins, M.A.—Rabelais, by Walter Besant, M.A.—Calderon, by E. J. Hasell.—Saint Simon, by Clifton W. Collins, M.A.—Cervantes, by the Editor.—Corneille and Racine, by Henry M. Trollope.—Madame de Sévigné, by Miss Thackeray.—La Fontaine, and other French Fabulists, by Rev. W. Lucas Collins, M.A.—Schiller, by James Sime, M.A., Author of ‘Lessing, his Life and Writings.’—Tasso, by E. J. Hasell.—Rousseau, by Henry Grey Graham.—Alfred de Musset, by C. F. Oliphant.
In preparation.
Leopardi. By the Editor.
Now Complete.
ANCIENT CLASSICS FOR ENGLISH READERS.
Edited by the Rev. W. LUCAS COLLINS, M.A.
Contents of the Series.
Homer: The Iliad, by the Editor.—Homer: The Odyssey, by the Editor.—Herodotus, by George C. Swayne, M.A.—Xenophon, by Sir Alexander Grant, Bart., LL.D.—Euripides, by W. B. Donne.—Aristophanes, by the Editor.—Plato, by Clifton W. Collins, M.A.—Lucian, by the Editor.—Æschylus, by the Right Rev. the Bishop of Colombo.—Sophocles, by Clifton W. Collins, M.A.—Hesiod and Theognis, by the Rev. J. Davies, M.A.—Greek Anthology, by Lord Neaves.—Virgil, by the Editor.—Horace, by Sir Theodore Martin, K.C.B.—Juvenal, by Edward Walford, M.A.—Plautus and Terence, by the Editor.—The Commentaries of Cæsar, by Anthony Trollope.—Tacitus, by W. B. Donne.—Cicero, by the Editor.—Pliny’s Letters, by the Rev. Alfred Church, M.A., and the Rev. W. J. Brodribb, M.A.—Livy, by the Editor.—Ovid, by the Rev. A. Church, M.A.—Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertius, by the Rev. Jas. Davies, M.A.—Demosthenes, by the Rev. W. J. Brodribb, M.A.—Aristotle, by Sir Alexander Grant, Bart., LL.D.—Thucydides, by the Editor.—Lucretius, by W. H. Mallock, M.A.—Pindar, by the Rev. F. D. Morice, M.A.
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BOSCOBEL TRACTS. Relating to the Escape of Charles the Second after the Battle of Worcester, and his subsequent Adventures. Edited by J. Hughes, Esq., A.M. A New Edition, with additional Notes and Illustrations, including Communications from the Rev. R. H. Barham, Author of the ‘Ingoldsby Legends.’ 8vo, with Engravings, 16s.
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BROWN. The Forester: A Practical Treatise on the Planting, Rearing, and General Management of Forest-trees. By James Brown, LL.D., Inspector of and Reporter on Woods and Forests. Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged. Royal 8vo, with Engravings, 36s.
A limited number of Copies of the First Edition, on large hand-made paper, 12s. 6d.
BRYDALL. Art in Scotland; its Origin and Progress. By Robert Brydall, Master of St George’s Art School of Glasgow. 8vo, 12s. 6d.
—— History of the British Empire during the Reign of Queen Anne. In 3 vols. 8vo, 36s.
—— The Altus of St Columba. With a Prose Paraphrase and Notes. In paper cover, 2s. 6d.
BUTT. Miss Molly. By Beatrice May Butt. Cheap Edition, 2s.
—— Religion in Common Life. A Sermon preached in Crathie Church, October 14, 1855, before Her Majesty the Queen and Prince Albert. Published by Her Majesty’s Command. Cheap Edition, 3d.
CAMPBELL. Records of Argyll. Legends, Traditions, and Recollections of Argyllshire Highlanders, collected chiefly from the Gaelic. With Notes on the Antiquity of the Dress, Clan Colours or Tartans of the Highlanders. By Lord Archibald Campbell. Illustrated with Nineteen full-page Etchings. 4to, printed on hand-made paper, £3, 3s.
CAVE-BROWN. Lambeth Palace and its Associations. By J. Cave-Brown, M.A., Vicar of Detling, Kent, and for many years Curate of Lambeth Parish Church. With an Introduction by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Second Edition, containing an additional Chapter on Medieval Life in the Old Palaces. 8vo, with Illustrations, 21s.
CHARTERIS. Canonicity; or, Early Testimonies to the Existence and Use of the Books of the New Testament. Based on Kirchhoffer’s ‘Quellensammlung.’ Edited by A. H. Charteris, D.D., Professor of Biblical Criticism in the University of Edinburgh. 8vo, 18s.
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COLQUHOUN. The Moor and the Loch. Containing Minute Instructions in all Highland Sports, with Wanderings over Crag and Corrie, Flood and Fell. By John Colquhoun. Seventh Edition. With Illustrations. 8vo, 21s.
CRAWFORD. The Doctrine of Holy Scripture respecting the Atonement. By the late Thomas J. Crawford, D.D., Professor of Divinity in the University of Edinburgh. Fifth Edition. 8vo, 12s.
—— The Fatherhood of God, Considered in its General and Special Aspects. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, 9s.
—— The Preaching of the Cross, and other Sermons. 8vo, 7s. 6d.
—— Our Home in Aveyron. Sketches of Peasant Life in Aveyron and the Lot. By G. Christopher Davies and Mrs Broughall. Illustrated with full-page Illustrations. 8vo, 15s. Cheap Edition, 7s. 6d.
DE LA WARR. An Eastern Cruise in the ‘Edeline.’ By the Countess De la Warr. In Illustrated Cover. 2s.
DESCARTES. The Method, Meditations, and Principles of Philosophy of Descartes. Translated from the Original French and Latin. With a New Introductory Essay, Historical and Critical, on the Cartesian Philosophy. By Professor Veitch, LL.D., Glasgow University. Ninth Edition. 6s. 6d.
DICKSON. Gleanings from Japan. By W. G. Dickson, Author of ‘Japan: Being a Sketch of its History, Government, and Officers of the Empire.’ With Illustrations. 8vo, 16s.
DU CANE. The Odyssey of Homer, Books I.-XII. Translated into English Verse. By Sir Charles Du Cane, K.C.M.G. 8vo, 10s. 6d.
DUNSMORE. Manual of the Law of Scotland as to the Relations between Agricultural Tenants and their Landlords, Servants, Merchants, and Bowers. By W. Dunsmore. 8vo, 7s. 6d.
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—Essays. 1 vol.
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—— Institutes of Metaphysic. Third Edition. 10s. 6d.
—— Lectures on the Early Greek Philosophy. 3d Ed. 10s. 6d.
—— Philosophical Remains, including the Lectures on Early Greek Philosophy. 2 vols., 24s.
FLINT. The Philosophy of History in Europe. By Robert Flint, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Divinity, University of Edinburgh. 2 vols. 8vo.
[New Edition in preparation.
—— Agnosticism. Being the Croall Lectures for 1887-88.
[In the press.
FOREIGN CLASSICS FOR ENGLISH READERS. Edited by Mrs Oliphant. Price 2s. 6d. For List of Volumes published, see page 2.
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GERARD. The Land beyond the Forest. Facts, Figures, and Fancies from Transylvania. By E. Gerard. In Two Volumes. With Maps and Illustrations. 25s.
GORDON CUMMING. Two Happy Years in Ceylon. By C. F. Gordon Cumming. With 15 full-page Illustrations and a Map. 2 vols. 8vo, 30s.
—— A Lady’s Cruise in a French Man-of-War. New and Cheaper Edition. 8vo. With Illustrations and Map. 12s. 6d.
—— Fire-Fountains. The Kingdom of Hawaii: Its Volcanoes, and the History of its Missions. With Map and Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo, 25s.
—— Wanderings in China. New and Cheaper Edition. 8vo, with Illustrations, 10s.
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GRAHAM. The Life and Work of Syed Ahmed Khan, C.S.I. By Lieut.-Colonel G. F. I. Graham, B.S.C. 8vo, 14s.
GRAHAM. Manual of the Elections (Scot.) (Corrupt and Illegal Practices) Act, 1890. With Analysis, Relative Act of Sederunt, Appendix containing the Corrupt Practices Acts of 1883 and 1885, and Copious Index. By J. Edward Graham, Advocate. 8vo, 4s. 6d.
GUTHRIE-SMITH. Crispus: A Drama. By H. Guthrie-Smith. In one volume. Fcap. 4to, 5s.
HALLETT. A Thousand Miles on an Elephant in the Shan States. By Holt S. Hallett, M. Inst. C.E., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S., Hon. Member Manchester and Tyneside Geographical Societies. 8vo, with Maps and numerous Illustrations, 21s.
HAMILTON. Lectures on Metaphysics. By Sir William Hamilton, Bart., Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Edited by the Rev. H. L. Mansel, B.D., LL.D., Dean of St Paul’s; and John Veitch, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic and Rhetoric, Glasgow. Seventh Edition. 2 vols. 8vo, 24s.
—— Lectures on Logic. Edited by the Same. Third Edition. 2 vols., 24s.
—— Discussions on Philosophy and Literature, Education and University Reform. Third Edition, 8vo, 21s.
—— Memoir of Sir William Hamilton, Bart., Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. By Professor Veitch, of the University of Glasgow. 8vo, with Portrait, 18s.
HAMLEY. The Operations of War Explained and Illustrated. By General Sir Edward Bruce Hamley, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., M.P. Fifth Edition, revised throughout. 4to, with numerous Illustrations, 30s.
—— On Outposts. Second Edition. 8vo, 2s.
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The Devout Christian Instructed in the Law of Christ from the Written Word. 2 vols., 8s.—The Pious Christian Instructed in the Nature and Practice of the Principal Exercises of Piety. 1 vol. 3s.
HEDDERWICK. Lays of Middle Age; and other Poems. By James Hedderwick, LL.D. Price 3s. 6d.
HOMER. The Odyssey. Translated into English Verse in the Spenserian Stanza. By Philip Stanhope Worsley. Third Edition, 2 vols. fcap., 12s.
IDDESLEIGH. Lectures and Essays. By the late Earl of Iddesleigh, G.C.B., D.C.L., &c. 8vo, 16s.
INDEX GEOGRAPHICUS: Being a List, alphabetically arranged, of the Principal Places on the Globe, with the Countries and Subdivisions of the Countries in which they are situated, and their Latitudes and Longitudes. Imperial 8vo, pp. 676, 21s.
—— Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology. New Edition, revised and enlarged, by Sir C. A. Cameron. Eighty-sixth Thousand, with numerous Illustrations, 1s.
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LEES. A Handbook of Sheriff Court Styles. By J. M. Lees, M.A., LL.B., Advocate, Sheriff-Substitute of Lanarkshire, New Ed., 8vo, 21s.
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LOCKHART. Novels by Laurence W. M. Lockhart. See Blackwoods’ New Series of Three-and-Sixpenny Novels on page 5.
LORIMER. The Institutes of Law: A Treatise of the Principles of Jurisprudence as determined by Nature. By the late James Lorimer, Professor of Public Law and of the Law of Nature and Nations in the University of Edinburgh. New Edition, revised and much enlarged. 8vo, 18s.
—— The Institutes of the Law of Nations. A Treatise of the Jural Relation of Separate Political Communities. In 2 vols. 8vo. Volume I., price 16s. Volume II., price 20s.
MACDONALD. A Manual of the Criminal Law (Scotland) Procedure Act, 1887. By Norman Doran Macdonald. Revised by the Lord Justice-Clerk. 8vo, cloth, 10s. 6d.
MACGREGOR. Life and Opinions of Major-General Sir Charles MacGregor, K.C.B., C.S.I., C.I.E., Quartermaster-General of India. From his Letters and Diaries. Edited by Lady MacGregor. With Portraits and Maps to illustrate Campaigns in which he was engaged. 2 vols. 8vo, 35s.
M’INTOSH. The Book of the Garden. By Charles M’Intosh, formerly Curator of the Royal Gardens of his Majesty the King of the Belgians, and lately of those of his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, K.G., at Dalkeith Palace. 2 vols. royal 8vo, with 1350 Engravings. £4, 7s. 6d. Vol. I. On the Formation of Gardens and Construction of Garden Edifices. £2, 10S.
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—— Outlines of Modern Geography. 188th Thousand, revised to the present time. 18mo, pp. 118, 1s.
—— First Steps in Geography. 105th Thousand. 18mo, pp. 56. Sewed, 4d.; cloth, 6d.
MACKENZIE. Studies in Roman Law. With Comparative Views of the Laws of France, England, and Scotland. By Lord Mackenzie, one of the Judges of the Court of Session in Scotland. Sixth Edition, Edited by John Kirkpatrick. Esq., M.A., LL.B., Advocate, Professor of History in the University of Edinburgh. 8vo, 12s.
MARSHALL. French Home Life. By Frederick Marshall, Author of ‘Claire Brandon.’ Second Edition. 5s.
—— King Rene’s Daughter: A Danish Lyrical Drama. By Henrik Hertz. Second Edition, fcap., 2s. 6d.
MARTIN. On some of Shakespeare’s Female Characters. In a Series of Letters. By Helena Faucit, Lady Martin. Dedicated by permission to Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen. New Edition, enlarged. 8vo, with Portrait by Lane, 7s. 6d.
MICHEL. A Critical Inquiry into the Scottish Language. With the view of Illustrating the Rise and Progress of Civilisation in Scotland. By Francisque-Michel, F.S.A. Lond. and Scot., Correspondant de l’Institut de France, &c. 4to, printed on hand-made paper, and bound in Roxburghe, 66s.
MIDDLETON. The Story of Alastair Bhan Comyn; or, The Tragedy of Dunphail. A Tale of Tradition and Romance. By the Lady Middleton. Square 8vo 10s. Cheaper Edition, 5s.
MILNE-HOME. Mamma’s Black Nurse Stories. West Indian Folk-lore. By Mary Pamela Milne-Home. With six full-page tinted Illustrations. Small 4to, 5s.
MONTAGUE. Campaigning in South Africa. Reminiscences of an Officer in 1879. By Captain W. E. Montague, 94th Regiment, Author of ‘Claude Meadowleigh,’ &c. 8vo, 10s. 6d.
MUNRO. On Valuation of Property. By William Munro, M.A., Her Majesty’s Assessor of Railways and Canals for Scotland. Second Edition. Revised and enlarged. 8vo, 3s. 6d.
MURDOCH. Manual of the Law of Insolvency and Bankruptcy: Comprehending a Summary of the Law of Insolvency, Notour Bankruptcy, Composition-contracts, Trust-deeds, Cessios, and Sequestrations; and the Winding-up of Joint-Stock Companies in Scotland; with Annotations on the various Insolvency and Bankruptcy Statutes; and with Forms of Procedure applicable to these Subjects. By James Murdoch, Member of the Faculty of Procurators in Glasgow. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged, 8vo, £1, 10s.
NAPIER. The Construction of the Wonderful Canon of Logarithms (Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio). By John Napier of Merchiston. Translated for the first time, with Notes, and a Catalogue of Napier’s Works, by William Rae Macdonald. Small 4to, 15s. A few large paper copies may be had, printed on Whatman paper, price 30s.
—— Introductory Text-Book of Zoology, for the Use of Junior Classes. Sixth Edition, revised and enlarged, with 166 Engravings, 3s.
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—— On the “Tabulate Corals” of the Palæozoic Period, with Critical Descriptions of Illustrative Species. Illustrated with 15 Lithograph Plates and numerous Engravings. Super-royal 8vo, 21s.
—— Synopsis of the Classification of the Animal Kingdom. 8vo, with 106 Illustrations, 6s.
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PAGE. Introductory Text-Book of Geology. By David Page, LL.D., Professor of Geology in the Durham University of Physical Science Newcastle, and Professor Lapworth of Mason Science College, Birmingham. With Engravings and Glossarial Index. Twelfth Edition. Revised and Enlarged. 3s. 6d.
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—— Poems by a Painter. Fcap., cloth, 5s.
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SETH. Freedom as Ethical Postulate. By James Seth, M.A., George Munro Professor of Philosophy, Dalhousie College, Halifax, Canada. 8vo, 1s.
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Notes
1 Werke, ed. Hartenstein (1867), iii. 532.
2 Cf. Kant, Werke, iv. 237.
3 Sermons, v., towards the end.
4 Essay on the Passions and Affections, p. iv.
5 W. H. Rolph, Biologische Probleme, zugleich als Versuch zur Entwicklung einer rationellen Ethik, 2d ed., p. 21.
6 Not to mention Kant, the consistent opponent of every eudæmonistic principle, or the doctrines of a political idealist such as Mazzini (see Life and Writings (1867), iv. 223), reference may be made to a writer like W. K. Clifford, who looks from the scientific point of view, and yet holds that “happiness is not to be desired for its own sake.”—Lectures and Essays (1879), ii. 121, 173.
7 “Auch dieser Begriff [Glückseligkeit] ist an sich ein bloss formaler, der jede beliebige materiale Bestimmung zulässt.”—Zeller, Ueber Begriff und Begründung der sittlichen Gesetze (1883), p. 23.
8 Methods of Ethics, book i. chap. i. § 5, 3d ed., p. 11.
9 “The rule, ‘Let every one care for me,’ is quite as simple, and, in a logical point of view, defines conduct as consistently and reasonably as the rule, ‘Love your neighbour as yourself.’”—Leslie Stephen, Science of Ethics (1882), p. 73.
10 Methods of Ethics, I. i. 3, p. 6.
11 The difference between Aristotle and Kant in ethics is sometimes expressed (see Trendelenburg, Hist. Beiträge zur Phil., iii. 171 ff.) as if it consisted in the fact that the former investigated human nature in order to find its τέλος (~telos~), whereas the latter sought the standard of action in a transcendental ground. There is reason for this distinction in Kant’s manner of statement. But both may be regarded as investigating human nature. Their difference rather consists in the different position and function assigned to reason in man. It is because Kant is for the moment looking upon reason as something distinct from human nature that he says that “the ground of obligation is to be sought, not in the nature of man or in the circumstances in the world in which he is placed, but à priori simply in the notions of pure reason” (Werke, iv. 237). His “metaphysical” view of ethics, however, follows from the rational constitution of the human subject and his experience, and does not depend on any source that really “transcends” the reason of man.
12 Opinion is also divided according to the place assigned to reason in the world,—this principle of division corresponding almost exactly with the former.
13 Thus it is the object of Helvétius’s first discours “De l’esprit” to prove that physical sensibility and memory are the only productive causes of our ideas.
14 Comte, by connecting ethics with biology; Darwin and Spencer, by the doctrine of evolution.
15 Meaning by “greatest pleasure,” greatest balance of pleasure over pain, and thus inclusive of the meaning “least pain.” It is the expression in terms of feeling of the statement sometimes preferred, that “action follows the line of least resistance”—a statement to which no exception can be taken, nor any importance allowed, till it be translated into definite psychological language.
16 “Ainsi lorsque nous disons que l’intérêt est l’unique mobile des actions humaines, nous voulons indiquer par là que chaque homme travaille à sa manière à son propre bonheur, qu’il place dans quelqu’objet soit visible, soit caché, soit réel, soit imaginaire, et que tout le système de sa conduite tend à l’obtenir.”—Système de la nature (1781), i. 268.
17 “On the occasion of every act he exercises, every human being is led to pursue that line of conduct which, according to his view of the case taken by him at the moment, will be in the highest degree contributory to his own greatest happiness.”—Constitutional Code, book i. § 2; Works, ix. 5. The continued existence of the species is, Bentham thinks, a conclusive proof of this proposition.
18 Thus, according to James Mill, “the terms ‘idea of pleasure’ and ‘desire’ are but two names; the thing named, the state of consciousness is one and the same. The word Desire is commonly used to mark the idea of a pleasurable sensation when the future is associated with it.”—Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind, J. S. Mill’s edit., ii. 192; cf. Fragment on Mackintosh (1835), p. 389 f. To the same effect J. S. Mill says: “Desiring a thing and finding it pleasant, aversion to it and thinking of it as painful, are phenomena entirely inseparable, or rather two parts of the same phenomenon; in strictness of language, two different modes of naming the same psychological fact.”—Utilitarianism, 7th ed., p. 58.
19 “Will is the child of desire, and passes out of the dominion of its parent only to come under that of habit.”—Utilitarianism, p. 60.
20 Thus Jonathan Edwards says: “When I say that the Will is as the greatest apparent good, or (as I have explained it) that volition has always for its object the thing which appears most agreeable, it must be carefully observed, to avoid confusion and needless objection, that I speak of the direct and immediate object of the act of volition, and not some object to which the act of will has only an indirect and remote respect.”—On the Freedom of the Will, part i. § 2; Works, i. 133. The matter is put still more clearly by the late Alfred Barratt: “Action does not always follow knowledge. Of course not: but the doctrine [Hedonism] does not require that it should; for it says, not that we follow what is our greatest possible pleasure, or what we know or ‘think’ to be so, but what at the moment of action is most desired.”—Mind, vol. ii. 173; cf. Physical Ethics, p. 52 ff. So Mr Stephen, Science of Ethics, p. 47: “It is more accurate to say that my conduct is determined by the pleasantest judgment, than to say that it is determined by my judgment of what is pleasantest.” The negative side of the same view was expressed by Locke in his doctrine that action is moved by the most pressing uneasiness (Essay, II. xxi. 29, 31), and distinguished by him from the former view (b), that the “greater visible good” is the motive (II. xxi. 35, 44).
21 Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, 3d ed., p. 40.
22 Bentham, Principles of Morals and Legislation, chap. i., Works, i. 1. With this statement may be compared the assertion of Helvétius: “Il semble que, dans l’univers moral comme dans l’univers physique, Dieu n’est mis qu’un seul principe dans tous ce qui a été.... Il semble qu’il ait dit pareillement à l’homme:... Je te mets sous la garde du plaisir et de la douleur: l’un et l’autre veilleront à tes pensées, à tes actions; engendreront tes passions, exciteront tes aversions, tes amitiés, tes tendresses, tes fureurs; allumeront tes désirs, tes craintes, tes espérances, te dévoileront des vérités; te plongeront dans des erreurs; et après t’avoir fait enfanter mille systèmes absurdes et différens de morale et de législation, te decouvriront un jour les principes simples, au développement desquels est attaché l’ordre et le bonheur du monde moral.”—De l’esprit, III. ix, Œuvres (ed. of 1818), i. 293.
23 De l’homme, concl. gén., Œuvres, ii. 608.
24 Cf. Système de la nature, i. 120: “La politique devrait être l’art de régler les passions des hommes et de les diriger vers le bien de la société.”
25 Bentham, op. cit., chap. xix. (xvii. in the reprint of 1879), § 20; Works, i. 148.
26 Cf. Bentham, Works, ix. 5.
27 Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, I. iv. 1, 3d ed., p. 41; cf. Green, Prolegomena to Ethics, p. 9: “To a being who is simply a result of natural forces, an injunction to conform to their laws is unmeaning.”
28 Cf. The Emotions and the Will, 3d ed., p. 293 ff.
29 Cf. Sully, Outlines of Psychology, p. 577.
30 Cf. J. Grote, ‘Utilitarian Philosophy,’ p. 20, note: “One kind of pleasure may be, systematically, to be preferred to another, but it must be because the pleasures classified under it generally exceed those under the other in intensity, or some other of the elements of value.”
31 Professor Bain distinguishes with greater clearness than his predecessors, first, legal duty, or that the contravention of which is punished by the ministers of the state; secondly, moral duty, enforced by the unofficial punishment of social disapprobation; and thirdly, the conduct which society leaves to individual choice, without censuring either its commission or omission. Moral duty is further distinguished by him from the meritorious, or conduct which society encourages by approval, without censuring its omission.
32 Mr Gurney’s attempt (Mind, vii. 349 ff.) to rationalise the utilitarian “ought” depends upon the assumption that the individual feels a desire (not only for his own, but) for other people’s pleasure (p. 352). From the point of view of the psychological hedonist, however, this desire is only secondary and derivative, depending upon the fact that it increases the pleasure of the subject. “Your pleasure,” the psychological hedonist would say, “is desired by me quâ my pleasure.” If, on the other hand, it is admitted that the individual has other ends than his own pleasure, there seems no ground in psychological fact for limiting these ends to something aimed at because pleasurable to others. From this point of view the first step in the establishment of an ethical theory would be an attempt to find a principle of unity in the various ends actually aimed at by individuals, and recognised by them as “good.” This is made by Professor Sidgwick, who, while allowing that “it is possible to hold that the objective relations of conscious minds which we call cognition of Truth, contemplation of Beauty, Freedom of action, &c., are good, independently of the pleasures that we derive from them,” maintains that “we can only justify to ourselves the importance that we attach to any of these objects by considering its conduciveness, in one way or another, to the happiness of conscious (or sentient) beings” (Methods of Ethics, iii. xiv. 3, 3d ed., p. 398). But Mr Sidgwick’s Utilitarianism depends on a Rational view of human nature which is beyond the scope of the present discussion. See below, p. 74.
33 Principles of Morals and Legislation, chap. iii. § 1; Works, i. 14.
34 As Paley put it, with characteristic plainness of statement, “We can be obliged to nothing, but what we ourselves are to gain or lose something by.”—Moral and Political Philosophy, book ii. chap. ii.
35 Cf. Bain, Emotions, p. 264: “I consider that the proper meaning or import of these terms [Morality, Duty, Obligation, or Right] refers to the class of actions enforced by the sanction of punishment.”
36 Bentham, Principles of Morals and Legislation, chap. xix. (xvii.), § 9 ff; Works, i. 144 ff.
37 Ibid., § 20, p. 148.
38 Fragment on Government, chap. v.; Works, i. 293. Cf. Principles of Morals and Legislation, ch. iii. § 5, p. 14, where the Moral Sanction is said to proceed from “such chance persons in the community as the person in question may happen in the course of his life to have concerns with.”
39 Bentham, Fragment on Government, loc. cit.
40 Works, xi. 95; cf. J. Grote, Utilitarian Philosophy, p. 137.
41 Principles of Morals and Legislation, ch. xix. (xvii.), § 7 ff.
42 Loc. cit., § 8, p. 144.
43 “Ought” is inappropriate here according to Bentham’s principles, since there is no question of punishment inflicted by a political or social or religious superior.
44 Loc. cit., § 20, p. 148.
45 Moral and Political Philosophy, book ii. chap. iii.
46 This is clearly recognised by Bentham: “The actual end [as distinguished from the right and proper end] of government is,” he says, “in every political community, the greatest happiness of those, whether one or many, by whom the powers of government are exercised.”—Constitutional Code, book i., Introd., § 2; Works, ix. 5.
47 The Emotions and the Will, p. 264.
48 Cf. Bain, The Emotions and the Will, p. 287. Professor Bain says (Emotions, p. 276 n.), “we ought to have a written code of public morality, or of the duties imposed by society, over and above what parliament imposes, and this should not be a loosely written moral treatise, but a strict enumeration of what society requires under pain of punishment by excommunication or otherwise,—the genuine offences that are not passed over.” This would certainly be very desirable, were it not from the nature of the case impracticable. Popular judgment as to a man’s conduct,—what society imposes,—is one of the things most difficult to predict: it is under the influence of most heterogeneous causes, personal, industrial, religious, political, &c. I do not think, for instance, that any one could safely undertake to describe exactly the kind of actions which will infallibly call forth the censure of British public opinion, or that of the smaller and intersecting groups into which society is divided.
49 Emotions, p. 288.
50 I have spoken, for simplicity’s sake, as if there were two kinds of pleasure easily distinguishable. But the question is really much more complicated.
51 Utilitarianism, p. 57.
52 Ibid., p. 53.
53 Utilitarianism, p. 46. But no statement of the sociality of man could be more explicit or satisfactory than that of Butler, Sermons, i.
54 Utilitarianism, p. 48.
55 Fragments on Ethical Subjects (1876), p. 6.
56 The Emotions and the Will, 3d ed., p. 295.
57 Ibid., p. 111; cf. Mind, viii. 55: “The important exceptions to the law of Pleasure and Pain are (1) Fixed Ideas, (2) Habits, and (3) Disinterested action for others.”
58 Emotions, p. 438.
59 Emotions, p. 121.
60 Ibid., p. 271 ff.
61 Ibid., p. 273.
62 Ibid., p. 264.
63 Fragments on Ethical Subjects, p. 8 f.
64 Ancient Law, 8th ed., p. 93.
65 Principles of Morals and Legislation, chap. ii. § 14 n.
66 The ambiguity of the phrase is explained in an interesting way in Sir H. Maine’s account of the change from its juridical to a political or ethical meaning. In some writers it seems to have a third and still different signification. We must thus distinguish (1) the juridical meaning, originating in the Roman “law common to all nations,” which had arisen through the “constant levelling or removal of irregularities which went on wherever the prætorian system was applied to the cases of foreign litigants,” modified subsequently by the Greek conception of ἰσότης (~isotês~). (2) The political meaning, that all men ought to be equal, arose from the preceding. But its notion of “ought” seems often to depend on an idea of the constitution of nature according to which all men are actually born equal—not only in rights, soon to be obscured by human convention, but also in power or faculty, afterwards unequally developed by education. Hence (3) the natural meaning. The doctrines of evolution and heredity have made this view seem as strange to us now as it would have done to the Romans from whom it was illegitimately derived. Yet at one time it seems to have been assumed, almost without question, that there is but little difference in the natural endowments of different men. This assumption lay at the basis of Hobbes’s political theory—Leviathan, I. xiii. p. 60,—was stated in a more guarded form by Locke—On Education, § 1; Works, ed. of 1824, i. 6,—and adopted almost without qualification by Helvétius, who, carrying out Locke’s metaphor of the soul as, at birth, a “tabula rasa,” afterwards written over with the pen of experience, says: “Quintilien, Locke, et moi, disons: L’inégalité des esprits est l’effet d’une cause connue, et cette cause est la différence de l’éducation”—the causes of the existing inequality being afterwards stated as twofold: first, the difference of environment, which may be called chance; and secondly, the difference of strength in the desire for instruction.—De l’homme, II. i., III. i., IV. xxii.; Œuvres, ii. 71, 91, 280. (Quintilian’s statement, however, is even more guarded than Locke’s. Cf. Opera, ed. Spalding, i. 47.)
67 That is, when (1) the legislature accurately expresses the average feeling of all the members of the State; or (2) the legislators happen to be fully intelligent people in whom “selfishness” has taken the shape of benevolence.
68 Although, as is well known, propinquity was held by Bentham to be an independent ground of distinction and preference.—Principles of Morals and Legislation, chap. iv, sect. 2.
69 “The very idea of an interested pursuit necessarily presupposes particular passions or appetites; since the very idea of interest or happiness consists in this, that an appetite or affection enjoys its object.”—Sermons, Pref.; cf. Serm. xi.
70 Phil., 31 ff.; cf. Gorg., 495 f.; Rep., ix. 585.
71 Cf. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, I. iv. 2, 3d ed., p. 44.
72 Herbart, Psychologie als Wissenschaft, § 104, Werke, vi. 74; cf. Waitz, Lehrbuch der Psychologie als Naturwissenschaft, § 40, p. 418: “It is not difficult to recognise the basis of desire in the presentations brought forward by reproduction, and, at the same time, held back by an inhibition.”
73 With Herbart’s doctrine may be compared Mr H. Spencer’s view of the genesis of feeling and voluntary action, Principles of Psychology, 2d ed., part iv. chaps. viii. and ix.
74 Cf. note to James Mill’s Analysis, ii. 383 f.
75 The Senses and the Intellect, 3d ed., p. 344; cf. Mental and Moral Science, pp. 90, 91.
76 “If there be any principles or affections in the mind of man distinct from self-love, that the things those principles tend towards, or the objects of those affections are, each of them in themselves eligible to be pursued upon its own account, and to be rested in as an end, is implied in the very idea of such principle or affection.”—Butler, Sermons, Pref.
77 Inquiry concerning Virtue, II. i. 3.
78 Ibid., II. ii., conclusion.
79 System of Moral Philosophy, i. 99.
80 Sermons, xi.
81 Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre (1803), p. 54.
82 Inquiry, II. i. 3.
83 Inquiry, II. i. 3; II. ii. 2.
84 Ibid., II. i. 1.
85 “What is Reason but that sagacity we have in prosecuting any end? The ultimate end proposed by the common moralists is the happiness of the agent himself, and this certainly he is determined to pursue from instinct. Now may not another instinct towards the public, or the good of others, be as proper a principle of virtue as the instinct toward private happiness?”—Hutcheson, Inquiry, p. 115.
86 Cf. System, i. 97; Inquiry, p. 124.
87 Inquiry, p. 124.
88 Ibid., p. 106.
89 Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions and Affections, with Illustrations on the Moral Sense (1728), p. xix.
90 Cf. Inquiry, p. 140 ff.
91 Introduction to Moral Philosophy, translated from the Latin, 2d ed., 1753, p. 43; cf. Essay on the Passions and Affections, &c., p. 128.
92 System, i. 58.
93 System, i. 53.
94 Ibid., i. 59.
95 System, i. 59.
96 System, i. 97.
97 System, i. 93.
98 System, i. 68 ff. With this may be compared the elaborate classification of motives, according to their moral quality, in Dr Martineau’s ‘Types of Ethical Theory,’ ii. 176 ff.
99 System, i. 50.
100 Sermons, Pref.
101 Although it is not “at all doubtful in the general, what course of action this faculty or practical discerning power within us, approves.... It is... justice, veracity, and regard to the common good.”—Dissertation on Virtue.
102 Sermons, ii. iii.
103 Sermons, iii. v.
104 Ibid., xi.
105 Cf. Jodl, Geschichte der Ethik, i. 192.
106 The social basis of ethics is emphasised by Professor Bain in his Practical Essays (1884), p. 155: “‘How is society to be held together?’ is the first consideration; and the sociologist—as constitution-builder, administrator, judge—is the person to grapple with the problem. It is with him that law, obligation, right, command, obedience, sanction, have their origin and their explanation. Ethics is an important supplement to social or political law. But it is still a department of law. In any other view it is a maze, a mystery, a hopeless embroilment.”
107 Without denying that it is possible to apply the theory of evolution to mind, Professor Bain holds that, as a fact, moral sentiment has not become organic and hereditary—“that there are no moral instincts properly so called.”—The Emotions and the Will, 3d ed., p. 56.
108 First Principles, 4th ed., p. 380.
109 Science of Ethics, p. vi.
110 It would seem that the transmission of mental qualities only takes place in the form of modified physical structure (cf. G. H. Lewes, Problems of Life and Mind, 1st series, i. 164). But, if we regard it as established that every mental change has a structural modification corresponding to it, the possibility of mental evolution and inheritance presents no new difficulty.
111 Ælian, V. H., xiii. 30.
112 If conscience has no other function than that assigned to it by Clifford, Lectures and Essay, ii. 169, “the preservation of society in the struggle for existence,” then it can never reach universal benevolence or prescribe “duties towards all mankind.”
113 A difficulty of another kind is suggested by Professor Bain, who holds that the “pleasure of malevolence” is not only a real element in the human constitution, but greater than would be naturally called forth by the conditions and course of development. “It is remarked by Mr Spencer,” he says, “that it was necessary for the progress of the race that destructive activity should not be painful, but on the whole pleasurable. In point of fact, however, the pleasure of destruction has gone much beyond what these words express, and much beyond what is advantageous to the collective interest of animals and of human beings alike. The positive delight in suffering has been at all stages too great.”—The Emotions and the Will, p. 66. So far from adopting this argument, however, I must confess myself still amongst the unconvinced regarding the “pleasure of malevolence.”
114 This subject is carefully discussed in Mr Stephen’s ‘Science of Ethics.’
115 Cf. Miss Cobbe, in ‘Darwinism in Morals, and other Essays’ (1872), p. 5.
116 Methods of Ethics, III. i. 4, 3d ed., p. 211.
117 Cf. Professor F. Pollock, “Evolution and Ethics”—Mind, i. pp. 335 ff. Apart from the bearing of a utilitarian test on inherited instincts, to which Mr Pollock refers, I have tried to show what meaning they will have for the evolutionist who judges them solely from the point of view of his theory.
118 Traité des sensations, Œuvres (1798), vol. iii.
119 It is to a condition of this sort that a phrase such as Clifford’s “tribal self” (Lectures and Essays, ii. 111) would apply.
120 Cf. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i. 479.
121 Cf. Barratt, “Ethics and Politics”—Mind, ii. 453 ff.
122 Cf. Stephen, Science of Ethics, p. 113.
123 Wealth of Nations, book iv. ch. ii.
124 Data of Ethics, chap. xiii.
125 Stephen, Science of Ethics, p. 155; cf. Spencer, Data of Ethics, p. 120.
126 Stephen, Science of Ethics, p. 226.
127 Science of Ethics, p. 263.
128 Cf. Ibid., p. 442.
129 Data of Ethics, p. 253
130 Science of Ethics, p. 349.
131 F. Y. Edgeworth, Old and New Methods of Ethics (1877), p. 11.
132 Cf. A. Barratt, Mind, iii. 280.
133 Data of Ethics, chap. xii.
134 Physical Ethics, p. 12.
135 Ibid., p. 17.
136 In the word “due” an idea of worth is involved. Probably Mr Barratt meant by “due performance” one which made the faculty correspond with its medium (cf. Physical Ethics, p. 9); but this introduces a new standard of value.
137 The transition involved in passing from “pleasure” to “performance of function” or “life” as the end of conduct, may be illustrated by the following passage from Mr Pater’s ‘Marius the Epicurean’ (1885, i. 163): “Really, to the phase of reflection through which Marius was then passing, the charge of ‘hedonism,’ whatever its real weight might be, was not properly applicable at all. Not pleasure, but fulness of life, and ‘insight’ as conducting to that fulness—energy, choice and variety of experience—including noble pain and sorrow even—loves such as those in the exquisite old story of Apuleius; such sincere and strenuous forms of the moral life, as Seneca and Epictetus—whatever form of human life, in short, was impassioned and ideal: it was from this that the ‘new Cyrenaicism’ of Marius took its criterion of values. It was a theory, indeed, which might rightly be regarded as in a great degree coincident with the main principle of the Stoics themselves, and a version of the precept ‘Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with all thy might’—a doctrine so widely applicable among the nobler spirits of that time; and as with that its mistaken tendency would lie in the direction of a kind of idolatry of mere life, or natural gift or strength—l’idolâtrie des talents.”
138 “The note in question greatly startled me by implicitly classing me with anti-utilitarians. I have never regarded myself as an anti-utilitarian.”—Mr Spencer’s letter to J. S. Mill, printed in Bain’s Mental and Moral Science, p. 721.
139 Data of Ethics, p. 173; cf. p. 30.
140 Ibid., pp. 154, 155.
141 Ibid., p. 171.
142 Letter to J. S. Mill, in Data of Ethics, p. 57.
143 Letter to J. S. Mill, in Bain’s Mental and Moral Science, p. 721.
144 J. T. Punnet, “Ethical Alternatives”—Mind, x. 95.
145 Science of Ethics, p. 363.
146 Natural Law: An Essay in Ethics (1877), p. 101.
147 Utilitarianism, p. 34.
148 Utilitarianism, p. 26.
149 Ibid., p. 27 n.
150 Stephen, Science of Ethics, p. 385.
151 Ibid., p. 361.
152 Mill, Utilitarianism, p. 14.
153 Simcox, Natural Law, p. 101.
154 Data of Ethics, p. 171.
155 Data of Ethics, p. 162.
156 Ibid., p. 57.
157 Cf. A. Barratt, in Mind, ii. 172 n.
158 As illustrating this I may refer to G. v. Giźycki, Philosophische Consequenzen der Lamarck-Darwin’schen Entwicklungstheorie (1876), p. 27: “Wir haben oben die Erhaltung und Förderung des Lebens des Individuums und der Gattung als das eine Ziel der Einrichtung des geistigen Organismus gekennzeichnet.” P. 58: “Auf das Streben nach in sich befriedigtem psychischen Leben [that is to say, pleasure] sind alle animalen Organismen angelegt.” In his popular essay, ‘Grundzüge der Moral’ (1883), Dr Giźycki’s principle and method are utilitarian. With the above may be compared Guyau, Esquisse d’une morale sans obligation ni sanction (1885), p. 15: “L’action sort naturellement du fonctionnement de la vie, en grande partie inconscient; elle entre aussitôt dans le domaine de la conscience et de la jouissance, mais elle n’en vient pas. La tendance de l’être à persévérer dans l’être est le fond de tout désir sans constituer elle-même un désir déterminé.”
159 Spencer, Data of Ethics, p. 82 f; Principles of Psychology, § 125, 3d ed., i. 280; Stephen, Science of Ethics, p. 83. The simplicity of this argument will be appreciated if we consider the difficulty Comte experienced in trying to reach a similar conclusion. See Positive Philosophy, Miss Martineau’s translation, ii. 87 ff.
160 Cf. Phänomenologie des sittlichen Bewusstseins, pp. 701, 708.
161 Cf. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, 3d ed., p. 127.
162 Data of Ethics, p. 26.
163 Cf. Vaihinger, Hartmann, Dühring und Lange (1876), p. 124.
164 Cf. Sully, Pessimism, p. 216.
165 See above, p. 167 f.
166 Cf. Fiske, Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy (1874), ii. 332 f.
167 “Imitation,” according to Kant (Grundlegung zur Met. d. Sitten, Werke, iv. 257), “has no place at all in morals;” and this is true if the naked law of duty—or respect for it—is the sole ethical motive. But if morality consists in the attainment of an ideal which is being gradually realised in man, moral value will not be denied to the motive which leads the individual to fashion his own nature after that in which morality has attained more complete realisation.
168 See the concluding pages of this chapter.
[169] Philosophie des Unbewussten, 6th ed., p. 660 ff.
170 Cf. Sully, Pessimism, p. 226 n.
171 Cf. J. Ward, Journal of Speculative Philosophy, xvi. (1882), 377.
172 Phil. d. Unbewussten, p. 747.
173 Bentham, Theory of Legislation (by Dumont, 1876), p. 103 ff. Wundt, Physiologische Psychologie, 2d ed., p. 469, finds in this an instance of Weber’s law. Thus, the man with £100 receives the same pleasure on receipt of £1, as the possessor of £1000 does on receiving £10. As Wundt remarks, however, this is only true within certain limits. Sixpence may give more pleasure to a beggar who is never far from the starvation-point, than the clearing of a million to Baron Rothschild. Further than this, the law only states an “abstract” truth. For the susceptibility to pleasure is not only very different in different individuals, but this difference depends on many other circumstances than the amount of wealth already in possession,—such as original emotional susceptibility, &c.
174 Cf. Comte, Positive Philosophy, ii. 144.
175 Phän. d. s. B., p. 640.
176 Lectures on Metaphysics, ii. 432.
177 L. Dumont, Théorie scientifique de la sensibilité, 2d ed., p. 83; cf. F. Bouillier, Du plaisir et de la douleur, 2d ed., p. 29 ff. Reference may also be made to the leading psychological text-book. “Das Gefühl,” says Volkmann (Lehrbuch der Psychologie, § 127, 3d ed., ii. 300), “ist nämlich keine eigene Vorstellung neben den anderen (es gibt keine eigenen ‘Gefühlsvorstellungen’), ja überhaupt gar keine Vorstellung.” Professor Bain’s view is different, but does not altogether prevent him from acknowledging the subjectivity of feeling: “Without intellectual images clearly recollected, we do not remember feelings; the reproduction of feeling is an intellectual fact, and the groundwork is intellectual imagery.”—Emotions, p. 63.
178 Cf. Green, Introduction to Hume, ii. § 7.
179 Cf. Spinoza, Ethica, iii. 11, schol.; Hobbes, Leviathan, i. 6, p. 25; Bain, The Senses and the Intellect, p. 283. Professor Bain’s statement is carefully guarded: “A very considerable number of the facts may be brought under the following principle—namely, that states of pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain with an abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions.”
180 As Mr Spencer allows, Psychology, § 126, i. 284: “In the case of mankind, then, there has arisen, and must long continue, a deep and involved derangement of the natural connections between pleasures and beneficial actions, and between pains and detrimental actions.”
181 The Senses and the Intellect, p. 286. The Law of Conservation is incomplete, Mr Bain holds, and must be supplemented by the Law of Stimulation (p. 294).
182 Spencer, Psychology, § 123, i. 277: “Generally speaking, then, pleasures are the concomitants of medium activities, where the activities are of kinds liable to be in excess or in defect; and where they are of kinds not liable to be excessive, pleasure increases as the activity increases, except where the activity is either constant or involuntary.”
183 Hamilton, Lectures, ii. 440: “Pleasure is the reflex of the spontaneous and unimpeded exertion of a power of whose energies we are conscious. Pain, a reflex of the overstrained or repressed exertion of such a power.” Cf. Aristotle, Eth. N., vii. 12, p. 1153 a 14, x. 4, p. 1174 b 20.
184 Théorie scientifique, p. 78.
185 Cf. Wundt, Physiol. Psych., p. 470; Fechner, Vorschule der Aesthetik, ii. 243 f.
186 Exam. of Hamilton’s Philosophy, 5th ed., p. 559.
187 See Fechner, loc. cit.
188 Social Statics, p. 79.
189 Data of Ethics, p. 186.
190 Mind, vi. 85.
191 Taking evolution in its widest sense, since the theory of evolution does not “imply some intrinsic proclivity in every species towards a higher form.”—Spencer, First Principles, App. p. 574; Principles of Sociology, i. 106.
192 Spencer, Principles of Biology, i. 73.
193 Ibid., i. 82.
194 Reden (1876), ii. 332.
195 Social Statics (1850), p. 77.
196 Data of Ethics, p. 25.
197 Data of Ethics, p. 16.
198 Ibid., p. 71.
199 See above, chap. vi. p. 137 ff.
200 Zeller, Phil. d. Griechen, 3d ed., III. i. 454, 470.
201 Lassalle’s tirade against the “verdammte Bedürfnisslosigkeit” of the German workman is a case in point.
202 Lange, Gesch. d. Materialismus, 2d ed., ii. 458.
203 Spencer, First Principles, p. 490.
204 An aspect of Mr Spencer’s ethical theory which will be considered in the sequel: p. 228 ff.
205 Cf. A. Barratt, Physical Ethics, p. 294, where morality is placed in “reasonable obedience to the physical laws of nature.”
206 Data of Ethics, p. 148.
207 Social Statics, quoted in Data of Ethics, p. 271.
208 Data of Ethics, p. 279.
209 Ibid., p. 275.
210 Data of Ethics, p. 7.
211 Ibid., p. 281.
212 These are examined by Mr F. W. Maitland, in an incisive criticism of “Mr H. Spencer’s Theory of Society,” Mind, viii. 354 ff., 506 ff.
213 Data of Ethics, p. 282.
214 Ibid., p. 283.
215 First Principles, p. 517.
216 Spencer, Psychology, § 212, i. 478.
217 First Principles, p. 489.
218 “A complete equilibrium of the aggregate is without life, and a moving equilibrium of the aggregate is living.”—Principles of Sociology, i. 106.
219 Data of Ethics, p. 254.
220 Spencer, Data of Ethics, p. 26.
221 Darwin, Origin of Species (1859), pp. 43, 131, 466.
222 Spencer, Biology, i. 257.
223 First Principles, p. 404 f.
224 Cf. Clifford, Lectures and Essays, i. 101.
225 Descent of Man, 2d ed., p. 137, cf. pp. 198, 618; cf. A. R. Wallace, Contributions (1870), p. 330.
226 Vierteljahrsschrift f. wiss. Phil., i. (1877), 543 ff.
227 Rolph, Biol. Probl., p. 33.
228 Darwin, Origin of Species, p. 336.
229 Thus Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 51, speaking of the “advantage to man” it must have been “to become a biped,” says: “The hands and arms could hardly have become perfect enough to have manufactured weapons, or to have hurled stones and spears with a true aim, as long as they were habitually used for locomotion and for supporting the whole weight of the body; or, as before remarked, as long as they were especially fitted for climbing trees.” The hands had to lose their dexterity for the latter purposes before they could acquire the more delicate adjustments necessary for skill in the former. The transition was of course a gradual one; but the initial variations required would seem to have been at first unfavourable to man’s chances in the struggle for existence, though it was through them that he rose to his place at the summit of the organic scale.
230 Spencer, Data of Ethics, p. 280.
231 Spencer, Biology, i. 149.
232 ibid., i. 144.
233 Spencer, Data of Ethics, p. 71: “Briefly, then, if the conduct is the best possible on every occasion, it follows that as the occasions are endlessly varied the acts will be endlessly varied to suit—the heterogeneity in the combination of motions will be extreme.”
234 Spencer, Data of Ethics, p. 106: “The acts characterised by the more complex motives and the more involved thoughts, have all along been of higher authority for guidance.”
235 Cf. Clifford, Lectures and Essays, i. 94 f., where a similar definition is given in answer to the question, “What is the meaning of better?”
236 Spencer, Data of Ethics, p. 63.
237 Cf. Spencer, First Principles, p. 566.
238 So far as the following criticism may appear to apply to Mr Spencer, and not merely to a possible way of defining moral conduct, it is necessary to bear in mind the words of his preface to the ‘Data of Ethics’: “With a view to clearness, I have treated separately some correlative aspects of conduct, drawing conclusions either of which becomes untrue if divorced from the other.”
239 Spencer, Data of Ethics, p. 75 f.
240 Data of Ethics, p. 106.
241 Although Mr Spencer holds that representativeness varies as definiteness, and measures complexity, including that complexity implied by increasing heterogeneity.—Principles of Psychology, ii. 516 f.
242 Data of Ethics, p. 113.
243 Cf. Principles of Sociology, ii. 725.
244 Data of Ethics, p. 123.
245 Data of Ethics, pp. 107, 129.
246 Ibid., p. 110.
247 Data of Ethics, p. 25; cf. Lange, Ges. d. Mat., ii. 247. Lange’s statement is noteworthy: “Die menschliche Vernunft kennt kein anderes Ideal, als die möglichste Erhaltung und Vervollkommnung des Lebens, welches einmal begonnen hat, verbunden mit der Einschränkung von Geburt und Tod.”
248 The “endeavour to further evolution, especially that of the human race,” is put forward as a “new duty” by Mr F. Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development (1883), p. 337.
249 Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 121; Stephen, Science of Ethics, p. 366. Earlier than either of these writers, Dr Hutchison Stirling suggested Health as a practical principle to be set against the anarchy of individualism. But with him, it is not an empirical generalisation of the tendency of evolution. It is as “the outward sign of freedom, the realisation of the universal will,” that “health may be set at once as sign and as goal of the harmonious operation of the whole system—as sign and as goal of a realisation of life.”—Secret of Hegel, ii. 554.
250 Naturrecht auf dem Grunde der Ethik, 2d ed., 1868.
251 Cf. E. Simcox, Natural Law, p. 97.
252 Simcox, Natural Law, p. 86.
253 Ibid., p. 87.
254 Ibid., p. 90.
255 Ibid., p. 99.
256 Simcox, Natural Law, p. 104.
257 Ibid., p. 87.
258 Science of Ethics, p. 76.
259 Science of Ethics, p. 74.
260 Even were we to succeed in getting a satisfactory view of the type, we should still have to leave room for the individuality of each person, which is such that his function must differ in a manner corresponding to his peculiar nature and surroundings (cf. Lotze, Grundzüge der praktischen Phil., p. 13 f.)
261 Simcox, Natural Law, p. 88.
262 Ibid., p. 100.
263 Science of Ethics, p. 120.
264 Simcox, Natural Law, p. 104.
265 Ibid., p. 103.
266 Ibid., p. 89; cf. J. T. Punnet, Mind, x. 91: “What the progress-principle makes its aim and end is not complexity, but the highest and choicest fruits of complexity—the harmonious unfolding of all the latent capacities of man.”
267 “Of real tendencies”—Natural Law, p. 98. But what tendencies are not real?
268 Natural Law, p. 98.
269 Cf. Trendelenburg, Naturrecht, p. 45: “Von der philosophischen Seite kann es kein anderes Princip der Ethik geben als das menschliche Wesen an sich, d. h., das menschliche Wesen in der Tiefe seiner Idee und im Reichthum seiner historischen Entwickelung. Beides gehört zusammen. Denn das nur Historische würde blind und das nur Ideale leer.”
270 The empirical interpretation of evolution is that adopted by the majority of evolutionists, but is not essential to the truth of the theory. A protest against it is entered by Mr Wallace, though in the somewhat crude form of postulating supernatural interference for the production of certain classes of phenomena (cf. Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection, p. 359), at the same time that his conception of nature does not seem to differ otherwise from that of Häckel.
271 The reference in the above to Kant, Werke, iii. 438 ff., is obvious; but it is nevertheless a true account of the principles involved in the theory of evolution.
272 Cf. Stirling, Secret of Hegel, ii. 615: “One grand system, unity of type, all this must be postulated from the very constitution of human reason; but from the very constitution of experience as well, it can never be realised in experience.”
273 Bau und Leben des socialen Körpers, ii. 68.
274 Cf. Fouillée, Critique des systèmes de morale contemporains, p. 13 ff.
275 Boswell’s Life of Johnson, chap. liv.
276 Kant, Werke, v. 187 (Kr. d. Urt., Einl. iv.)
277 Descartes, Princ. phil., iii. 3, i. 28; Bacon, De augm., iii. 5, Novum organum, ii. 2.
278 Cf. Kant, Werke, v. 387 (Kr. d. Urt., § 65).
279 Historische Beiträge zur Philosophie, iii. 165.
280 Cf. Hegel, Wissenschaft der Logik, iii. 228.
281 First Principles, § 194, p. 556.
282 Principles of Psychology, § 56, i. 140.
283 Ibid., §§ 272, 273, i. 624 ff.
284 Mind, ix. 21.
285 From “action” in this its ultimate meaning as equivalent to origination by the subject, it is necessary to distinguish “action” as a phenomenon in the external world. The latter is one of the modes in which the relation of objects is known to us, the former a characteristic of knowing. The active nature of knowledge is worked out in an interesting way in Professor S. S. Laurie’s ‘Metaphysica nova et vetusta,’ by “Scotus Novanticus” (1884).
286 Werke, iii. 538; cf. Adamson, Philosophy of Kant, p. 138.
287 Prolegomena to Ethics, p. 161.
288 Prolegomena to Ethics, p. 165.
289 Sidgwick, “Green’s Ethics,” Mind, ix. 180.
290 This is implied in Hegel’s well-known imperative, “Be a person and respect others as persons.”—Phil. d. Rechts, p. 73.
291 Thus Höffding maintains that “the highest ethical idea” is “the idea of the human race as a realm of personalities.”—Grundlage der humanen Ethik (aus dem dänischen), p. 74.
292 Bau und Leben des socialen Körpers, i. 173.
293 Cf. H. Siebeck, Philosophische Monatshefte, xx. 340.