| Figure | | Page |
|---|
| 1 | Fur-trade canoe on the Missinaibi River, 1901. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 2 |
| 2 | Page from a manuscript of 1771, “Observations on Hudsons Bay,” by Alexander Graham, Factor. (In archives of Hudson’s Bay Company.) | 9 |
| 3 | Canoes from LaHontan’s Nouveaux Voyages... dans l’Amerique septentrionale, showing crude representations typical of early writers. | 11 |
| 4 | Lines of an old birch-bark canoe, probably Micmac, brought to England in 1749 from New England. (From Admiralty Collection of Draughts, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.) | 12 |
| 5 | Ojibway Indian carrying spruce roots, Lac Seul, Ont., 1919. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 15 |
| 6 | Roll of bark for a hunting canoe. Algonkin Reserve, at Golden Lake, Ont., 1927. | 16 |
| 7 | Sketch: wood-splitting techniques, cedar and spruce. | 17 |
| 8-19 | Sketches of tools: 8, stone axe; 9, stone hammer, wedge, and knife; 10, mauls and driving sticks; 11, stone scraper; 12, bow drill; 13, modern Hudson Bay axe; 14, steel fur-trade tomahawk; 15, steel canoe awls; 16, crooked knives; 17, froe; 18, shaving horse; 19, bucksaw. | 17 |
| 20 | Peeling, rolling, and transporting bark. (Sketches by Adney.) | 25 |
| 21 | Sketch: Building frame for a large canoe. | 26 |
| 22, 23 | Sketches: Effect on canoe bottom of crimping and goring bark. | 30 |
| 24 | Sketch: Canoe formed by use of gores and panels. | 31 |
| 25 | Gunwale ends nailed and wrapped with spruce roots. (Sketch by Adney.) | 31 |
| 26 | Gunwales and stakes on building bed, plan view. (Sketch by Adney.) | 32 |
| 27 | Photo: Gunwale lashings, examples made by Adney. | 33 |
| 28 | Photo: Gunwale-end lashings, examples made by Adney. | 33 |
| 29 | Sketch: Splints arranged in various ways to sheath the bottom of a canoe. | 34 |
| 30 | End details, including construction of stem-pieces. (Sketches by Adney.) | 35 |
| 31 | Lines of 2½-fathom St. John River Malecite canoe. | 36 |
| 32 | Malecite canoe building, 1910. (Canadian Geological Survey photos.) | 39 |
| 33 | First stage of canoe construction: assembled gunwale frame is used to locate stakes temporarily on building bed. (Sketch by Adney.) | 40 |
| 34 | Second stage of canoe construction: bark cover is laid out on the building bed, and the gunwales are in place upon it. (Sketch by Adney.) | 41 |
| 35 | Photo: Malecite canoe builders near Fredericton, N.B., using wooden plank building bed. | 42 |
| 36 | Sketch: Two common styles of root stitching used in bark canoes. | 43 |
| 37 | Comparison of canoe on the building bed and canoe when first removed from building bed during fifth stage of construction. (Detail sketches by Adney.) | 44 |
| 38 | Third stage of canoe construction: the bark cover is shaped on the building bed. (Sketch by Adney.) | 45 |
| 39 | Cross section of canoe on building bed during third and fourth stages of construction. (Sketch by Adney.) | 46 |
| 40 | Sketch: Multiple cross section through one side of a canoe on the building bed, at the headboard, middle, first, and second thwarts. | 46 |
| 41 | Fourth stage of canoe construction: bark cover has been shaped and all stakes placed. (Sketch by Adney.) | 47 |
| 42 | Fifth stage of canoe construction: canoe is removed from building bed and set on horses to shape ends and complete sewing. (Sketch by Adney.) | 49 |
| 43 | Ribs being dried and shaped for Ojibway canoe. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 50 |
| 44 | Sketch: Details of ribs and method of shaping them in pairs. | 51 |
| 45 | Sixth stage of canoe construction: in this stage splints for sheathing (upper left) are fixed in place and held by temporary ribs (lower right) under the gunwales. (Sketch by Adney.) | 53 |
| 46 | General details of birch-bark canoe construction, in a drawing by Adney. (From Harper’s Young People, supplement, July 29, 1890.) | 54 |
| 47 | Gunwale construction and thwart or crossbar fastenings, as shown in a sketch by Adney. (Harper’s Young People, supplement, July 29, 1890.) | 56 |
| 48 | “Peter Joe at Work.” Drawing by Adney for his article “How an Indian Birch-Bark Canoe is Made.” (Harper’s Young People, supplement, July 29, 1890.) | 57 |
| 49 | Lines of 2-fathom Micmac pack, or woods, canoe. | 59 |
| 50 | Lines of 2-fathom Micmac pack, or woods, canoe. | 60 |
| 51 | Lines of 2-fathom Micmac pack, or woods, canoe. | 61 |
| 52 | Lines of 2½-fathom Micmac big-river canoe. | 62 |
| 53 | Lines of 3-fathom Micmac ocean canoe fitted for sailing. | 63 |
| 54 | Micmac rough-water canoe, Bathurst, N.B. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 64 |
| 55 | Micmac Woods canoe, built by Malecite Jim Paul at St. Mary’s Reserve in 1911. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 64 |
| 56 | Micmac rough-water canoe fitted for sailing. (Photo W. H. Mechling, 1913.) | 65 |
| 57 | Micmac rough-water canoe, Bay Chaleur. (Photo H. V. Henderson, West Bathurst, N.B.) | 66 |
| 58 | Micmac rough-water sailing canoe, Bay Chaleur. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 66 |
| 59 | Drawing: Details of Micmac canoes, including mast and sail. | 67 |
| 60 | Micmac canoe, Bathurst, N.B. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 68 |
| 61 | Micmac woman gumming seams of canoe, Bathurst, N.B., 1913. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 69 |
| 62 | Lines of 2½-fathom Malecite river canoe, 19th century. Old form with raking ends and much sheer. | 71 |
| 63 | Lines of old form of Malecite-Abnaki 2½-fathom ocean canoe of the Penobscots in the Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass. | 72 |
| 64 | Lines of large 3-fathom ocean canoe of the Passamaquoddy porpoise hunters. | 73 |
| 65 | Lines of old form of Passamaquoddy 2½-fathom ocean canoe. | 74 |
| 66 | Lines of Malecite racing canoe of 1888, showing V-shaped keel piece between sheathing and bark to form deadrise. | 75 |
| 67 | Lines of sharp-ended 2½-fathom Passamaquoddy hunting canoe, for use on tidal river. | 76 |
| 68 | Lines of Malecite 2½-fathom St. Lawrence River canoe, probably a hybrid model. | 77 |
| 69 | Lines of Malecite 2½-fathom river canoe of 1890 from the Rivière du Loup region. | 78 |
| 70 | Lines of Modern (1895) 2½-fathom Malecite St. John River canoe. | 79 |
| 71 | Drawing: Malecite canoe details, gear, and gunwale decorations. | 80 |
| 72 | Drawing: Malecite canoe details, stem profiles, paddles, sail rig, and salmon spear. | 81 |
| 73 | Lines and decoration reconstructed from a very old model of a St. John River ancient woods, or pack, canoe. | 81 |
| 74 | Lines of last known Passamaquoddy decorated ocean canoe to be built (1898). | 82 |
| 75 | Drawing: Malecite canoe details and decorations. | 83 |
| 76 | Sketches: Wulegessis decorations. | 84-85 |
| 77 | Photo: End decorations, Passamaquoddy canoe. | 86 |
| 78 | Photo: End decorations, Passamaquoddy canoe. | 87 |
| 79 | Photo: Passamaquoddy decorated canoe. | 87 |
| 80 | Lines of 2-fathom St. Francis canoe of about 1865 | 89 |
| 81 | Lines of “14-foot” St. Francis canoe of about 1910 | 90 |
| 82 | Lines of 2½-fathom low-ended St. Francis canoe. | 91 |
| 83 | Lines of St. Francis-Abnaki canoe for open water, a type that became extinct before 1890. From Adney’s drawings of a canoe formerly in the Museum of Natural History. | 92 |
| 84 | Photo: Model of a St. Francis-Abnaki canoe under construction. | 93 |
| 85 | Photo: St. Francis-Abnaki canoe. | 93 |
| 86 | A 15-foot Beothuk canoe of Newfoundland (Sketch by Adney.) | 95 |
| 87 | Lines based on Adney’s reconstruction of 15-foot Beothuk canoe. | 97 |
| 88 | Montagnais crooked canoe. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 100 |
| 89 | Birch-bark crooked canoe, Ungava Cree. (Smithsonian Institution photo.) | 101 |
| 90 | Lines of 3-fathom Nascapee canoe, eastern Labrador. | 102 |
| 91 | Lines of 2-fathom Montagnais canoe of southern Labrador and Quebec. | 102 |
| 92 | Lines of 2½-fathom crooked canoe of the Ungava Peninsula. | 103 |
| 93 | Lines of hybrid-model 2-fathom Nascapee canoe. | 103 |
| 94 | Eastern Cree crooked canoe of rather moderate sheer and rocker. (Canadian Pacific Railway Company photo.) | 104 |
| 95 | Photo: Straight and crooked canoes, eastern Cree. | 105 |
| 96 | Montagnais canvas-covered crooked canoe under construction. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 106 |
| 97 | Sketch: Fiddlehead of scraped bark on bow and stern of a Montagnais birch-bark canoe at Seven Islands, Que., 1915. | 107 |
| 98 | Sketch: Disk of colored porcupine quills decorating canoe found at Namaquagon, Que., 1898. | 107 |
| 99 | Fleet of 51 birch-bark canoes of the Têtes de Boule Indians, assembled at the Hudson’s Bay Company post, Grand Lake Victoria, Procession Sunday, August 1895. (Photo, Post-Factor L. A. Christopherson.) | 108 |
| 100 | Photo: Têtes de Boule canoe. | 109 |
| 101 | Photo: Têtes de Boule canoes. | 110 |
| 102 | Lines of 1½-fathom Têtes de Boule hunting canoe. | 111 |
| 103 | Lines of 2½-fathom Têtes de Boule canoe, with construction details. | 111 |
| 104 | Lines of 2-fathom Têtes de Boule hunting canoe. | 112 |
| 105 | Photo: Old Algonkin canoe. | 113 |
| 106 | Lines of 2½-fathom old model, Ottawa River, Algonkin canoe. | 114 |
| 107 | Photo: Models made by Adney of Algonkin and Ojibway stem-pieces. | 115 |
| 108 | Lines of light, fast 2-fathom hunting canoe of the old Algonkin model. | 116 |
| 109 | Lines of hybrid 2½- and 2-fathom Algonkin canoes. | 117 |
| 110 | Lines of 2-fathom Algonkin hunter’s canoe, without headboards. | 118 |
| 111 | Photo: Algonkin canoe, old type. | 119 |
| 112 | Photo: Algonkin “Wabinaki Chiman” | 120 |
| 113 | Algonkin canoe decorations, Golden Lake, Ont. | 121 |
| 114 | Lines of 2-fathom Ojibway hunter’s canoe, built in 1873 | 123 |
| 115 | Lines of 3-fathom Ojibway old model rice-harvesting canoe and 2-fathom hunter’s canoe. | 124 |
| 116 | Lines of 3-fathom Ojibway freight canoe. | 124 |
| 117 | Lines of 2½-fathom Ojibway, old form, canoe and a 16-foot long-nose Cree-Ojibway canoe. | 125 |
| 118 | Eastern Ojibway canoe, old form. (Canadian Pacific Railway photo.) | 126 |
| 119 | Photo: Ojibway Long-Nose canoe, Rainy Lake District. | 126 |
| 120 | Lines of 2-fathom Ojibway hunter’s canoe, 1849 and long-nose Minnesota Ojibway rice-harvesting canoe. | 127 |
| 121 | Photos: Canoe building, Lac Seul, Canada, 1918 | 128-129 |
| 122 | Long Lake Ojibway long-nose canoe. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 130 |
| 123 | Photo: Ojibway 19-foot canoe with 13 Indians aboard (1913) | 131 |
| 124 | Lines of 2½-fathom western Cree canoe, Winisk River district, northwest of James Bay. | 133 |
| 125 | Lines of a 6-fathom fur-trade canoe of the early 19th century. | 134 |
| 126 | Inboard profile of a 6-fathom fur-trade canoe, and details of construction, fitting, and decoration. | 135 |
| 127 | Lines of small 3-fathom north canoe of the Têtes de Boule model. | 136 |
| 128 | Photo: Models of fur-trade canoes. | 137 |
| 129 | “Fur-Trade Maître Canot With Passengers.” From an oil painting by Hopkins (Public Archives of Canada photo). | 138 |
| 130 | “Bivouac in Expedition in Hudson’s Bay Canoe.” From an oil painting by Hopkins (Public Archives of Canada photo). | 139 |
| 131 | Ojibway 3-fathom fur-trade canoe, a cargo-carrying type, marked by cut-under end profiles, that was built as late as 1894. | 139 |
| 132 | Lines of a 5-fathom fur-trade canoe, Grand Lake Victoria Post, Hudson’s Bay Company. | 140 |
| 133 | “Hudson’s Bay Canoe Running the Rapids.” From an oil painting by Hopkins (Public Archives of Canada photo). | 141 |
| 134 | “Repairing the Canoe.” From an oil painting by Hopkins (Public Archives of Canada photo). | 142 |
| 135 | Lines of a 4½-fathom Hudson’s Bay Company “North Canoe,” built by Crees near James Bay, mid-19th century. | 143 |
| 136 | Photo: 5-fathom fur-trade canoe from Brunswick House, a Hudson’s Bay Company post. | 144 |
| 137 | Fur-trade canoes on the Missinaibi River, 1901. (Canadian Geological Survey photo.) | 145 |
| 138 | Photo: Fur-trade canoe brigade from Christopherson’s Hudson’s Bay Company post, about 1885. | 146 |
| 139 | Forest rangers, Lake Timagami, Ontario. (Canadian Pacific Railway Company photo.) | 147 |
| 140 | Photo: Models made by Adney of fur-trade canoe stem-pieces. | 149 |
| 141 | Photo: Models by Adney of fur-trade canoe stem-pieces. | 151 |
| 142 | Portaging a 4½-fathom fur-trade canoe, about 1902, near the head of the Ottawa River. (Canadian Pacific Railway Company photo.) | 152 |
| 143 | Decorations, fur-trade canoes (Watercolor sketch by Adney.) | 153 |
| 144 | Lines of 2-fathom Chipewyan hunter’s canoe. | 155 |
| 145 | Lines of 2½-fathom Chipewyan and 3-fathom Dogrib cargo, or family, canoes. | 156 |
| 146 | Lines of 3-fathom Slavey and 2½-fathom Algonkin-type Athabascan plank-stem canoes. | 157 |
| 147 | Lines of Eskimo kayak-form birch-bark canoe from Alaskan Coast. | 159 |
| 148 | Lines of Athabascan hunting canoes of the kayak form. | 160 |
| 149 | Lines of extinct forms of Loucheux and bateau-form canoes, reconstructed from old models. | 161 |
| 150 | Lines of kayak-form canoes of the Alaskan Eskimos and Canadian Athabascan Indians. | 163 |
| 151 | Lines of kayak-form canoe of British Columbia and upper Yukon valley. | 164 |
| 152 | Construction of kayak-form canoe of the lower Yukon, showing rigid bottom frame. (Smithsonian Institution photo.) | 165 |
| 153 | Photo: Model of an extinct form of Athabascan type birch-bark canoe, of British Columbia. In Peabody Museum, Harvard University. | 167 |
| 154 | Lines of sturgeon-nose bark canoe of the Kutenai and Shuswap. | 169 |
| 155 | Ojibway canoe construction. (Canadian Geological Survey photos.) | 170-171 |
| 156 | Photo: Indians with canoe at Alert Bay, on Cormorant Island, B. C. | 173 |
| 157 | Eighteenth-century lines drawing of a kayak, from Labrador or southern Baffin Island. | 175 |
| 158 | Western Alaskan umiak with eight women paddling, Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, 1936. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 177 |
| 159 | Western Alaskan umiak being beached, Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, 1936. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 177 |
| 160 | Repairing umiak frame at St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, 1930. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 178 |
| 161 | Eskimo woman splitting walrus hide to make umiak cover, St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, 1930. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 178 |
| 162 | Fitting split walrus-hide cover to umiak at St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, 1930. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 179 |
| 163 | Outboard motor installed on umiak, Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, 1936. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 179 |
| 164 | Launching umiak in light surf, Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, 1936. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 179 |
| 165 | Umiaks on racks, in front of village on Little Diomede Island, July 30, 1936. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 181 |
| 166 | Umiak covered with split walrus hide, Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 183 |
| 167 | Lines of small umiak for walrus hunting, west coast of Alaska. 1888-89 | 184 |
| 168 | Umiaks near Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, showing walrus hide cover and lacing. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 185 |
| 169 | Lines of umiak, west coast of Alaska, King Island, 1886 | 186 |
| 170 | Making the blind seam: two stages of method used by the Eskimo to join skins together. | 186 |
| 171 | Lines of north Alaskan whaling umiak of about 1890 | 187 |
| 172 | Lines of Baffin Island umiak, 1885. Drawn from model and detailed measurements of a single boat. | 188 |
| 173 | Lines of east Greenland umiak, drawn from measurements taken off by a U.S. Army officer in 1945. | 189 |
| 174 | Frame of kayak, Nunivak Island, Alaska. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 191 |
| 175 | Frame of kayak at Nunivak Island, Alaska, 1927. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 193 |
| 176 | Lines of Koryak kayak, drawn from damaged kayak in the American Museum of Natural History, 1948. | 195 |
| 177 | Lines of Kodiak Island kayak, 1885, in U.S. National Museum. | 196 |
| 178 | Lines of Aleutian kayak, Unalaska, 1894, in U.S. National Museum. | 196 |
| 179 | Lines of kayak from Russian Siberia, 2-hole Aleutian type, in Washington State Historical Society and Museum. Taken off by John Heath, 1962. | 197 |
| 180 | Lines of Nunivak Island kayak, Alaska, 1889, in U.S. National Museum. | 198 |
| 181 | Lines of King Island kayak, Alaska, 1888, in U.S. National Museum. | 198 |
| 182 | Lines of Norton Sound kayak, Alaska, 1889, in U.S. National Museum. | 198 |
| 183 | Nunivak Island kayak with picture of mythological water monster Palriayuk painted along gunwale. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 199 |
| 184 | Photo: Nunivak Island kayak in U.S. National Museum. | 199 |
| 185 | Western Alaskan kayak, Cape Prince of Wales, 1936. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.) | 200 |
| 186 | Lines of Kotzebue Sound kayak, in Mariners’ Museum. | 201 |
| 187 | Lines of Point Barrow kayak, Alaska, 1888, in U.S. National Museum. | 201 |
| 188 | Lines of Mackenzie Delta kayak, in Museum of the American Indian. | 201 |
| 189 | Photo: Kayak from Point Barrow, Alaska, in U.S. National Museum. | 202 |
| 190 | Photo: Cockpit of kayak from Point Barrow. | 202 |
| 191 | Lines of kayak in U.S. National Museum. | 203 |
| 192 | Lines of kayak from Coronation Gulf, Canada. | 203 |
| 193 | Lines of Caribou Eskimo kayak, Canada, in American Museum of Natural History. | 203 |
| 194 | Lines of Netsilik Eskimo kayak, King William Island, Canada, in the American Museum of Natural History. | 203 |
| 195 | Lines of old kayak from vicinity of Southampton Island, Canada. | 205 |
| 196 | Lines of Baffin Island kayak, from Cape Dorset, Canada, in the Museum of the American Indian. | 205 |
| 197 | Lines of kayak from north Labrador, Canada, in the Museum of the American Indian. | 207 |
| 198 | Lines of Labrador kayak, Canada, in the U.S. National Museum. | 207 |
| 199 | Lines of north Greenland kayak, in the Museum of the American Indian. | 207 |
| 200 | Lines of north Greenland kayak, in the Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass. | 207 |
| 201 | Photo: Profile of Greenland kayak from Disko Bay, in the National Museum. | 208 |
| 202 | Photo: Deck of Greenland kayak from Disko Bay. | 208 |
| 203 | Photo: Cockpit of Greenland kayak from Disko Bay. | 209 |
| 204 | Photo: Bow view of Greenland kayak from Disko Bay. | 209 |
| 205 | Lines of northwestern Greenland kayak, in the U.S. National Museum. | 210 |
| 206 | Lines of southwestern Greenland kayak, 1883, in the U.S. National Museum. | 210 |
| 207 | Lines of southwestern Greenland kayak, in the Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass. | 210 |
| 208 | Lines of south Greenland kayak, in the American Museum of Natural History. | 211 |
| 209 | Lines of Malecite and Iroquois temporary canoes. | 214 |
| 210 | Photo: Model of hickory-bark canoe under construction, in the Mariner’s Museum. | 217 |
| 211 | Sketch: Detail of thwart used in Malecite temporary spruce-bark canoe. | 217 |
| 212 | Iroquois temporary elm-bark canoe, after a drawing of 1849. | 218 |
| 213 | Large moosehide canoe of upper Gravel River, Mackenzie valley. (Photo, George M. Douglas.) | 221 |
| 214 | Sketch: Standard Greenland roll. | 224 |
| 215 | Sketch: Critical stage of a capsize recovery. | 225 |
| 216 | Sketch: Hand positions used with the standard Greenland roll. | 226 |
| 217 | Sketch: Kayak rescue, bow-grab method. | 226 |
| 218 | Sketch: Kayak rescue, paddle-grab method. | 226 |
| 219 | Preparing for demonstration of Eskimo roll, Igdlorssuit, West Greenland. (Photo by Kenneth Taylor.) | 227 |
| 220 | Getting aboard kayak. (Photo by Kenneth Taylor.) | 228 |
| 221 | Fully capsized kayak. (Photo by Kenneth Taylor.) | 228 |
| 222 | Emerging from roll. (Photo by Kenneth Taylor.) | 229 |
| 223 | Emerging from roll. (Photo by Kenneth Taylor.) | 229 |
| 224 | Righting the kayak. (Photo by Kenneth Taylor.) | 229 |