The French Navy
We have now to pass under review that vast array of naval constructions which the Continental navies of Europe offer to our observation.
It is not at all surprising that the introduction of steam-engines, of iron and steel hulls, and of armor-plating has been attended throughout Europe by even greater diversity of thought and practice than has characterized our naval progress—“our progress” here signifying that of both the United States and Great Britain. And this may, I think, truthfully be said without in any degree neglecting the striking originality of the American Monitors, to which I endeavored to do justice.
As regards two of the three great changes just adverted to, the only differences of opinion that have arisen have been in the nature of competitions rather than of conflicts. No one, so far as I am aware, has ever proposed to revert to sail-power or to wooden hulls in important ships-of-war. On the contrary, the powers have been in continual competition in the effort to reduce the weights of the hulls of war-ships (apart from armor) by the extended use, first of iron, and afterwards of steel, and to apply the savings of weight thus effected to the development of engine-power, speed, and steaming endurance. On the other hand, it must be acknowledged that the development of armor has been pursued with less constancy and less earnestness, the result being that marked contrasts are exhibited by European navies.
It may be said, with little or no qualification, that all other European naval powers followed, in the first place, the example set by the late Emperor Napoleon III., in La Gloire, by covering the whole of the exposed part of the war-ship’s hull with armor-plating. All the early iron-clads of Russia, Italy, Austria, and Germany were protected from stem to stern, and from a few feet below water to the upper deck. England did the same in the cases of a few ships, although she began, as we saw before, with the Warrior type, in which the armor was limited to the central part of the ship. But the system of completely covering the exposed ship with armor has now entirely and properly passed away from European practice, and has been succeeded by varied arrangements of armor.
The importance of giving effectual protection to the hull “between wind and water,” as it is called (signifying from a few feet below the water-line to a few feet above that line), has been steadily recognized by Continental governments, with but the rarest exceptions. Nothing corresponding to that wholesale abandonment of armor for about a hundred feet at each end of the ship which has been practised in the British ships of the Inflexible and Admiral types is displayed in the line-of-battle ships of the Continent. In France, indeed, two such ships were laid down under some temporary influence, viz., the Brennus and the Charles Martel, but they appear to have soon fallen under suspicion, and there has not been, to my knowledge, any great disposition to complete them for service. A return made by the Admiralty to the order of the House of Commons has been printed, and says of the Brennus and Charles Martel: “Though these vessels still appear in the list of the French navy, but little money has been voted for their construction in 1886, and all work on them is now reported to have been stopped.” I know not what significance is to be attached to the fact, but I observe that these two ships were omitted altogether from the iron-clad ships of France published so recently as May, 1886, in the Universal Register of shipping, which Lloyd’s Register Committee “believe will be found the most complete list that has yet been published.” It seems not improbable, therefore, that the dangerous system of exposing two-thirds of the ship’s length to destruction from all kinds and every system of naval guns, even the smallest, which prevailed in the British navy for more than twelve years, and which has now happily been superseded in the powerful new ships Nile and Trafalgar, obtained but little more than momentary approval in France, and is likely to have led to the condemnation of the only two ships in which it was attempted—a result which is creditable alike to French science and to French sagacity.
In Italy the Inflexible system (which has met in France with the fate we have just seen) obtained temporary favor, and was adopted in the Duilio and the Dandolo, two very large ships, of 11,000 tons each, of a speed exceeding fifteen knots, and each carrying four 100-ton guns in turrets. Although these ships are 340 feet in length, even the armored belt amidships (if “belt” in any sense so short a strip of armor may be called22) is but 107 feet long, leaving therefore 233 feet of the ship at the ends wholly devoid of water-line protection. As the author of the “citadel system,” I cannot regard such an arrangement as this as a fair and reasonable embodiment of it, the discrepancy between the armored and unarmored portions being greater in these two ships than even in the Ajax and Agamemnon, which are perhaps the worst examples of the abuse of the citadel system in the British navy. It is to the credit of the Italian government that ships of this type were not repeated in their navy; and it is but right to point out that there were excuses (which probably ranked in the minds of the designers as reasons) for a more extreme proportionate limitation of the citadels being adopted in the Duilio and Dandolo than in the Ajax and Agamemnon. Among these were the possession by the Italian ships of heavier armaments, and of far greater steam-power and speed than the British ships possessed—a matter to which further reference will be made hereafter—and probably, also, the adoption of somewhat finer water-lines as a means of attaining the superior speed.
In this connection it may be well to observe that the question of leaving so-called armored line-of-battle ships without armor at the extremities is first one of principle, and afterwards one of degree. The principle (which should be observed in the design of every armored vessel which is intended for the line of battle, or for those close and severe contests of ship with ship which will probably supersede in a great degree the system of fighting in lines of battle) is this: the proportion which the armored citadel bears to the unarmored ends must always be such as to enable the ship to keep afloat all the time the armor itself holds out against the attack of the enemy; so that injuries to the unarmored ends, however great or multiplied, shall not alone suffice to destroy the ship. Whatever may occur in the future to interfere with the application of this principle—and I do not deny that such interferences may arise under certain perfectly conceivable circumstances—nothing has yet happened to justify its abandonment, or to even justify the remotest chance of its being violated.
If a ship is not intended to close with an enemy, or to fight her anyhow and anywhere on the open sea—which certainly has been the dominant idea of the British navy, in so far as its great line-of-battle ships are concerned—if, for example, a combination of immense speed with one or two extremely powerful and well-protected guns should serve a particular object better than a slower and more fully protected ship would serve it—then even great destructibility in the ship itself may justifiably be incurred. But for general naval service, and in every case in which a ship is intended to accept battle with a powerful antagonist and fight it out, or to force an action when she encounters such an enemy, it cannot be wise to leave her so exposed that that enemy may almost certainly sink her or cause her to capsize by merely pouring any kind of shot or shell into her unarmored parts. But even the observance of the above general principle is not alone all that is desirable in armored line-of-battle ships. It is not well to leave even so much of the ends of such ships wholly exposed as may lead to the speedy loss in action of her steaming or steering powers. The armor-belt should be of sufficient length to fairly guarantee the ship against prompt disablement in action, and to do this it must be carried very much nearer to the bow and stern than it has been in the cases of the Italian ships (Duilio and Dandolo) now under notice.
On the other hand, where ships are formed with fine water-lines, and the two opposite sides are consequently very near to each other for many feet, it is quite unnecessary to cover them with armor. The buoyancy comprised between the two sides aft such parts is very small, and consequently penetration can let but little water into the ship, and do but little harm. It is a matter for the exercise of professional judgment where to draw the line between the armored and the unarmored parts. In the new British ships Nile and Trafalgar, which have excited great admiration in England, there are about sixty feet of length at each end left without armor, and as the ships have fine lines, but are nevertheless of considerable breadth at sixty feet from the ends, it seems probable that good judgment has been shown by their designers in this matter.
I have discussed this question at some length because it is one of primary consideration in the design of important armored ships, and because the abandonment of a long belt of armor is also one of the few features of construction respecting which the designers of the Continent have steadfastly refrained from following the example set by the Admiralty Office at Whitehall from the years 1870 to 1885. It will complete the consideration of this branch of the subject to say that there are numerous ships of the iron-clad type in foreign navies in which the armor (justifiably, as has just been shown) stops somewhat short of the ends, but very few indeed in which the length of the unarmored parts exceeds that of the armored. Among the last named may be mentioned a very questionable class of vessels (Sachsen type) in the German navy, and a much smaller sea-going vessel belonging to the Argentine Republic, named the Almirante Brown, which is a well-designed vessel in other respects, but which, on account of her long defenceless bow and stern, would do better to avoid than to fight an enemy.23
Having now dealt with the primary question of the defence of ships by means of armor-belts, we come to the greater or less defence bestowed upon them above water. The course taken by the French designers, when the increased thickness of armor made it impossible to repeat the complete protection adopted in La Gloire and her compeers, was in some few cases that of belting the ship with armor, and giving great “tumble home” to the sides above water, excepting at the central armored battery, thus allowing that battery to project, and its guns to fire directly ahead and astern, past the inwardly inclined sides. This system has been strikingly carried out in the two sister ships Courbet and Dévastation, the former of which is shown, stem on, in the cut on page 75, which is engraved from a photograph taken after her launch, and before she began to receive her armor-plating. A representation of the sister vessel, Dévastation (forming one of the series of engravings given in this chapter from drawings specially executed for the purpose by Chevalier De Martino), forms our illustration on page 73.
But generally in the French navy, and in nearly all but its earliest ships, direct head and stern fire has been obtained by means of elevated and projecting towers, armor-plated to a sufficient height to protect the gun machinery, but with the guns themselves unprotected, and firing en barbette. In the case of the two ships Dévastation and Courbet the main-deck projecting battery carries four guns, each commanding a full quadrant of a circle. The barbette batteries, standing up above the upper deck, carry a powerful gun on each side of the ship, with great range of fire.
Having given these general indications of the system of attack and defence adopted in the French navy—by far the most important of all the Continental navies—it now becomes desirable to go more into particulars. It is not necessary to dwell upon the early iron-clads of France. The Gloire and a dozen others of like character were all built of wood, without water-tight bulkheads, without rams or spurs, with armor-plates from four to six inches thick only, and with guns of small calibre and power. They may be left out of consideration in dealing with the present French navy. They were followed by six other vessels, also built of wood, but with upper works of iron, viz., the Océan, Marengo, Suffren, Richelieu, Colbert, Trident. They were armored with plates of a maximum thickness of 8½ inches, and carried four guns of 10¾ inches calibre, weighing 23 tons each, with four 16-ton guns, and half a dozen light ones. They varied in some particulars, ranging in tonnage from 7000 to 8000 tons, in horse-power from 3600 to 4600, and in speed from 13 to 14½ knots. The Friedland is another vessel which is frequently classed with the previous six ships, the largest of which she generally resembles, but she is built of iron, and carries eight 23-ton guns, and none of the 16-ton. A committee which sat in 1879, and which had for its president and vice-presidents men no less eminent than the late M. Gambetta and MM. Albert Grévy and Jules Ferry, pronounced these seven ships to be the strongest armored ships of the French navy then in service. Such great advances have since been made, however, that it is only necessary to add respecting these vessels that they were nearly all single-screw ships, and that they carried their principal armament at broadside ports on the main-deck, and in raised barbette towers placed at the four corners of the central battery. The Richelieu was the largest of these vessels.
Not one of the foregoing French ships of the early period conformed to conditions which were laid down officially in 1872 as those requisite for first-class French iron-clads, viz., that they should be constructed of iron (or steel), with water-tight compartments, be armored with plates 12 inches thick, with decks from 2 to 2½ inches thick, armed with guns of 24 centimetres calibre, commanding certain prescribed ranges of fire, and furnished with spurs or ram stems. There were, however, four ships then under construction or trial which did conform to the prescribed conditions, viz., the two already spoken of—the Courbet and Dévastation, and two others named the Redoutable and the Amiral Duperré. With these powerful ships may be said to have commenced the era of iron and steel line-of-battle ships in France. We will now bring them, together with still more recent French ships of the first class, into a table in which their particulars may be conveniently grouped.
Table A.—MODERN FRENCH ARMORED SHIPS OF THE FIRST CLASS.24
| Name of Ship. | Displacement in tons. | Indicated Horse-power.25 | Speed in Knots.25 | Length. | Breadth. | Draught of Water. | Maximum Thickness of Armor. | Heaviest Guns carried. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Feet. | Feet. | Feet. | Inches. | |||||
| Amiral Baudin | 11,200 | 8,320 | 15 | 319 | 70 | 25.8 | 22 | 3 of 75 tons. |
| Amiral Duperré | 10,300 | 8,120 | 14.2 | 319 | 70 | 25.8 | 22 | 4 ″ 48 ″ |
| Dévastation | 9,900 | 8,320 | 14.5 | 312 | 69.8 | 25.5 | 15 | {4 ″ 48 ″ |
| {4 ″ 28 ″ | ||||||||
| Formidable | 11,260 | 8,320 | 15 | 319 | 70 | 25.8 | 22 | 3 ″ 75 ″ |
| Foudroyant | 9,500 | 8,200 | 15 | 311 | 69.8 | 25.5 | 15 | {4 ″ 48 ″ |
| (now Courbet) | {4 ″ 28 ″ | |||||||
| Hoche | 10,480 | 5,500 | 14 | 329 | 66 | 26.5 | 17.7 | 4 ″ 52 ″ |
| Magenta | 10,480 | 5,500 | 14 | 329 | 66 | 26.5 | 17.7 | 4 ″ 52 ″ |
| Marceau | 10,480 | 5,500 | 14 | 329 | 66 | 26.5 | 17.7 | 4 ″ 52 ″ |
| Neptune | 10,480 | 5,500 | 14 | 329 | 66 | 26.5 | 17.7 | 4 ″ 52 ″ |
| Redoutable | 9,030 | 6,000 | 14.2 | 312 | 64.6 | 24.4 | 14 | {4 ″ 28 ″ |
| {4 ″ 24 ″ | ||||||||
| Caïman | 7,200 | 4,800 | 14 | 271 | 59 | 23 | 17.5 | 2 ″ 48 ″ |
| Furieux | 5,700 | 3,400 | 12 | 248 | 59 | 21.4 | 17.5 | 2 ″ 48 ″ |
| Indomptable | 7,200 | 4,800 | 14 | 271 | 59 | 22.8 | 19.5 | 2 ″ 75 ″ |
| Requin | 7,200 | 6,000 | 14.5 | 271 | 59 | 22.8 | 19.5 | 2 ″ 75 ″ |
| Terrible | 7,200 | 4,800 | 14 | 271 | 59 | 22.8 | 19.5 | 2 ″ 75 ″ |
| Tonnant | 4,707 | 1,750 | 10 | 248 | 58.4 | 17.3 | 17.5 | 2 ″ 48 ″ |
The ship which alphabetically falls last in this table among the ships of 9000 tons and upwards, the Redoutable, came first in point of time, viz., in 1872, and her design marked the commencement of the new era in French iron-clad construction. One of the features of the change was, as already intimated, the abandonment of wooden hulls, which we had succeeded in accomplishing in England eight years before. The first design proposed by myself to the British Admiralty provided for an iron hull, and although the force of circumstances compelled us to construct my earliest war-vessels in timber, yet so strongly averse were we to the employment of so perishable a material as wood within an iron casing that Admiral Sir R. Spencer Robinson succeeded in preventing the construction of three out of five wooden line-of-battle armored ships that had previously been proposed by the government of the day, and sanctioned by Parliament. This was in 1863 or 1864, the Lord Clyde and Lord Warden being the last large armored wooden ships laid down in her Majesty’s dockyards.
The French delayed the change for some years, as we see. M. De Bussy, the designer of the Redoutable, and a most accomplished naval constructor, built a very large part of the ship of steel, and by so doing brought the French dockyards into early acquaintance with the superiority of that material to iron for constructive purposes. The Redoutable has armor of more than 14 inches in thickness upon her belt, and of 9½ inches upon her central battery. She carries eight 25-ton guns26—four in her central battery, two in barbette half-towers, and two on revolving platforms at the bow and stern respectively. She also carries eight light 5½-inch guns. This ship generally resembles her successors, the Dévastation and the Foudroyant (by the same designer), in so far as that her batteries fire past sides, with great tumble home.
Lord Brassey (in this respect somewhat erroneously following Mr. King, of the United States navy, in his able work upon “The War-ships and Navies of the World”), says, “The faculty of firing parallel to the line of keel is secured in the French ship by the tumble home of the ship’s sides, and not by the projection of the battery beyond them, as in the English vessel (the Audacious).” It is difficult to understand what this means, because it is obviously only by the projection of the battery beyond the sides of the ship which are before and after it that fore and aft fire can be obtained from the battery in either case. But it is not true that the battery of the Audacious, any more than the battery of the Redoutable, projects beyond the breadth of the ship at the water-line, which would seem to be what is intended, and Lord Brassey may assure himself of the fact by looking at Plate III. of his own work on “The British Navy,” from which the above words are quoted. The Redoutable is a full-rigged ship, and nevertheless steams 14¼ knots per hour. There is one particular in which the Dévastation and the Foudroyant, like her as they are in general design, differ materially from the Redoutable. I refer to the armament. The former two ships each carry four 34-centimetre 48-ton guns in the main-deck battery, in lieu of the four 25-ton guns of the Redoutable.
The Amiral Duperré (designed by M. Sabattier, the able French chief constructor) claims a few words, as she differs materially in type from the three ships just discussed. She has a complete belt of very thick armor from stem to stern—greatest thickness 22 inches, tapering to 10 inches at the extremities, with a thick deck (2 inches) at the top of the belt in the usual manner. But above this belt there is no armored main-deck battery, as in the other ships, the chief armament, of four 48-ton guns, being carried in four elevated barbette towers, two of which are well forward, and project considerably to enable their guns to act efficiently as bow-chasers, and at the same time to command all round the broadside and right astern. To facilitate this the sides of the ship have great tumble home. The other two towers are situated at the middle line of the ship, one near the stern, and the other farther forward, between the main and the mizzen masts. The main-deck, although without armor defence, is not without armament, as it carries fourteen 5½-inch 60-pounder rifled breech-loaders. Other particulars of the Amiral Duperré are given in the table, and on page 81 is a view of her, engraved from a photograph with which I have been favored by a French officer.
It will be observed from her description that the most characteristic feature of this great ship of more than 10,000 tons is the absence of any guns protected by armor. The barbette towers, it is true, are armored with 12-inch plates, and the main-deck guns are under the protection of the thin plating of the ship’s side, which latter is of little or no avail, however, against the armament of other first-class ships. Practically the whole of the Duperré’s guns are unprotected. It may be added that during the discussions in London upon the “ships armored in places” an attempt was made to show that the Duperré, owing to her alleged small initial stability, was as devoid of stability when injured above the belt as certain vessels of the British Admiral class when injured before and abaft the belt—a statement which I distrust, as I regard it as a mere inference from an experiment which I believe to be delusive. At the same time, the Duperré would have been the better for more initial stability.
But it is obvious that all belted or partially belted vessels, in which the belt is carried but a small height above the water for the size of the ship, must run the risk of losing both buoyancy and stability very soon if even moderately inclined in or after battle, seeing that, with a moderate inclination only, the entire armor-belt on the depressed side of the ship must disappear beneath the sea’s surface. The strenuous assertion of this source of danger, although it could not lead to much increase in the stability of the existing armored ships, has produced as one effect the busy and earnest efforts which both English and French constructors have been recently making to subdivide their ships above the armor into as many water-tight compartments as possible, and to stuff these compartments as full as possible of buoyant (or at least of water-excluding) materials. The necessity for resorting to this device, however, in first-class ships of nine, ten, or eleven thousand tons displacement, and of something approaching to five million dollars each in value, is not a thing for either French or English naval constructors to be proud of. But the assertion of the danger in question has had in England the further and very satisfactory result of bringing much more trustworthy ships, like the Nile and Trafalgar, into being, and of insuring the determined support of these ships in Parliament whenever those who foolishly confound mere cheapness with merit in such constructions seek to interfere with the progress of these magnificent vessels.
Two other powerful ships of the French navy, closely resembling the Amiral Duperré, are the Amiral Baudin and the Formidable. They are of 3¼ feet more beam than the Duperré (and therefore probably have much larger stability), and their displacement exceeds hers by 900 tons. Their armaments chiefly differ from hers in the employment of three guns of 75 tons each in their towers, in lieu of the four guns of 48 tons of the Duperré. The Neptune, Hoche, Magenta, and Marceau are four other powerful ships, as will have been seen from Table A, the principal armament of each consisting of four guns of 52 tons, carried in towers, with the exception of the Hoche, which has two of her four principal guns of 28 tons each only.
Incidental mention has already been made on page 76 of two ships, the Caïman and Indomptable, which, although of only 7200 tons, carry very thick armor (19½ inches), and as a matter of fact carry also guns of the heaviest type (75-ton). There are two other vessels of the same description, the Terrible and Requin. Careful note should be taken of these four steel-built vessels, which add greatly to the power of France. Each carries two of the very powerful guns just mentioned, and steams at a speed of 14½ knots. In the same category of thickly armored ships the French have yet one other ship, the Furieux, of 5560 tons. Her armor is 17½ inches thick in places, and she is armed with two 48-ton guns. Her speed is 12 knots. The Tonnant has the same armor and armament, but she is of nearly 1000 tons less displacement, drawing much less water, and steaming only at 10 knots per hour.
We may sum up the facts relating to the larger class of French iron-clads which still rank among the efficient ships of 7000 tons and upward by saying that, in addition to the sixteen ships of which the particulars are given in Table A, there are on the efficient list the Colbert, Friedland, arengo, Océan, Richelieu, Suffren, Trident, Savoie, Revanche, Surveillante, and Héroïne, most of which have been previously described in general terms, and the remainder of which are of less than 6000 tons, and were built chiefly of wood many years ago.
The French navy further comprises thirteen armor-plated cruisers, of which four have lately been dropped out of some official lists. Of the remaining nine, four are modern vessels, and all of about equal size and power. These are the Duguesclin, Vauban, Bayard, and Turenne; but of these, while the first two are built of steel, the last two are built of wood, with iron topsides, as are all the remaining five vessels of this class. The subjoined table will indicate the inferior character of most of the vessels of this type:
Table B.—FRENCH ARMORED CRUISERS.
| Name of Ship. | Displace- ment. | Indicated Horse-power. | Speed. | Length. | Breadth. | Draught of Water. | Maximum Thickness of Armor. | Heaviest Guns carried. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tons. | Knots. | Feet. | Feet. | Feet. | Inches | |||
| Bayard | 5900 | 4560 | 14.5 | 266 | 57.2 | 23 3 | 10 | 4 of 16 tons. |
| Duguesclin | 5900 | 4000 | 14 | 266 | 57.2 | 23.3 | 10 | 4 ″ 16 ″ |
| Turenne | 5900 | 4250 | 14.2 | 266 | 57.2 | 23.3 | 10 | 4 ″ 16 ″ |
| Vauban | 5900 | 4000 | 14 | 266 | 57.2 | 23.3 | 10 | 4 ″ 16 ″ |
| La Galissonière | 4700 | 2370 | 13 | 256 | 49 | 23 | 6 | 6 ″ 16 ″ |
| Triomphante | 4700 | 2400 | 12.8 | 256 | 49 | 23 | 6 | 6 ″ 16 ″ |
| Victorieuse | 4600 | 2210 | 12.7 | 256 | 49 | 23 | 6 | 6 ″ 16 ″ |
| Reine Blanche | 3620 | 1860 | 11.8 | 230 | 46.2 | 21.8 | 6 | 6 ″ 8 ″ |
| Thetis | 3620 | 1860 | 12 | 230 | 46.2 | 21.8 | 6 | 6 ″ 8 ″ |
Of the above ships it may be remarked that the Thetis and Reine Blanche have been nearly twenty years afloat, the Galissonière was launched in 1872, the Victorieuse in 1875, and the Triomphante in 1877. The remainder of the nine, as previously stated, are modern vessels, the Duguesclin being not yet completed. The Duguesclin and her sister ships are of the Duperré type, much reduced in dimensions.
There are nine completed coast-guard iron-clads and eight armored gun-boats in the French navy, as follows:
Table C.—FRENCH IRON-CLAD COAST-GUARD VESSELS.
| Name of Ship. | Displace- ment. | Speed. | Maximum Armor. | Principal Guns. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tons. | Knots. | Inches. | No. | Tons. | |
| Fulminant | 5600 | 13.22 | 13 | 2 | 28 |
| Tonnerre | 5700 | 14 | 13 | 2 | 28 |
| Tempête | 4523 | 12 | 13 | 2 | 28 |
| Vengeur | 4523 | 10.8 | 13 | 2 | 48 |
| Bélier | 3600 | 12.3 | 8.5 | 2 | 16 |
| Bouledogue | 3800 | 12.25 | 8.5 | 2 | 16 |
| Cerbère | 3800 | 11.4 | 8.5 | 2 | 16 |
| Taureau | 2700 | 13 | 6 | 1 | 23 |
| Tigre | 3500 | 13.5 | 8.5 | 2 | 16 |
Table D.—FRENCH IRON-CLAD GUN-BOATS.
| Name of Ship. | Displace- ment. | Speed. | Maximum Armor. | Principal Guns. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tons. | Knots. | Inches. | No. | Tons. | ||
| { Achéron | 1639 | 13 | 8 | 1 | 28 | |
| First | { Cocyte | 1639 | 13 | 8 | 1 | 28 |
| Class. | { Phlegéton | 1639 | 13 | 8 | 1 | 28 |
| { Styx | 1639 | 13 | 8 | 1 | 28 | |
| { Flamme | 1045 | 13 | 8 | 1 | 16 | |
| Second | { Fusée | 1045 | 13 | 8 | 1 | 16 |
| Class. | { Mitraille | 1045 | 13 | 8 | 1 | 16 |
| { Grenade | 1045 | 13 | 8 | 1 | 16 | |
The vessels in the tables C and D are all revolving-turret vessels, with the exception of the Taureau and of the four second-class gun-boats, which fire their guns en barbette. They embrace very different types of construction, involving different degrees of sea-worthiness—very low degrees in some of them, I fear. With the exception of the Tempête, they are all furnished with twin screws. The Fulminant, Tonnerre, Tempête, and Vengeur, in Table C, and the whole of the vessels in Table D (as yet incomplete), are of iron or of steel, or of the two combined; the remainder have hulls principally built of wood. I have chosen for illustration the turret-vessel Vengeur, as seen on page 87, which has been engraved from a photograph sent to me by a naval friend in France.
We come now to the unarmored ships of France, and as in writing of these I purpose accepting the official classifications adopted in France, which are not identical with those employed in England, it may be well to repeat here a caution which the British Admiralty has given in a memorandum prefixed to a recent “return” of theirs “showing the fleets of England, France, Russia, Germany, Italy, Austria, and Greece.” The caution is to the effect that France includes under the heading of “cruisers” vessels of about similar value to the larger class of English sloops, which are excluded from the English “cruiser” class. But I regret the necessity of observing that the Admiralty officers, while careful to put this explanation well forward, appear to be equally careful to withhold an explanation of much greater moment concerning three French cruisers of large size and of greater importance—withheld in pursuance, apparently, and as I have most reluctantly come to fear, of an uncandid, and indeed of a misleading spirit, which seems to have taken possession of some persons who have to do with the preparation of Admiralty returns to Parliament. The exercise of this spirit has forced me ere now to draw the attention of Parliament to the matter, and in one instance to have an official return, which contained erroneous and too favorable classifications of British ships, withdrawn.
Any one referring to the Parliamentary return of British and foreign fleets just adverted to will find under the heading of “Unarmored Vessels Building” two large and remarkably fast steel cruisers, the Tage and the Cécile, the former of which exceeds 7000 tons in displacement, while the latter approaches 6000 tons, and both of which are to steam at the immense speed of 19 knots an hour, or a knot in excess of the fastest armed vessel (neglecting torpedo craft) in the British navy. These two French cruisers are respectively 390 and 380 feet in length, and are to be driven by over 10,000 indicated horse-power in the Tage, and by nearly 10,000 indicated horse-power in the Cécile. A third vessel, the Sfax, launched at Brest in 1884, of 4420 tons, 7500 indicated horse-power, and 16½ knots speed, is also given without remark in the Parliamentary return as an “unarmored” vessel. Now even this last-named vessel has a steel deck one and three-fourths inches thick to protect her boilers, machinery, and magazines, while the Tage and Cécile have such decks three inches thick. These, being mere decks, do not, of course, remove the ships out of the category of unarmored ships, and the return is correct in this respect. But now in this same return all the British ships provided with protecting decks of this character are kept out of the lists of unarmored or “unprotected” vessels, and are classed separately, and are described as “protected” vessels. And not only is this true of vessels like the Mersey class, which have such decks two and one-half inches thick in places, but it is true likewise of some twenty vessels, ranging, many of them, as low as 1420 tons in displacement, and with decks and partial decks of less thickness than that of the Sfax, the weakest of the three French ships in this respect. In short, while the twenty-two English ships are withheld from the category of unarmored ships, although every one of them is inferior in protecting decks to the three French ships, the latter are placed in the inferior category, and not a word of explanation is offered to prevent the uninitiated and unsuspecting reader from regarding as weaker than our vessels those French vessels which are in fact the strongest and best protected. I must say that, as an Englishman, I grieve to see returns to the British Parliament made use of for the dissemination of information so misleading as this; and I should do so if I could believe there was nothing but official negligence involved; but I am sorry to say I cannot doubt that had the mere reproduction of foreign classifications put three of the very fastest and most important cruisers of our own navy, of Admiralty origin, at the very great disadvantage to which the French ships are put in this return, we should have had a very full and a very prominent explanation of the seeming discrepancy given. It is to the credit of Lloyd’s Register office that what the Admiralty Office failed to do in a paper issued at the end of July was properly done in their Universal Register, published two or three months earlier; for in the latter the three French ships are separately detailed under the heading of “Deck-protected Cruisers.”
It is absolutely necessary to bring to light the matter just explained, for otherwise the present state and the prospects of the French navy cannot be properly understood, the Tage, Cécile, and Sfax being, on the whole, the most important of the French ships which are without armor-belts. Two others there are, however, which are weaker than the Tage and Sfax only in the fact of their being without special deck protection. These are the Duquesne and the Tourville, two ships approximately alike in size and construction, and both having their iron bottoms sheathed with two thicknesses of wood and then coppered, after the manner introduced by myself in H.M.S. Inconstant. Both of these French ships have attained 16 9/10 knots of speed. They are armed with seven guns of eight tons and fourteen of three tons weight.
The remaining unarmored vessels of France must be rapidly summarized. It is impossible to neglect in this case, as was done in my article on the British navy, all the frigates, etc., which have frames of timber, because to do this would be to omit all unarmored frigates of the French navy except the Duquesne and the Tourville, already described. But it is not necessary to do more than name the Venus, Minerve, and Flora, all launched prior to 1870, and all slow, and to say that there remain but four unarmored wood frigates of 14 knots speed, of about 3400 tons, and armed with from two to four guns of five tons, and eighteen to twenty-two guns of three tons. These are Aréthuse, Dubourdieu, Iphigénie, and Naïade, which, although wooden ships, have all been launched since 1881—the Dubourdieu in 1884. Of French first-class cruisers which do not rank as frigates (having no main-deck batteries) there are nine in number, all built of wood except one, the Duguay-Trouin, which is the fastest of them all, steaming at 15 9/10 knots. This vessel has 3300 tons displacement, and is armed with five guns of eight tons and five of three tons. None of the remaining eight exceed 2400 tons in displacement, none exceed 15.3 knots in speed (but none are less than 14 knots), and each of them carries fifteen guns of three tons. Next come thirteen second-class cruisers, ranging in displacement between 1540 and 2100 tons, and in speed between 11½ and 15 knots; they are principally armed with 3-ton guns. There is another vessel, the Rapide, in this class, but I only know of her that her tonnage is 1900 tons. Of cruisers of the third class there are fifteen, ranging from 1000 to 1400 tons, and principally armed with 3-ton guns. Their speeds vary from 10 to 13 knots; one, however, the Hirondelle, steaming at 15½ knots. The French have likewise thirty-five vessels, “avisos,” etc., of which about one-half are from 1400 to 1600 tons, and the remainder are from 720 to 1000 tons. About six of them reach or approach 13 knots, but most of them range between 10 and 11 knots, some of them falling as low as 8 knots. I have further to make mention of two very fast vessels—for they are to steam 19½ knots—now under construction, named the Surcoup and the Forbin, each of 1850 tons, and each armed with two 3-ton guns. There is also a vessel of 1540 tons, named the Milan, which steams 18 knots, and is armed with five very light (24-cwt.) guns. The French navy possesses also ninety-nine vessels, most of them carrying guns (many of 3 tons, some of 5 tons, and one or two of 8 tons), and also twenty-eight steam transports, varying in size from 1200 to nearly 6000 tons, the largest of them, the Nive (of 5680 tons), steaming 14 knots.
The navies of Europe, including the British navy, have undergone of late considerable expansion in respect of their very fast unarmored steel vessels, the designing and successful construction of which have been brought about by improvements in the quality of ship steel and in steam-machinery, notably as regards the latter, by the employment of “forced draught.”27 These are called torpedo-vessels, as distinct from torpedo-boats. There are in process of completion for the British navy eight of 1630 tons (the Archer class), each carrying six 6-inch 5-ton guns, and estimated to steam with forced draught from 16 to 17 knots; two of 1430 tons each (Scout class), carrying four 5-inch 2-ton guns, with an estimated maximum speed of 16 knots; and two of 785 tons (Curlew class), called “gun and torpedo” vessels; speed, 15 knots; armament, one 6-inch 89-cwt. and three 5-inch 36-cwt. guns. There is also a class of “torpedo gun-boats” (the official designation, but not one which expresses any very manifest distinction from the last-named class), which are of a very notable character. This (the Grasshopper) class, of which each vessel is of only 450 tons displacement, is to be supplied with engines of 2700 indicated horse-power. The diagrams on page 90 exhibit the general form and particulars of these very remarkable little vessels, which are expected to steam at fully 19 knots (22 miles) per hour. Against the above torpedo-vessels of the British navy are to be set, in the French navy, four torpedo-cruisers of 1280 tons, 17 knots speed, carrying each five 4-inch guns; and eight torpedo despatch-vessels, each of 320 tons, and designed to steam at 18 knots, carrying machine guns only; such machine guns being also carried, of course, by all the fast torpedo-vessels and gun-boats, both French and English, previously referred to, but in their cases in conjunction with their other guns. These 320-ton torpedo-vessels of France are to be driven by machinery of 1800 indicated horse-power.
It may be observed with regard to these small craft furnished with such enormous steam-power (in proportion to their size and tonnage) that there is much uncertainty as to the speeds which they will attain. Not only are the builders without experience of similar vessels by which to guide themselves, but where the proportion of power to displacement is so great, slight differences both in hulls and machinery, no less than in immersion and trim, may produce unforeseen results. As designers who fail to realize promised speeds are liable to be discredited, while those whose vessels surpass their promised speeds may be unduly praised, it is but reasonable to expect that the promised speeds will usually even be more than realized. This has been the case with the Bombe, the first of the French torpedo despatch-vessels which have been tried under steam, and which, under the promise of 18 knots, realized no less than 19½ knots on the measured mile. It should be added that all of these extremely fast small craft in both navies are propelled by twin engines and screws. As great public interest will be felt in the trials of these very novel and special vessels—as mere steamers no less than as war craft—it may be well to give their names, to facilitate their identification hereafter.
English Torpedo Gun-boats: Grasshopper, Rattlesnake, Spider, Sandfly—each having a displacement of 450 tons, 2700 horse-power, 200 feet length, 23 feet breadth, 8 feet draught, and a speed estimated at 19 knots.
French Torpedo Despatch-Vessels: Bombe, Couleuvrine, Dague, Dragonne, Flèche, Lance, Saint-Barbe, Salve—each having a displacement of 320 tons, 1800 horse-power, 194.3 feet length, 21.4 feet breadth, 5.1 feet draught, and, with the exception of the Bombe, a speed estimated at 18 knots. The actual speed of the Bombe is 19.5 knots.
Besides the above vessels, the two navies (English and French) are provided as follows with torpedo-boats: The English have nine small (56 feet long) and slow (14½ to 15 knots) of wood; fifty small (60 to 66 feet long) and slow (15 to 16 knots) of steel; nineteen others of greater length, but all less than 93 feet, and of speeds varying from 16 to 19 knots; six of 100 to 113 feet, and 19 knots; fifty-three of 125 feet in length, and 19 knots; and two building, viz., one of 135 feet in length, and 22 knots, and one of 150 feet in length, and 20 knots; in all, one hundred and thirty-nine torpedo-boats, of which the 135-feet boat carries four 3-pounder quick-firing guns, and the 150-feet boat carries five 6-pounder guns of that kind. The French have nine under 70 feet in length; forty-one under 100 feet in length, steaming at 17 to 18 knots; eighteen of 108 feet in length, somewhat faster; nine of 113 feet in length, steaming at 22 knots; and fifty-one of 114 feet in length, steaming at 20 knots; in all, one hundred and twenty-eight torpedo-boats, all armed with machine guns only. As the nine slow wooden boats of the English navy can hardly be regarded as torpedo-boats at all, it may be said that of torpedo-boats, built and building, the English have one hundred and thirty, and the French one hundred and twenty-eight, of which the English have seventy-nine completed, and fifty-one building and completing, and the French have sixty-eight completed, and sixty building and completing. The English navy is therefore slightly, but only slightly, in advance of the French in the matter of torpedo-boats proper, while in respect of extremely fast sea-going torpedo-vessels of 320 and 450 tons respectively, the English have three under construction and one completed, while the French have one (the Bombe) completed and seven under construction.
Notes
Of the 150,000,000 francs appropriated in France this year for the construction of war-ships nearly nine-tenths were set aside, not for the building of large armored vessels, but for the following fast cruisers and auxiliary classes: “Six cruisers, class I., 30,000,000 francs; ten cruisers, class II., 26,000,000 francs; twenty torpedo-catchers, 12,000,000 francs; fifty gun-boats, 15,000,000 francs; one hundred torpedo-boats, 25,000,000 francs; three coast-defence vessels, 25,000,000 francs.”
Notwithstanding the late change in administration this seems to show that the policy of Admiral Aube, referred to in the introductory chapter, is still potent, and that the government believes the next war with England will be carried on by French cruisers attacking British commerce, and that sharp, destructive dashes will be made against the enemy’s coast by ships with great speed, and such sufficient power that “all of England’s littoral towns, fortified and unfortified, whether purely peace establishments or warlike,” will be burned or pitilessly ransomed. “In any future war,” continues this exponent of the new ideas, “France will come down from the heights of the cloudy sentimentality which has created that monstrous association of words, rights of war, and her attack on every source of English riches will become not only legitimate but obligatory.”
It is certain that French naval activity is now mainly directed to the construction of vessels just suited to these new theories. At the same time she has a formidable fleet of heavily armored vessels, a rough comparison with those of England being as follows, in the classes which have over fifteen inches of armor protection and carry guns above forty-three tons in weight:
| Ships. | Armor. | No. Guns. | Weight. | |
| 3 | 21½ inches | 6 breech-loading rifles | 75 tons. | |
| 5 | 20 ″ | 8 ″ | ″ | 75 ″ |
| 6 | 18 ″ | 8 ″ | ″ | 50 ″ |
| 2 | 15 ″ | 24 ″ | ″ | 48 ″ |
| 16 | 46 | |||
England has three ships with armor from twenty-four inches to eighteen inches thick, and twelve ships with armor eighteen inches thick; three ships carry six 110-ton guns, six carry twenty-four 67-ton guns, five carry sixteen 43-ton guns, all breech-loading rifles, while one has four muzzle-loading 80-ton guns.
The latest additions to the armored fleet of France are the Hoche, of the Marceau type of battle-ship, and the Cocyte and Mitraille, coast-defence gun-boats. The Marceau, launched May 24, 1887, is built of steel with an under-water skin of iron; a double bottom extends below the engines, boilers, and magazines, and the hold is divided into thirty-one water-tight compartments by horizontal and longitudinal bulkheads. The armor-belt encircles the ship, dips forward to strengthen the ram, is carried twelve inches above the load water-line, and varies in thickness from 13.7 to 17.7 inches; the barbette towers are 15.7 inches thick, and the armored deck, above which there are many compartments, is 2.6 inches thick. The armament is made up of four 13 4/10-inch guns mounted in the towers, of one 5½-inch gun at the bow, and of sixteen 5½-inch pieces in broadside; the secondary battery includes twenty Hotchkiss guns and four above-water torpedo tubes.
The estimated horse-power is 8548 (not 5500 as stated on page 76) with natural draft, and 12,000 with forced draft, the estimated speed being 16 knots, the coal capacity 800 tons, and the coal endurance 1500 miles at full power and 3500 miles at 11 knots speed. The Neptune and the Hoche, of the same general plans and dimensions, were launched in the spring of this year. As originally designed the Hoche was expected to develop 16 knots and 7000 indicated horse-power, but by the application of forced draft the speed was increased to 17½ and the power to 12,000. The armament consists—not of the four 52-ton guns given in the table on page 76—but, as stated in the text, of two 13.4-inch guns (34 centimetre) mounted one in each of the midship turrets, of two 10.6-inch guns (27 centimetre) carried one in each of the waist turrets, and of eighteen 5.5-inch guns (14 centimetre) so disposed in broadside within the unarmored central superstructure which occupies the deck between the turrets that the forward and after pairs are given bow and stern fire respectively. The armor-belt is similar to that of the Marceau, but the protective deck is from 3.15 to 3.54 inches thick, and the heavy gun sites are protected by 15.75 inches of compound armor.
The Amiral Courbet (formerly the Foudroyant) carries four 10.6-inch, six 5.5-inch, and twelve rapid-fire guns. She developed 6016 horse-power with natural and 8088 with forced draft, the mean speed being 14.2 knots on a consumption of 2.35 pounds per power each hour. The Indomptable, Requin, Caïman, and Terrible are sister battle-ships. They were originally laid down in 1877, and the Terrible was only completed ready for sea in 1887. They are constructed like the Marceau, of iron and steel, the outer skin of the under-water body being of the former metal; the compound armor is from 13 to 19⅝ inches in thickness, and carries five feet of its seven feet six inches width below the water-line. In each of two pear-shaped barbette towers situated on the longitudinal midship line, and protected by 17¾ inches of armor, a 16.5-inch gun, with its axis twenty-one feet above the water is mounted; in addition there are four 4-inch breech-loading rifles and a secondary battery of rapid-fire guns and torpedo-tubes. The Indomptable, launched in September, 1883, made in her trial trip in August, 1886, a speed of 15 knots, and is officially rated as having a sea speed of 13.5 knots. All work upon the partially protected ships Brennus and Charles Martel was stopped in 1886, and their specific appropriation has been transferred to the sum already assigned for the construction of fast cruisers and torpedo-boats.
The Cocyte and Mitraille belong to a new class, or rather they represent a type which, after disappearing for a season of doubt and denial, has had its value so much recognized that three Continental nations are giving it earnest study. A late French Minister of Marine asked within a year for money to construct fifty of these gun-boats, but was then refused the grant, a decision for which Admiral Sir George Elliot thinks England ought to be very grateful. This distinguished officer believes in the value of the type, and hopes that the Admiralty “will take note of the threat thus made” before the theory is allowed to prevail that adequate security can be given to the British coasts by sea-going cruisers, submarine mines, shore batteries, and torpedo-boats. The boats present a small target, and give good armor protection to guns which, when the vessels are inshore or reinforced by land batteries, have sufficient power to keep battle-ships at a distance. They are very handy, have good speed, and are economical, because for the same money they can, as flotillas, bring into the action four times the gun-power possible in the large battle-ships. In France this type is divided into two classes—the Achéron, Cocyte, Phlegéton, and Styx, of 1639 tons, belonging to the first, and the Fusée, Grenade, Mitraille, and Flamme, of 1045 tons, to the second. The iron and steel hulls are extensively subdivided into water-tight compartments, and are protected by complete belts of steel armor at the water-line, and by arched steel-armored decks. The superstructures above the protective decks have water-line belts of cellulose. The armament consists of one heavy gun mounted in a barbette tower, and of a strong secondary battery of machine guns and torpedoes.
The most important contributions to the sea-going navy of France are the cruisers. In the naval programme adopted after the war with Germany, ships of high speed were decided to be of such great value that thirty-four—sixteen of the first and eighteen of the second class—were provided for. At the present day French naval policy seems to pin its faith to fast cruisers, 5½-inch breech-loading guns, and torpedo-vessels. In pursuance of this belief the Tage, the largest unarmored cruiser yet designed by any nation, was laid down in 1885; she is ship-rigged, has a complete under-water curved deck, lightly armored bulkheads forward and abaft the battery, a steel conning-tower, and heavily plated hatchways. A belt of cellulose along the water-line, and the subdivision of the space above the protective deck into water-tight compartments, will, it is claimed, insure the safety of the ship in action. This employment of cellulose to stop leaks automatically was very successfully demonstrated in the experiments made at Toulon with a target “composed of fourteen parts of cellulose and one part of cellulose in fibre, the whole compressed into a felt-like mass, with a lining two feet thick. A shot seven and one-half inches in calibre was fired against this target at a distance to insure penetration. The result was not only satisfactory but extraordinary. The shot, which carried away about one-fifth of a cubic foot of the composition, had no sooner passed through than the cellulose closed up so firmly that a strong man was unable to insert his arm into the hole. A tank filled with water was then hung against the place where the shot had entered, and after an interval of fifteen minutes water began to trickle through, but not more than a man with a bucket could easily intercept. As soon as the composition became thoroughly soaked, it offered increased resistance to the entrance of the water, which eventually ceased to flow, and the breach was closed automatically. The results were the same where shells were used instead of shot, and red-hot coals were heaped upon the composition without causing its ignition.”28
The twin-screw cruiser Cecile, which was designed before the Tage, and is somewhat smaller, illustrates the principle of duality in construction; the two main engines are situated in separate compartments, and the six boilers are arranged in three different groups. The sail area is 2153 square yards, and the steel lower masts serve as ventilators to the hold, and carry steel crow’s-nests in which are mounted rapid fire and machine guns. The primary batteries of the two ships are similar, each carrying six 6¼-inch guns on the spar-deck (one forward, one aft, and four on sponsons) and ten 5½-inch pieces on the covered deck in broadside. The secondary battery of the Cecile consists of ten 37-millimetre (1.45-inch) guns, and that of the Tage of three 47-millimetre (1.85-inch) rapid-fire guns, and twelve 37-millimetre revolving cannon—all of the Hotchkiss pattern. Both ships are supplied with above-water torpedo tubes, the former having four, the latter seven. The estimated maximum speed of the Tage is 19 knots, with 10,330 horse-power, and that of the Cecile is 18½ knots, with 9600 horse-power. The latest cruisers laid down are the Jean Bart and the Dupuy de Lôme, the first bearing the name of the rugged old sea-wolf who entered the navy as an apprentice and died a famous admiral, and the other that of the constructor who designed both in wood and iron the first steam line-of-battle ships. These vessels are of 352 feet length, 43.6 feet beam, 18 feet 10 inches mean draught, and 4162 tons displacement; their estimated maximum speed is 19 knots. The main battery is composed of four 6.3-inch guns mounted on sponsons, and of six 5.5-inch carried in broadside, and the secondary armament has six 37-millimetre revolving cannons, four 3-pounder rapid-fire guns, and the usual torpedo tubes.
The Alger and Isly are similar in construction to the Cecile, but have the dimensions and armament of the Jean Bart; they are designed for 19 knots, and a coal endurance of 3600 miles at 13 knots. The Mogador is a rapid cruiser of 4325 tons, and of nearly similar design, armament, speed, and endurance as the above. The Chanzy, Davoust, and Suchet belong to the same class of “croiseurs à barbette,” and are of 3027 tons displacement, with an estimated speed of 20 knots.
The Surcoup and Forbin illustrate another favorite type of cruiser. They are 311 feet 7 inches long, have 30 feet 6 inches beam, and on a mean draught of 13 feet 11 inches displace 1848 tons. The hull weighs 817 tons, and the engines (with boilers filled) 544 tons; the coal capacity is 200 tons, and the endurance 2400 miles at 10 knots. The engines are expected, with forced draft, to develop 6000 indicated horse-power and 19.5 knots. They have a four-masted schooner rig, spread 7255.5 square feet of canvas, and carry a complement of one hundred and fifty officers and men. The battery consists of two 5.5-inch guns on the upper deck, three 47-millimetre rapid-fire guns on the poop and forecastle, four 37-millimetre Hotchkiss revolving cannon on the rail, and five torpedo launching tubes—two firing ahead, one astern, and one on each beam. This lightness of battery and small coal capacity indicate with great precision how much weight-carrying power has been sacrificed to spars and sails. The Coetlogon and Cosmao laid down this year are of the same type.
Wishing to obtain a small class of steel cruisers, the French government lately invited the leading ship-builders to send in competitive designs for a vessel which at an extreme draught aft of fourteen feet would on the least possible displacement sustain with natural draft a speed of eighteen knots for twelve hours, and with forced draft a speed of nineteen knots for two hours. The coal endurance was to be 2400 miles at ten knots, the main battery to include two 5.5-inch guns, and the protective steel deck to be 1.6 inch thick. Five competitors furnished plans, and finally those of the Société de la Gironde were chosen, and the two vessels now known as the Troude and the Lalande were laid down. Their principal dimensions are, length 311 feet 7 inches, beam 31 feet, mean draught 14 feet, and displacement 1877 tons. The armament will be two 5.5-inch and three rapid-fire guns, four 37-millimetre revolving cannon, and a supply of torpedo tubes. The vessels, as with the Surcoup type to which they are very similar, will have a fore and aft rig and a complement of one hundred and sixty.
The Duguesclin, referred to on page 84, is an armored cruiser built of steel and iron and sheathed with wood and coppered; an iron armor belt 9⅛ to 6½ inches thick encircles her, and the four barbettes are protected by 8 inches of compound armor. The armament consists of four 9.45-inch guns in the barbettes, of one 7.5-inch gun in the bow, and of six 5.5-inch pieces on broadside, in addition to two 6-pounder rapid-fire guns, twelve revolving cannon, and two above-water torpedo tubes. Her displacement is 5869 tons, draught 23 feet 3 inches, and she has developed 4100 horse-power and 14 knots. The Sfax is a partially protected steel cruiser, which is sheathed with wood and coppered, and has an under-water curved steel protective deck 1.5 inches thick. There is the usual water-tight subdivision below and above this deck, together with the lately adopted cellulose belt. The armament consists of six 6.3-inch guns, four mounted on sponsons, with bow and stern fire, and two in recessed ports with bow and beam fire; of ten 5.5-inch guns in broadside on the main deck, and of eight Hotchkiss revolving cannon. In May, 1887,29 “with natural draft, the mean indicated horse-power developed for four hours was 4333, and the speed 15.9 knots. With forced draft the mean results of a six hours’ trial were, indicated horse-power, 6034; revolutions, 78; mean speed, 16.84 knots. The trials for coal endurance showed that with full natural draft speed the consumption was 1.96 pounds per hour per indicated horse-power developed, and with forced draft it was 2.10 pounds. During these trials the draught of water was 19 feet 4 inches forward and 25 feet 1 inch aft, which was in excess of the normal designed draughts of 19 feet 8 inches and 24 feet 8 inches. Notwithstanding this fact, and the fact of the indicated horse-power falling much below the estimated power of the engines (5000 with natural, 7500 with forced draft), the speed realized exceeded the maximum estimated of 16.5 knots.”
France has been very active in the construction of torpedo-vessels. On the present plane to which the science of naval warfare has advanced the great tactical question is whether torpedo-boats or flotillas are, in high-sea duels or engagements, to take the place of huge ships or large fleets. There are, even in France, very marked differences of opinion upon this point, but so far as official policy and programme can assert a belief, there is no other nation, Russia alone excepted, which appears to hold the torpedo in such high esteem. The manœuvres of 1886 were notable for the prominence given to that type, and of the forty vessels assembled this year for drill and instruction at Toulon, twenty-one were torpedo craft of some kind. The French navy has over two hundred torpedo-boats, which vary in length from seventy to one hundred and thirty-three feet, and in speed from fifteen to twenty-three knots; England has one hundred and eighty-one, of which eighty-eight are built and ninety-three are under construction; these differ as much among themselves as the French boats, their speed range being about the same, and their lengths varying from sixty-three to one hundred and fifty feet. Generally described torpedo-boats may be divided into two classes, the first including such as are of a size to keep the sea and act independently, and the second those carried by ships. The Whitehead torpedoes, the type most generally used, are ejected from their firing tubes by various means, slow burning powder being employed in some cases, though more frequently compressed air or steam. The success of the French boats in China has revived the use of the spar torpedo in combination with the locomotive type, and with us the promised success of the Howell design may cause another revolution in this system of attack.
“Boats exceeding one hundred feet in length,” writes White, “have been shown capable of making long sea-voyages unaccompanied, and the fact has been seized upon by enthusiasts in torpedo warfare like the late Gabriel Charmes as evidence that the days of the armored ship, of the large and costly cruiser, were numbered. Actual experience is not favorable to this extreme view. There is a clear and marked distinction between the capability of making long sea passages in safety, when specially prepared for the purpose, and the sure sea-going qualities of large ships. Boats of the largest size and small swift vessels cannot equal large vessels in the power of maintaining their speed and fighting efficiency or rough war. Life is scarcely endurable for long periods in these overturning boats and small craft, cooking is often a difficulty, and it is not every officer who can rival the foreign commander of a torpedo-boat I once met, who had acquired the power of living for long periods on sherry and eggs. M. Weyl stated a fact when he said of the grand manœuvres with the French iron-clads and torpedo flotilla last year (1886), ‘In my experience as a sailor I have always found that the sea is merciful to big ships and hard upon small ones.’ A moderately rough sea that scarcely troubles the iron-clad or the cruiser of considerable size, suffices to render inevitable a reduction in speed of the small vessels, and a serious loss of power in the accurate use of their torpedoes and guns. As adjuncts to fleets, the small swift vessels and boats are undoubtedly of immense value under many circumstances; for the defence or attack of forts and coasts they are well fitted, but as substitutes for all other types, and as the successful rival of large war-ships in sea service, their claim is not, and probably will not be, established.
“The discovery of the minimum size of swift torpedo-vessels or torpedo-boat destroyers really capable of independent sea service with a fleet is now engaging attention in all navies. In France the first attempts were made in the Bombe class in 1883; some vessels of this class were tried in the recent manœuvres and favorably mentioned. In England the Grasshopper class was designated in 1885, and the first completed vessel, the Rattlesnake, is now completing her speed trials.” Since this last sentence was written the Rattlesnake has made 18.799 knots with a collective indicated horse-power of 2718.27, and though the weather was boisterous, proved that under normal conditions she could furnish a fairly steady platform for her battery. Chief Constructor White continues as follows: “These vessels are of 450 tons, and estimated to steam about 19 knots an hour. Messrs. Thomson, of Clydebank, have just completed another example of the class, intermediate in size between the Bombe and Grasshopper, and said to have attained the very high speed of 22½ knots on trial in smooth water. Experience at sea with these vessels will be of immense value to future designs. They combine an armament of light guns with torpedo armaments, and can act either as torpedo-vessels or as destroyers of torpedo craft. Similarly in the largest classes of torpedo-boats light guns as well as torpedoes are provided for. In fact there has been a departure from the original idea of having the torpedo as the only weapon, as the boats have increased in size, and this change cannot but commend itself.”
The Milan mentioned in the text was designed in 1879 for a torpedo despatch-vessel, but is now used as a scout. She is 303 feet in length, 32 feet 10 inches in beam, draws 15 feet 1 inch aft, and has a displacement of 1550 tons. She carries a fair battery but no torpedoes, is propelled by twin screws, each worked by two compound tandem engines, and has Belleville boilers. On her trial she made 18.4 knots in a rough sea, and developed with natural draft 4132 horse-power, or more than was expected with forced draft; she carries three hundred tons of coal and has a three-masted schooner rig.
The rapid development of torpedo-vessels since her day has resulted in the evolution of different types suited to different demands, and of late France has adopted the following classification for her torpedo flotilla:
| Displacement. | |
| 1. Torpedo-cruisers (croiseurs-torpilleurs) | 1260 to 1280 tons. |
| 2. Torpedo despatch-boats (avisos-torpilleurs) | 320 to 360 tons. |
| 3. Sea-going torpedo-boats (torpilleurs de haute mer) | 50 tons and over. |
| 4. Coast-guard torpedo-boats (torpilleurs-garde cotes) | a, 25 tons; b, 50 tons. |
| 5. Picket torpedo-boats (torpilleurs-videttes) | less than 25 tons. |
The Condor, Epervier, Faucon, and Vautour are examples of the first class, and combine the lightness of hull and the gun armament of the torpedo-catcher with the sea-going powers of the cruiser. They are twin-screw steel vessels, 216 feet long, 29 feet 2 inches in beam, 15 feet 5 inches in draught, and with 3200 indicated horse-power are expected to develop 17 knots. The armament consists of five torpedo-tubes, five 4-inch and six machine guns. In England the Scout, the prototype of this class, is a twin-screw torpedo-cruiser, 220 feet in length, 34 feet 3 inches in beam, and with 14 feet draught displaces 1450 tons. Like the Condor she is subdivided into water-tight compartments and has a steel deck; on her trial she developed with forced draft 17.6 knots and 3350 horse-power. Her armament consists of eleven torpedo-tubes, four 5-inch rifles on central pivots, and eight Nordenfeldt guns.
The Fearless is a sister ship to the Scout. So highly was the class esteemed that eight others known as the Archer class were laid down, and of these the Cossack, Mohawk, Porpoise, Tartar, Archer, and Brisk have already undergone satisfactory steam trials, while the Serpent and Raccoon are approaching completion. All these vessels have a protective deck extending throughout their length, and carry a battery of six 6-inch guns on sponsons, two at each extremity, and two in the waist. On the final trials the Archer developed under forced draft 17.8 knots and 4122 horse-power, the Brisk 18 knots and 3954 horse-power, the Cossack 18 knots and 4003 horse-power, the Porpoise 17.5 knots and 3943 horse-power, and the Tartar 17.28 knots and 3824 horse-power. They have a very low coal consumption, and a coal endurance which was estimated in the Archer’s case to be sufficient for six days, or 2600 knots at full speed, or for 7000 miles at a 10-knot rate. Both the Russians and the Austrians have vessels of this type, and there is no doubt of the favor with which it is looked upon.
Besides the Grasshopper class mentioned in the text, and which includes the Rattlesnake, Spider, Sandfly, and Sharpshooter, there are two steel cruising torpedo gun-vessels, the Curlew and Landrail, of 785 tons; these are fitted with a protective steel deck throughout their length, and have a battery of one 6-inch gun, three 5-inch pivots, a supply of machine guns, and four torpedo-tubes. They were intended to develop 14 knots and 1200 horse-power, but on trial the Curlew attained 15.081 knots and 1452 horse-power. Owing to a faulty design these ships draw with their proposed weights two feet four inches more water than was expected. In addition to these ships the English have the composite gun-vessels Buzzard, Swallow, Nymphe, and Daphné of 1040 tons; the Icarus and Acorn, of the Reindeer and Melita type; the Rattler, Wasp, Bramble, Lizard, Pigmy, Pheasant, Partridge, Plover, Pigeon, and Peacock, all of 715 tons displacement, with an average speed of 13.5 knots and from 1000 to 1200 horse-power; and the two despatch and scout vessels Alacrity and Surprise. The last named displace 1400 tons, and were designed for 3000 horse-power and 17 knots. Both exceeded these expectations, and the Alacrity was lately assigned a battery of four 5-inch guns on sponsons, four 6-pounder rapid fire, and two five-barrelled Nordenfeldts.
It must be stated, however, that, so far torpedo-boats are not as successful in practice as Admiral Aube would have had the naval world believe.
“Swayed by the concurrent testimony of different officers who conducted or took part in the naval manœuvres of 1886, professional opinion appears to agree that torpedo-boats are very delicate instruments at best, and that a greater tonnage is imperative where service at sea is anticipated. A day or two in even moderate weather is sufficient to exhaust the stanchest crew on account of the excessive balloting about, and a prolonged voyage has been found to be fatally injurious to the adjustments of the Whitehead for horizontal accuracy. Furthermore, in such small, low craft a correct estimate of the distance, speed, or course of the enemy is most difficult, especially if the officer be in the conning-tower, looking through the narrow sight-slits; in anything of a sea-way, also, accurate pointing is out of the question.... In the course of the past year Schichau has yielded to Thornycroft the honor of producing the fastest vessel in the world, the owner now being the Spanish Admiralty in place of the Russian. This boat is the Ariete, with a speed of 26.18 knots.
“It has become a question in the minds of some eminent designers and observers, notably M. Normand, whether or not the extreme speeds sought and obtained in some recent boats are not excessive. Damage to the motive machinery is more to be apprehended than any injury to the hull or casualty among the crew. When it is considered that under ordinary conditions of weather and service the speed of the fastest will be little greater than that of an ordinary twenty-knot boat, the propriety at once suggests itself of devoting to steel plate the extra weight of boiler, water, and engine necessary to produce that practically superfluous horse-power.”30
The trials of this year have not confirmed the great promises made for the type by its most able and influential advocates. Many of the English boats broke down, and in few cases were the high speeds realized in actual sea duty. The truth is, torpedo-boats have been brought down to such a condition of refinement to meet the special circumstances of their work that it appears probable they have become too delicate for rough handling. Out of twenty-seven boats that were required to steam a distance of one hundred miles, seven failed to run the course at all, having been, from one cause or another, practically disabled. Such a heavy percentage of failures—one resulted in a loss of life—under a trial test to which the boats might at any time be subjected, arouses a natural doubt as to a policy which is sacrificing for certain impracticable results considerations that are of vital importance.
So far as the French naval manœuvres proved this year, the torpedo-boats were not equal to the task assigned them. During these experiments a squadron of eight armored battle-ships, three cruisers, and two sea torpedo-boats, under command of Vice-admiral Peyron, was supposed to represent a convoy of troop-ships and guard-vessels which was to be intercepted on a voyage from Toulon to Algiers by a torpedo division of four cruisers, one store-ship, and sixteen boats, with the Gabriel Charmes, gun-boat, all lying off Ajaccio, under command of Rear-admiral Brown de Coulston.
Vice-admiral Peyron and his heavy squadron left port on the day appointed with a strong northerly gale and a high sea, and shortly after clearing the land the Indomptable, an armored battle-ship, sustained some damage and had to anchor under the Hyères Islands. The mistral sent the other vessels rapidly on their way to the African coast without slackening speed, all keeping well together, with the two torpedo-boats steaming along under the higher sides of their consorts. On the other hand, the torpedo division of Rear-admiral Brown, which had left Toulon two days before the fictitious convoy, was concentrated at Ajaccio. They ran seaward on Saturday night to find the Peyron ships, but the latter had cleverly given them the go-by in the darkness and bad weather, and the mosquito flotilla was forced to return to Corsica for shelter. Ajaccio was reached by Rear-admiral Brown on Sunday afternoon, and it was not until four-and-twenty hours afterwards that the weather moderated sufficiently to enable him to put to sea again, but by that time the Algiers convoy had already been at anchor in their port of destination since the morning. The preliminary operations were therefore a pronounced failure.
The Gabriel Charmes illustrates a design which is similar to that of a torpedo-boat, except that in place of a torpedo tube one 5.5-inch gun is carried forward. The deck is strengthened to bear this weight, and immediately abaft the piece is an armored conning-tower, within which the commanding officer is enabled by an ingenious mechanism to direct the movements of the vessel. The dimensions are as follows: length 132.6 feet, beam 12.6 feet, draught 6.7 feet, and displacement 74 tons. The engines are two-cylindered compound, and developed 560 indicated horse-power and 19 knots. The boats are said to be very cranky even in smooth water, but so highly is their fighting power rated that fifty more have been ordered. In the Mediterranean manœuvres of May the Gabriel Charmes proved to be the swiftest vessel of the torpedo squadron, as on the run from Toulon to Ajaccio she led the others by three hours, and was always in the advance while scouting. One paddle-wheel armored despatch-vessel and seven composite armored transports complete the record of additions made to the French fleet last year.