Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal

Table IX

Rainfall on Croton Watershed in Total Inches — 1868-1898. Natural Flow of Croton River at Old Croton Dam, in Equivalent Inches. Percentage of Run-Off to Rainfall for Each Year

Year.	Total Rainfall.	Total Run-off.	Per Cent.
1868	50.33	33.33	66.22
1869	48.36	23.61	48.82
1870	44.63	19.20	43.02
1871	48.94	19.46	39.76
1872	40.74	16.92	41.53
1873	43.87	25.02	57.03
1874	42.37	25.10	59.24
1875	43.66	24.77	56.73
1876	40.68	21.09	51.84
1877	48.23	20.22	41.92
1878	55.70	27.17	48.78
1879	47.04	19.65	41.77
1880	36.92	12.63	34.21
1881	46.69	19.25	41.23
1882	52.35	24.28	46.38
1883	42.70	13.33	31.22
1884	51.28	24.08	46.96
1885	43.67	17.71	40.55
1886	47.74	20.10	42.10
1887	57.29	26.61	46.45
1888	60.69	35.27	58.12
1889	55.70	31.39	56.36
1890	54.05	25.95	48.01
1891	47.20	23.48	49.75
1892	44.28	17.68	39.93
1893	54.87	29.05	52.94
1894	47.33	20.56	43.44
1895	40.58	15.95	39.31
1896	45.85	23.26	50.73
1897	53.12	25.59	48.17
1898	57.40	29.72	51.77
1899	44.67	22.28	49.88
Average for	48.07	22.93	47.70
32 years.

The table shows that the least annual rainfall was 36.92 inches for 1880, and that the run-off represented a depth of 12.63 inches only, or 34.21 per cent of the total annual precipitation. As a rule the same feature of a low percentage of run-off will be found belonging to the years of low rainfall, although there are many irregularities in the results. On the other hand, the high percentages of run-off are for the years 1868, 1888, and 1889, and they will generally be found belonging to years of relatively great precipitation. A low percentage of run-off will also be lower if the year to which it belongs follows a dry year or a dry cycle of two or three years. Similarly the high percentages of run-off will, as a rule, be higher if they follow years of high precipitation; that is, if they belong to a cycle of relatively great rainfall.

170. Evaporation from Reservoirs.—If it is contemplated to build reservoirs on a watershed the capacity of which is being estimated on the basis of either the driest year or the driest two- or three year cycle, it is necessary to make a deduction from the rainfall for the evaporation which will take place from the surface of the proposed reservoir. In order that that deduction may be made as a proper allowance for added water surface in a drainage area, it is necessary that the amount of evaporation be determined for the district considered. The rate of evaporation is dependent upon the area of water surface, upon the wind, and upon the temperature both of the water and air above it. Numerous evaporation observations have been made both in this and other countries, and extensive evaporation tables have been prepared by the Weather Bureau, from which a reasonable estimate of the monthly evaporation for all months in the year may be made for almost any point in the United States. Particularly available observations have been made by Mr. Desmond Fitzgerald of Boston on the Chestnut Hill reservoirs of the Boston Water-supply, and by Mr. Emil Kuichling, engineer of the Rochester Water-works, on the Mount Hope reservoir of the Rochester supply. Table X exhibits the results of the observations of both these civil engineers.

Aqueduct Division Wall of Jerome Park Reservoir
New York City.

As would be anticipated, the period from May to September, both inclusive, shows by far the greatest evaporation of the whole year, while December, January, and February are the months of least evaporation. The total annual evaporation at Boston was 39.2 inches and 34.54 inches at Rochester.

TABLE X.

MEAN MONTHLY EVAPORATIONS.

Month.	Chestnut Hill Reservoir, Boston, Mass.		Mount Hope Reservoir, Rochester, N. Y.
	Evaporation, Inches.	Per Cent of Yearly Evaporation.	Evaporation, Inches.	Per Cent of Yearly Evaporation.
January	0.96	2.4	0.52	1.5
February	1.05	2.7	0.54	1.6
March	1.70	4.3	1.33	3.9
April	2.97	7.6	2.62	7.6
May	4.46	11.4	3.93	11.4
June	5.54	14.2	4.94	14.3
July	5.98	15.2	5.47	15.8
August	5.50	14.0	5.30	15.4
September	4.12	10.4	4.15	12.0
October	3.16	8.1	3.16	9.1
November	2.25	5.7	1.45	4.2
December	1.51	3.9	1.13	3.2
Total for year	39.20		34.54
Mean temperature	48°.6		47°.8

A reference to data of the Weather Bureau will show that annual evaporation as high as 100 inches, or even more, may be expected on the plateaux of Arizona and New Mexico. Other portions of the arid country in the western part of the United States will indicate annual evaporations running anywhere from 50 to 90 inches per year, while on the north Pacific coast it will fall as low as 18 to 40 inches.

171. Evaporation from the Earth’s Surface.—Data are lacking for anything like a reasonably accurate estimate of evaporation from the earth’s surface. It is well known that the loss of water from that source is considerable in soils like those of swamps, particularly when exposed to the warm sun, but no reliable estimate can be obtained for the exact amount. Nor is this necessary for the usual water-supply problems, since it is included in the difference between the total rainfall of any district and the observed run-off in the streams. Indeed evaporation from reservoirs is similarly included for reservoirs existing when the run-off observations are made.