Germany
Dresden. The celebrated porcelain manufactory at Dresden, or rather at Meissen (in its vicinity), was established by Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, for the manufacture of true porcelain, that is, hard paste. The experiments of Tschirnhaus and Böttcher commenced about 1706, and to the latter is attributed the invention of hard paste. His first attempt was a red ware, like jasper, which was cut and polished by the lapidary, and ornamented by gilding; it was a fine stoneware, having the opacity, grain, and toughness of pottery. Later, Böttcher succeeded in discovering the mode of making true porcelain by the accidental detection of the kaolin necessary for the purpose. In consequence of this important discovery, Augustus II. established the great manufactory at Meissen, of which Böttcher was appointed Director in 1710, and about 1715 he succeeded in making a fine white porcelain. The first decorations upon this ware were very imperfect, consisting of a blue colour under the glaze, in imitation of Nankin blue porcelain. It was under Horoldt’s direction, in 1720, that paintings of a superior character, accompanied by gilding, and medallions of Chinese figures were introduced, and magnificent services completed. In 1731, Kändler, a sculptor, superintended the modelling of animals, groups, vases, &c., while other artists painted birds, insects, and copies of paintings principally of the Flemish school. The best productions emanated from the Dresden manufactory from 1731 to 1756.
Kändler modelled men and animals of the natural size, as well as peacocks, herons, pelicans, and other birds. Among the pieces produced about this time by, or under the direction of, Kändler, at Meissen was Count Bruhl’s tailor mounted upon a goat, with all the implements of his trade about him. This vain man had a great desire that his likeness should be executed in porcelain at the royal manufactory, and his request was complied with, but probably not in such a way as to gratify his vanity, for not only the tailor but his wife were thus immortalised, aere perennius, in porcelain. In 1754 Dietrich became Director, and he was succeeded in 1796 by Marcolini, whose beautiful productions are well known. Porcelain of his period is always distinguished by a star underneath crossed swords. In spite of the precautions taken at Meissen to prevent the secret becoming known—the penalty being death, or perpetual imprisonment in the Castle of Königstein—some workmen escaped to reveal it elsewhere.
The white Meissen porcelain was sometimes ornamented by private persons, especially by a Baron Busch, Canon of Hildesheim, who was the only person possessed of the secret of engraving with a diamond on china.
Berlin. This manufactory for Hard Paste was established by Wilhelm Caspar Wegeli in 1751, in the Neue Friedrichsstrasse. It was carried on for about ten years, but it never remunerated the originator, and he abandoned it in 1761, when Gottskowski, a celebrated banker, became the purchaser, and removed the works to Leipziger Strasse; assisted by his capital, they were brought to great perfection.
Johann Ernst Gottskowski obtained the secret of porcelain from Ernst Heinrich Richard, who had been employed by Wegeli. Gottskowski did not personally manage the manufactory, but placed it under the management of the Commissioner Grunenger, which led to his employment from the year 1763 to 1786 as the head of the royal porcelain manufactory at Berlin.
In 1763, Gottskowski gave up to the king the whole of his factory of porcelain, receiving 225,000 dollars, and entering into a contract for the sale of his secrets.
With a view to encouraging the manufacture in his kingdom, the king made presents of superb services of Berlin china to several German princes in the year 1766. When Frederick the Great occupied Dresden, in the seven years’ war, he expatriated many of the best modellers and painters to form his royal manufactory; among these were Meyer, Klipsel, and Böhme. The king also transported great quantities of the clay and a portion of the collection. Independently of this, and the better to insure employment for the five hundred persons engaged in the processes, he restricted the Jews resident in any part of his dominions from entering into the marriage state, until each man had obtained a certificate from himself, which was only granted on the production of a voucher from the Director of the manufactory that porcelain to a given amount had been purchased, and that there was reasonable cause for granting the indulgence. Of course the Jews more readily disposed of their purchases than the general dealers, and the device was attended with favourable results. To insure the success of the establishment and extend its operations, Frederick embraced every opportunity that was presented; and it was so well supported that in 1776 seven hundred men were constantly employed, and it is said that three thousand pieces of porcelain were made daily.
In 1769 an order was published permitting a lottery company to purchase annually to the amount of 90,000 dollars.
About 1872, the Berlin Royal Porcelain Manufactory was working seven kilns, and employing three hundred workmen; the annual produce amounted on an average to half a million finished articles, value 150,000 Prussian dollars. The superintendence was entrusted to Herr Kolbe (who succeeded Herr Frick in the direction), under whom were Dr. Eisner as chemist, Herr Mantel as master modeller, and Herr Looschen as head painter.
Höchst, a town situated on the Main, and now in Nassau, belonged to the Electors of Mainz. A manufactory was founded in 1746 by J. C. Göltz and J. F. Clarus, two merchants of Frankfort, assisted by A. von Löwenfinck, but they were unsuccessful, and called in Ringler, of Vienna, who had escaped from the manufactory. During the Electorate of Johann Friedrich Karl, Archbishop of Mainz, their porcelain ranked among the first in Europe. About 1760 the celebrated modeller Melchior was engaged, and some very elegant statuettes and designs for vases, &c., were produced. Melchior left the manufactory about 1785, and his successor, Ries, was not so skilful, and all his figures having disproportionate heads, the so-called “thick-head” period commenced. Christian Gottlieb Kuntze was another celebrated worker in this fabrique. On the invasion of the French under General Custine in 1794, all the materials were sold by auction.
Frankenthal, in Bavaria. Established in 1754, by Paul Hannong, who, having discovered the secret of hard porcelain, offered it to the royal manufactory at Sèvres, but the authorities not agreeing as to the price, the offer was declined, and they commenced persecuting him—for in that year a decree forbade the making of translucent ware in France except at Sèvres—and Hannong was compelled to go to Frankenthal, leaving his fayence manufactory at Strassburg in charge of his sons. In 1761 the factory was purchased by the Elector Carl Theodore, and it attained great celebrity, which it maintained until he became Elector of Bavaria, in 1777. It then declined, and all the stock and utensils were sold in 1800 and removed to Greinstadt. The following chronogram denotes the year 1775:—
VarIantIbVs · fLosCVLIs · DIVersI · CoLores ·
fabrICæ · sVb · reVIVIsCentIs · soLIs · hVIVs ·
raDIIs · eXVLtantIs ·
In·frankenthaL· ✴
It occurs on a porcelain plate, Fig. 139, having in the centre the initials of Carl Theodore, interlaced and crowned, within a gold star of flaming rays; radiating from this are thirty divisions, and on the border thirty more, all numbered and painted with small bouquets, en camaïeu, of all the various shades of colour employed in the manufactory.
Neudeck, on the Au, and Nymphenburg. This factory was established in 1747, by a potter named Niedermayer. Graf von Hainshausen became its patron in 1754, and in 1756 he sent for Ringler, who organised the establishment, and it was then placed under the protection of the Elector Maximilian Joseph. On the death of his successor, Carl Theodore, in 1799, the Frankenthal manufactory was abandoned, and transferred to Nymphenburg, which is still a royal establishment, and well supported. The pieces are manufactured in white at Nymphenburg, but chiefly decorated at Munich and elsewhere; that is the reason why on the same piece the Nymphenburg mark is frequently found impressed, with the mark of some other factory painted in colour.
Fig. 141, moulded in relief and painted with flowers; marks, the coat of Bavaria, 1765 in gold, two leaves and I. A. H. in green; height 7¼ in.
Fig. 142, painted in colours; marks, the coat of arms of Bavaria, and A incised; diameter 3¼ in. and 5¼ in.
Anspach, a town which belonged to the Margraves of Anspach and is now in Bavaria. There was a factory here about 1760.
Fig. 143 is painted with figures in colour; signed “Schelk, pinx.”; mark A in blue; diameter 3 ins. and 5¼ in.
Bayreuth was under the same rulers as Anspach, and is now also in Bavaria. There was a manufactory here in the 18th century, but little appears to be known respecting it.
Fig. 144 is painted in colours, and gilt inside; mark, “Metzsch 1748 Bayr”; diameter 2¾ in.
Kelsterbach, in Hesse. A manufactory for pottery was founded here about 1758, where later porcelain was also made. The works only lasted about sixteen years.
Fig. 145 is painted in colours; mark, H. D. under a crown, in blue; height 6¾ in.
Thuringia. In the middle of the 18th century a number of small porcelain factories sprang up in this district. It is said that they owe their origin to a chemist named Macheleid, who discovered by accident a deposit of kaolin, and obtained permission from the Prince of Schwarzburg to establish a factory at Sitzenroda, which in 1762 was removed to Volkstedt.
Closter, or Kloster, Veilsdorf, or Volkstedt. The porcelain manufactory of Sitzenroda was transferred to Volkstedt, in Thuringia, in 1762, where it was farmed by a merchant named Nonne, of Erfurt, who greatly enlarged and improved the works. About the year 1770 it was carried on by Greiner. In 1795 more than 120 workmen were employed.
Fig. 148 is moulded in rococo style, and painted with flowers; mark, shield of Saxe-Meiningen between C. V.; length 12½ in.
Rudolstadt. The factory at Volkstedt was afterwards removed to Rudolstadt, near Jena. Gotthelf Greiner had the direction of several of the other Thuringian manufactories; he died in 1797.
Fulda, in Hesse. A factory was established here about 1763 by Arnandus, Prince-Bishop of Fulda, for the manufacture of porcelain. The best artists were employed, and many grand vases, figures, and services of a fine white paste and handsomely decorated were produced.
Fürstenberg. In Brunswick, established in 1750, by the help of Bengraf, who came from Höchst; he died the same year, and Baron von Lang, a distinguished chemist, undertook the direction of the works, under the patronage of Carl, Duke of Brunswick. The manufactory was carried on by the Government up to the middle of last century.
Fig. 154, a bust of Augusta, Duchess of Brunswick, grand-daughter of King George II., is in white biscuit; mark, F in blue, a running horse, and W; height 20½ in.
Fig. 155. Portraits of O. D. Beckmann and A. L. Schlötzer; marked with a running horse and F; length 2⅞ in.
Ludwigsburg, in Würtemberg. Established by J. J. Ringler in 1758, under the patronage of Carl Eugene, the reigning duke. It was celebrated for the excellence of its productions and the fine paintings on its vases and services, as well as for its excellent groups. This factory ceased in 1824.
Fig. 156 is painted with figures of Hope and Music in panels; mark, double C under a crown, in blue; height 5¼ in.
Fig. 157 is painted in lake camaïeu, with a landscape and buildings after Claude, and has a gilt, arabesque and scroll border.
Regensburg, or Ratisbon. This factory was established about 1760.
Grossbreitenbach. A factory was established here about 1770 by Greiner. The demand for his porcelain was so great, that not being able to enlarge his works at Limbach, he started this as well as Veilsdorf and Volkstedt.
Fig. 159 is grey blue ware in imitation of Wedgwood, with classical group in white relief, bearing a wreath with the cypher F. G. C. under a crown; marks, “Breitenbach et Limbach,” and “Gruber”; height 4 in.
LIMBACH
Limbach, Saxe-Meiningen. This manufactory was also under the direction of Gotthelf Greiner. It was established about 1762.
Fig. 160 is painted with flowers; mark, two letters L crossed; diameters 4⅞ and 8¼ in.
Gera. A manufactory was founded here about 1780.
Fig. 161 is painted with festoons of pink flowers; mark, G in blue; height 6¼ in.
Fig. 162 is grained in imitation of oak, with medallions painted with views, “Schloss aus dem Kohlenhofe” on cup, and “Lauchstaedt vor dem Brunnen” on saucer; signed, “Rühlig Fec”; mark, G in blue; diameters 3 and 5¼ in.
Baden-Baden. A porcelain manufactory was established in 1753 by the widow Sperl and workmen from Höchst, with the patronage of the reigning Margrave, under Pfälzer. It ceased in 1778.
GOTHA
Gotha. Founded in 1780 by Rothenberg, and afterwards (1802) conducted by Henneberg.
Rauenstein, in Saxe-Meiningen. A factory for hard paste was established here in 1760.
Fig. 164 is painted with flowers; mark, R—n; diameters 3 and 5 in.
Wallendorf, in Saxe-Coburg. There was also a factory for hard paste established by Greiner and Haman here in 1762.
Fig. 165 is painted in dark blue, and with leaves in relief; mark, W, in blue; height 10 in.