Appendix to the Third Edition
It has been suggested to me that the usefulness of my little book would be enlarged if I were to add an appendix containing some application to practical work of the physiological laws already explained. This I have endeavoured to do in the following chapter, and I trust the simplicity of the directions will enable the reader to carry out my instructions, to vary them, and to enlarge upon them according to circumstances.
HINTS ON TEACHING.
One of the most important lessons taught us by the study of Vocal Physiology is the correct method of breathing and of obtaining control over the respiratory muscles. I will now give a few exercises for this purpose.
Divest yourself of any article of clothing which at all interferes with the freedom of the waist. Lie down flat on your back. Place one hand lightly on the abdomen and the other upon the lower ribs. Inhale, through the nostrils, slowly, deeply, and evenly, without interruption or jerking. If this is done properly the abdomen will, gradually and without any trembling movement, increase in size, and the lower ribs will expand sideways, while the upper part of the chest and the collar-bones remain undisturbed. Now hold the breath, not by shutting the glottis, but by keeping the midriff down and the chest walls extended, and count four mentally, at the rate of sixty per minute. Then let the breath go suddenly. The result of this will be a flying up of the midriff, and a falling down of the ribs; in other words, there will be a collapse of the lower part of the body. This collapse may not at first be very distinct, as the extension has probably been insufficient; but both will become more and more perfect as the result of continued practice.
Let it be clearly understood: The inspiration is to be slow and deep, the expiration sudden and complete. In inspiration the abdomen and the lower part of the chest expand, and in expiration they collapse.
The time of holding the breath is not, at the outset, to exceed four seconds, and the student must never, on any account, fatigue himself with these exercises; they may, however, be frequently repeated at intervals. It will be found by occasional trials upon the spirometer that the breathing capacity increases with these exercises. The process of abdominal respiration becomes easy and no longer requires constant watchfulness, and the student will soon be able to carry it on, not only lying down, but while he is standing or walking, though not at once with the same ease. He must now, for a time, be careful to see that he has the same physical sensations in breathing which he noticed while making his first experiment when lying down; and he must exercise special care when running, going upstairs, &c., and, of course, in speaking or singing.
The criterion of correct inspiration is, as I have said before, an increase of size of the abdomen and of the lower part of the chest. Whoever draws in the abdomen and raises the upper part of the chest in the act of filling his lungs does wrong.
Meanwhile, in continuing the breathing exercises, the time of holding the breath may be increased at the rate of two seconds per week; so that the student who, during the first fortnight, limited himself to four seconds will, at the end of six weeks, hold his breath during twelve seconds. I have, in some instances, with students of mine, gone as far as twenty seconds; but I desire very earnestly to warn my readers to be cautious and not to go to extremes. Nothing will be gained, but infinite harm may ensue by over-doing these lung gymnastics, and persons at all inclined to bleeding from the lungs should not undertake the exercises at all, except with the sanction of their medical adviser, who will limit the practice according to circumstances.
The second breathing exercise is the exact opposite of the first, and consists in taking a rapid inspiration and making the expiration slow, even, uninterrupted and without jerking or trembling. My musical readers will at once see the importance of this exercise for the purpose of singing sustained tones and florid passages; but it would be quite useless to attempt it before No. 1 has been sufficiently practised.
The third and last breathing exercise consists in taking the inspiration as in No. 1, and the expiration as in No. 2. After the two preceding ones have been fully mastered this last is easy enough; and the student who has persevered so far will now have overcome one of the greatest difficulties of a vocalist, namely, the proper management of the breath, an accomplishment which seems to become more and more rare in our go-ahead times of electricity.
I feel that my description of these breathing exercises is far from complete, and what is worse, that it may lead to misunderstandings, the results of which will hereafter be laid to my charge. But writing, however lucid and careful, can never take the place of vivâ voce instruction; and I wish it to be distinctly understood that the explanations here given are not by any means intended to supersede the aid of a competent and painstaking teacher.
I will take leave of this part of my subject by warning my readers against the mistake, which may be caused by a superficial perusal of these pages, that it is the chief aim of the above breathing exercises to enable the singer or speaker to cram as much air as possible into the lungs. I have pointed out some of the evils which are likely to arise from exaggerated breathing efforts; yet I wish to say again, most emphatically, that it is quite possible to overcrowd the lungs with air. This is a matter of every-day occurrence, which is not, however, on that account any the less reprehensible; for, as I have already mentioned, it is sure to lead, sooner or later, to forcing and inequality of voice, and to congestion of the vessels and tissues of the throat and of the lungs.
Now we come to the question of the production and cultivation of the voice, including the nature and the proper treatment of the registers. In this connection I shall endeavour to explain a series of exercises based upon physiological facts, which will enable the reader to strike out a safe and direct path, avoiding much useless drudgery, and leading to eminently satisfactory results. As it is not my object to supply a singing manual, but simply to point out the way of treating the voice upon scientific principles, I shall not attempt to deal separately with the different classes of voices, or to go into minute details; but it will rather be my aim to lay down general principles, leaving my readers to carry them into practice, and to elaborate them according to individual circumstances. It must also be borne in mind that the exercises I am going to recommend will here be taken as they suggest themselves, while passing in review the various parts which unitedly form the mechanism of the human voice. Therefore, in the actual process of training a voice, they will have to be taken in a different order from that in which they are discussed here, in accordance with the general plan of this book.
The movements of the pyramids with the vocal ligaments attached to them are governed by two sets of muscles pulling them either together or away from each other. These have been fully described under the names of the “Closing Muscles” and the “Opening Muscles;” and the reader will at once see the importance of devising a set of exercises which shall call these opening and closing muscles into play, thereby making them powerful, and bringing them under the control of the will.
This is, fortunately, a very simple matter; for all we have to do is to sing a series of short tones, each tone to be followed by a short inspiration. We have learnt that every time we strike a tone the vocal ligaments are made to approximate; by so doing we therefore exercise the closing muscles. Every time we take an inspiration the vocal ligaments are separated; by so doing therefore we exercise the opening muscles. It is plain from these explanations that, by practising in the manner just indicated, we shall gain the same results in five minutes which it would take us half an hour to obtain by singing sustained tones after the usual method of teaching.
Let me now give as clear a description of the exercise as possible. Find the pitch of your speaking voice, which we will say is F. Then sing the following:—
| o | o | o | o |
| ah | ah | ah | ah |
| ai | ai | ai | ai |
| [LISTEN] | |||
Strike the tone firmly and clearly, avoiding alike the check of the glottis and the glide of the glottis. This is often a matter of great difficulty, requiring much patience and perseverance on the part of the teacher as well as on that of the student. The glide of the glottis is particularly hard to eradicate, and in many instances the case seems to be hopeless. Do not, however, despair, but try this: Pronounce vigorously the word “Up.” Then whisper, but still very vigorously and distinctly, three times the vowel u, as you just had it in the word “up.” Immediately afterwards sing “Ah.” Thus—
| Up! | u, u, u, | Ah. |
| (spoken) | (whispered) | (sung) |
I recommend this device from extended personal experience, and hope my fellow-teachers may find it as useful as I have found it myself. Another point of importance in practising the exercise for strengthening the opening and the closing muscles is the breathing after every tone; and this must be done gently and without effort, the only perception which the singer should have of it being a slight movement of the midriff. When you can sing the exercise in this manner on F, your supposed speaking tone, then go up the scale, semitone by semitone, to B or C above, and down again, semitone by semitone, to B or C below. Of the quality of tone I will say nothing here, because that part of the subject will be discussed later on in connection with the tongue and the soft palate.
The next thing in connection with the physiology of the vocal organ from which we can deduct a practical lesson is the action of the muscles governing the pitch of the voice. This process is a very complex one, and can be made clear only by vivâ voce explanations, with the help of good models and moving diagrams, by demonstrations with the laryngoscope, and by carefully watching external signs. There is no doubt, however, that a set of muscles, described as the “Stretching and Slackening Muscles,” play the most important part in this matter, and I advise the reader to study carefully the chapter on “The Movements of the Voicebox,” and try the experiments mentioned in it. It will thus be seen that the flexibility of the voice depends in a great measure upon the control we have over the muscles governing the pitch; that is to say, upon the readiness and exactness with which we are able to allow them to contract or to relax.
Performers upon various instruments, as for instance the piano and the violin, know that certain exercises are indispensable to brilliant execution, because they strengthen the muscles of the wrist and of the fingers, and make them obedient to the will. It has even been found that simple finger gymnastics, exercising separately different sets of muscles, and making them independent of each other, are of the greatest value, and save long hours of tedious and wearisome practising. In a similar manner we may spare ourselves much trouble and gain our end most readily by vocal gymnastics, calculated to bring into play the stretching and slackening muscles of the larynx. There is no difficulty about it. Sing F, the same tone from which we started when exercising the opening and the closing muscles, and add to it G. The alteration of the pitch is brought about by a contraction of the stretching muscles overcoming the resistance of the opposing slackening muscles, thereby tensing the vocal ligaments. If you again sing F, the case is reversed, and the new alteration in pitch is brought about by a contraction of the slackening muscles overcoming the resistance of the opposing stretching muscles, thereby relaxing the vocal ligaments.
The above is an example. Take great care to render it perfectly. Sing every tone clearly and distinctly, but without jerking, at the same time uniting all the tones, but without drawling. Do not try how quickly you can sing, but rather how distinctly. Commence slowly, and be in no hurry to increase the speed. Raise and lower the exercise semitone by semitone within the medium part of your voice. A variety of exercises founded upon the same principles may be introduced, and will serve to increase the flexibility of the voice in a very short time.
Now we come to the “Registers” of the voice. I have defined a register as “a series of tones produced by the same mechanism.” The five registers of which the human voice, taken as a whole, consists, are carefully described, and the means by which they are formed minutely explained in a former part of this book. These registers, nevertheless, continue to be a stumbling-stone to many, and the fact of the existence in the throat of different actions for the production of different series of tones has led some teachers into the deplorable mistake of developing and exaggerating them, instead of, on the contrary, smoothing them over and equalizing them. The result is that we often hear singers who seem to have two or three different voices. They are growling in the one, moaning in the second, and shrieking in the third; while it should have been their aim so to blend and to unite the registers as to make it difficult even for a practised ear to distinguish the one from the other. Such singing is outrageous, and I protest against the opinion expressed in some quarters that it is the natural outcome of the teachings of the laryngoscope.
In developing and strengthening the registers I base my first exercises upon the fact that the “Vowel Scale” goes from low to high in this order; oo, oh, ah, ai, ee, so that consequently the highest tones will be produced most readily when singing the vowels in the order just given.
Sing this exercise quite softly, strike each tone clearly and distinctly, and take a slight inspiration after every tone. Be careful to take a full inflation only at the beginning, and afterwards to inhale less air than has been consumed in every preceding tone, or you will after a while overcrowd the lungs, and experience a sensation of being choked. This is a thing to be avoided in any case; but under present circumstances it should be remembered that the short inspirations are not taken for the purpose of re-filling the lungs, but simply to compel the “opening and closing muscles” to do their work. By so doing we give them six times more exercise than by breathing only once at the beginning; and, what is more important still with regard to our immediate object, we greatly facilitate the task of the vocal ligaments to arrange themselves in different ways according to the registers they are to produce.
It is self-evident that the danger of carrying the mechanism of a register beyond its proper limit is greater if the vocal ligaments are kept together, than it would be if they were made to separate, thereby being enabled to close again under different conditions. It will be seen, therefore, that the slight inspirations after every tone are an essential part of the exercise, and must on no account be omitted. The exercise is to be taken at a convenient pitch, and then to be raised semitone by semitone in accordance with the requirements of individual voices. It may, after some time, be taken right through upon the vowel ah, and finally legato, gradually increasing the speed, to the Italian word scala, singing the syllable la to the last note.
The change from one register to another should always be made a couple of tones below the extreme limit, so that there will be at the juncture of every two registers a few “optional” tones which it is possible to take with both mechanisms. The singer will be wise, however, to avail himself of the power of producing an optional tone with the mechanism of the lower register only on rare occasions. To force the register beyond its natural limit is, of course, infinitely worse, and should never be tolerated. The practice carries its own punishment, as it invariably ruins the voice; and tones so produced always betray the effort (frequently in a most painful degree), and are consequently never beautiful.
It is to be observed that the exercise given above may be varied to any extent, so long as it is based upon the principle which has been explained. The beneficial results in the development of the voice will speedily be noticed, and then sustained tones may be sung through the whole compass after the orthodox fashion.
This brings me to the consideration of the “mixed voice,” which is essential in bridging over the break between the “upper thick” and the “lower thin” of the tenor, and which is also frequently made use of by baritones and basses in the production of their highest tones.
The “voce mista” is “mixed” in this sense, that it combines the vibrating mechanism of the “lower thin” with the position of the larynx of the “lower thick;” that is to say, while the vibrations are confined to the thin inner edges of the vocal ligaments, the larynx itself takes a lower position in the throat than for the “lower thin,” and the result is a remarkable increase of volume without any corresponding additional effort in the production of tone. A few trials before a looking-glass will at once prove the correctness of this explanation, and, what is of more practical consequence, will enable the student with a little practice to overcome the serious difficulty of singing high tones without straining, yet with a fulness capable of being increased or diminished at pleasure.
The last thing we have to consider is the “resonator” of the human voice, namely, the upper part of the throat, the mouth, and the nose. Whether we sing ah, ai, ee, o, or oo, the original tone produced by the vibrations of the vocal ligaments is in either case absolutely the same, and it takes the form of one vowel or another, solely according to the shape which the “resonator” assumes, and which may be described as a mould into which the tone is cast. The quality of the voice also—its throatiness, its nasal twang, its shrillness, harshness, and ugliness, or its purity, roundness, fulness, and beauty—depend mainly upon the nature of the resonator, and upon the way in which we work it. It is, therefore, a matter of the highest importance to be fully acquainted with this part of the vocal apparatus, and I hope my readers will follow me in a brief consideration of it with the more pleasure, as we are now speaking of parts which are directly under the control of our will, and upon the proper management of which so much depends.
There is a most able, most painstaking, and most instructive work upon this subject, “Pronunciation for Singers,” by Alexander Ellis, Esq., F.R.S., &c., published by J. Curwen and Sons, to which I would call the attention of all who desire to make the best use of their voices. To be really understood this book requires that the student should conscientiously carry out all the experiments Mr. Ellis suggests. But any one doing so will, I venture to assert, rise from the study of this subject with a deeper conviction of the immense importance of the “resonator,” and with a clearer perception of the best way of managing it than he ever had before. I obtain better and quicker results with my pupils since I have learnt the lessons Mr. Ellis teaches, and I have no doubt my fellow teachers will derive similar benefit from their study.
One of the few points upon which “doctors” do not differ is that the tone, in order to be pure, resonant, and far-reaching, must be allowed to come well to the front of the mouth. It should, as the phrase goes, be directed against the hard palate just above the front teeth. But this is an unfortunate way of putting it, as the tone fills the whole cavity of the mouth, and cannot be “directed” like a jet of water upon any given point. Nevertheless the idea sought to be conveyed by the injunction is good, for it is certainly essential to good quality that the tone should be brought well forward in the mouth. This is frequently prevented by several circumstances which we will now consider:—
The “soft palate” may be in the way. This is the movable partition shaped like an arch with the little pendant called the “uvula” hanging down in the centre. It acts like a curtain. If we lower it, it hangs upon the back of the tongue, shutting off the mouth from the throat, thereby compelling the tone to pass through the nostrils, and thus giving it a nasal quality. This nasal quality increases the more the passages through which the tone has to travel are impeded; but the first and indispensable condition for its existence is the lowering of the soft palate. Raise this, and you may completely shut the nostrils and yet produce a pure vocal tone. The reason is that, with the soft palate up, the nose is shut off from the throat, thereby compelling the tone to pass through the mouth.
But more, the soft palate is never still for a moment while we are singing or speaking, as it assumes a different degree of tension for every vowel and also for every pitch of the voice. We see, therefore, that this curtain has great influence upon the management of the voice, and we should do all we can to get it under our control. In order to accomplish this, arrange a mirror so that you get the light reflected upon the back of your throat without bending the head, stretching the neck, or otherwise assuming an awkward position. I recommend reflected instead of direct light, because with the latter it is almost impossible to get a perfect sight of the soft palate without making any contortions, and these, however slight, are fatal to success. The management of the light will, no doubt, offer a little difficulty to those not practised in these matters, but once made it is easily rearranged, and the gain is great.
The mirror mentioned above is to throw the light into your mouth; you will require another one in which to see the image. Now try the following: Open your mouth and breath through the nostrils; the soft palate will immediately drop upon the tongue. Sing while it is in this position, and you will produce nasal tone. Now breathe through the mouth, and the soft palate will rise. Raise it higher still, by attempting to yawn, till the uvula almost disappears. Sing again with the soft palate in this position, and if nothing else interferes you will produce pure vocal tone. If you sing up and down the scale you will perceive that the soft palate to some extent rises and falls with the pitch of your tones. You will also notice that the tension of it increases as you approach the the limit of one register, and that it diminishes as soon as you change into the next register above. All these things, and a great many besides, you will notice if you observe carefully, and by a little steady practice you will acquire easy control over the movements of your soft palate, the beneficial results of which will soon be manifested in the improved quality and the better management of your voice.
This leads me to remark that the soft palate should, as a matter of course, be in a perfectly healthy condition, or it cannot perform the infinite variety of movements required from it. In many cases however, it is in a very different state, the arch being congested, the uvula elongated, and the tonsils greatly enlarged. People with a soft palate like this are handicapped. They might as well try to run a race with a heavy weight on their shoulders as to sing or speak with such impediments in their throats. They should at once put themselves in the hands of a properly qualified medical practitioner, who may probably recommend clipping of the uvula or excision of the tonsils. Either operation is a slight one, and in suitable cases nothing but good can follow from it.
Another obstacle to the forward production of tone is often caused by that great movable plug called the tongue. We have it on the highest authority that the tongue is an “unruly member.” It is sometimes difficult to keep it under proper control, and with some people it is continually running away altogether. As under ordinary circumstances, so in singing. Instead of peacefully assuming the position necessary for the production of the various vowels, the tongue rises in rebellion; it arches up, stiffens and defies all attempts to keep it in order. The tone is consequently more or less impeded and shut in, with the result of making it guttural or throaty. Here again singing before the mirror as described above will enable the student to master his tongue and to improve his voice to a wonderful extent. All voice trainers, as I have said before, agree that tone should be allowed to come well forward, and the best plan to bring about this desirable end is to sing oo, then to allow oo to dwindle into o, and finally to allow o to dwindle into ah.
In some cases these oo-o-ah exercises are insufficient because the throatiness of tone is partly brought about by a stiffening of the throat in general. The oo-o-ah must then be preceded by staccato exercises upon the syllable Koo, which have the effect not only of throwing the tone forward, but also of making the throat supple. Make the experiment before a mirror and you will see the reason.
I should have pointed out in the course of this chapter that one of the great secrets in the production of fine resonant and far-reaching tone consists in using as little air as possible; and I conclude by advising all those who want to be heard to open their mouths, a thing which, curiously enough, many people in these islands seem to be determined not to do.