Part I
Summary of
Chapter I. The Cradle of Instrumental Music
I. Two impelling forces: emotional expression of human feeling and pagan religious rites, account for musical development among primitive men.
Authentic history traces higher development through Egypt and the Orient to the Hellenic races, when poetry and music became conjoined.
II. Under the protectorate of the Roman Church, melody acquired plastic form, and systems of harmony, notation, and measure were established.
III. The lyrics of the troubadours revived a cult for individual emotionalism—the inherent characteristic of the Folk-song, which now influenced, and finally dominated the Gregorian Chant.
IV. Polyphonic choral art of the Netherland School developed consecutively contrapuntal technique, euphony, objective emotionalism, and culminated in the works of Lasso, when it was rivalled if not eclipsed by the creations of Palestrina. But the style of this era lacked rhythm and form. These essentials, together with tonality and a distinctive secular style, were subsequently to be developed in connection with solo singing and independent instrumental music.
Chapter II. The Dawn of Independent Instrumentation
I. A desire for increased vitality and florid figuration led to embellished organ accompaniment. This process devolved to other instruments. Hence instrumentation acquired individuality, contrast, expansibility.
II. Search for intensified expression and dramatic effects led to attempts at monody. The principles of monody are to be traced to the Miracle Plays, the Troubadours, the Greek tragedies. A semblance of these tragedies as transfused into Florentine monody led to recitative and lyric solo. These contained the germ of opera and oratorio, for which accompaniment was a requisite. In consequence, selective acumen for species, balance, quality, variety, developed orchestration.
Chapter III. Evolution of Musical Instruments
From primitive stringed instruments played with a bow, such as the Celtic crwth and the Oriental rebab, devolved the vielle, thence the subsequent varieties of viols proper, finally, at the end of the sixteenth century, the modern string quartet.
The pianoforte owes its origin to the monochord and psaltery with keyboard attachment, as developed from the dulcimer of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the clavichord and harpsichord of the sixteenth to the Hammerklavier of the eighteenth century. The clavichord was derived from the monochord, the harpsichord from the psaltery, the pianoforte from the dulcimer. The strings of the dulcimer were played upon by hammers held in the hand; the clavichord strings were mechanically pressed up; those of the harpsichord were plucked by quills; whereas the pianoforte is supplied with hammer-action.
The invention of wind instruments probably antedates that of strings. Emanating from the ancient Egyptian vertical flute, the flûte à bec of the Middle Ages matured into the modern horizontal flute. Akin to the single-reed species of the Greek aulos, Latin tibia, were the popularized schalmei, predecessors of the pommer and oboe families. The single-reeded modern clarinet, that came into existence the end of the seventeenth century, was an outgrowth of the chalemiax of mediævalism.
From the Roman lituus and buccina devolved side by side the trombe and Zinken of the Middle Ages. Experimental development through the stages of bent tubes, slide mechanism, finger holes, removable crooks, chromatic valves, perfected the valve-trumpet, the bugle-horn, the slide-trombone.
Instruments of percussion are the parents of all other instruments. Certain species subsequently became distinctly characteristic of certain distinct races; those most effective are now incorporated in the modern orchestra. Of significant importance are the kettle-drums by reason of their unalloyed artistic value.
Chapter IV. Beginnings of Orchestration
Monteverde’s creative genius led to three tangible results:—(1) Dramatic expression; (2) the founding of a serviceable orchestra based on bowed instruments; (3) diversity of style between vocal and instrumental composition.
(1) In writing for the stage, he aimed at an intensification of dramatic effects, variety in tone-color, a freer accompaniment, and relief from the monotony of recitative by the employment of a primitive arioso form. The fruits of these dramatic efforts were reaped by Carissimi in Italy, Schütz in Germany, Lulli in France.
(2) The founding of a serviceable orchestra was the result of his expressive and dramatic instinct fostered by the attempts of the Florentine experimentalists,—orchestral music and the drama being, moreover, at that time practically inseparable. His orchestration emphasized the value of strings, readjusted the balance of the wind, and suggested contrasted choirs of instruments.
(3) Diversity of style between vocal and instrumental music pointed the way to independent orchestral composition.
It was not the greatest of his successors that directly furthered the cause of orchestration. Carissimi in oratorio, Lulli in opera, only incidentally enriched instrumental accompaniment as a means to an end. Of greater stability were the orchestral efforts of the secondary composers of this era, of whom Cavalli, Legrenzi, Corelli are the most important. Cavalli established the precedent of three-part string writing, Legrenzi of equilibrium and a fairly adequate supply of strings, whereas their superior, Corelli, by developing violin technique, made possible a style of writing that ultimately matured into the classic sonata. Further originality was displayed in the chamber music of Steffani and Clari, in the concerto grosso of Torelli, in the combined harmonic and rhythmic effects of Vivaldi.
In direct lineage from Monteverde, Scarlatti stands as the second great orchestral innovator. His three principal achievements were:—(1) Balance of tone in the strings by the judicious distribution of the four notes of a chord; (2) numerical suppression of overpowering wind-instruments, and a logical usage of the same in pairs; (3) enlargement of the exterior and thematic development of the interior construction of his overtures. Incidentally, through readjustment of dynamic force, the viola gained individuality, and the strings were enabled to stand out in relief against the wind.
The general tendency of the era was one of universal musical progress in specialized instrumental writing. Homogeneity yielded to systematic harmonic progressions and well defined rhythm. Upon this basis, a unification of the dance movement, polyphony, and thematic treatment was effected in the following century.