Part II Grammar
It will be seen that the whole Grammar consists of sixteen short Rules, which can be learnt in less than an hour. The Esperanto is given alongside the translation. Remarks on the Rules, with examples, will be found by referring to the paragraphs given after each Rule.
COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO.
Alphabet.
The twenty-eight letters and their pronunciation are given in pars. 1–4.
N.B.—Printing offices which do not possess the letters ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, can use instead of them ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.
PLENA GRAMATIKO DE ESPERANTO.
Alfabeto.
Aa, Bb, Cc, Ĉĉ, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Ĝĝ, Hh, Ĥĥ, Ii, Jj, Ĵĵ, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ŝŝ, Tt, Uu, Ŭŭ, Vv, Zz.
Rimarko.—Presejoj, kiuj ne posedas la literojn ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, povas anstataŭ ili uzi ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.
Rules.
I
The Article.—There is no indefinite article; there is only a definite article (la), alike for all sexes, cases, and numbers.
N.B.—The use of the article is the same as in other languages. People to whom the use of the article presents a difficulty need not at first use it at all.
(See pars. 96–102.)
Reguloj.
I
Artikolo nedifinita ne ekzistas; ekzistas nur artikolo difinita (la), egala por ĉiuj seksoj, kazoj kaj nombroj.
Rimarko.—La uzado de la artikolo estas tia sama, kiel en la aliaj lingvoj. La personoj, por kiuj la uzado de la artikolo prezentas malfacilaĵon, povas en la unua tempo tute ĝin ne uzi.
II
The Substantive.—Substantives have the termination o. For the formation of the plural the termination j is added. There are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is obtained from the nominative by the addition of the termination n. The other cases are expressed by the help of prepositions (the genitive by de, the dative by al, the ablative by per or other prepositions according to sense).
(See pars. 103–106.)
II
La substantivoj havas la finiĝon o. Por la formado de la multenombro oni aldonas la finiĝon j. Kazoj ekzistas nur du: nominativo kaj akuzativo; la lasta estas ricevata el la nominativo per la aldono de la finiĝo n. La ceteraj kazoj estas esprimataj per helpo de prepozicioj (la genitivo per de, la dativo per al, la ablativo per per aŭ aliaj prepozicioj laŭ la senco).
III
The Adjective.—The adjective ends in a. Cases and numbers as with the substantive. The comparative is made by means of the word pli, the superlative by plej; with the comparative the conjunction ol is used.
(See pars 107–114.)
III
La adjektivo finiĝas per a. Kazoj kaj nombroj kiel ĉe la substantivo. La komparativo estas farata per la vorto pli, la superlativo per plej; ĉe la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion ol.
IV
The Numerals.—The cardinal numerals (they are not declined) are: unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naŭ, dek, cent, mil. The tens and hundreds are formed by the simple junction of the numerals. For the signification of ordinal numerals, the termination of the adjective is added; for the multiple—the suffix -obl, for the fractional—on, for the collective—op, for the distributive—the word po. Besides these, substantival and adverbial numerals can be used.
(See pars. 115–124.)
IV
La numeraloj fundamentaj (ne estas deklinaciataj) estas: unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naŭ, dek, cent, mil. La dekoj kaj centoj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la numeraloj. Por la signado de numeraloj ordaj oni aldonas la finiĝon de la adjektivo; por la multoblaj—la sufikson -obl, por la nombronaj—on, por la kolektaj—op, por la disdividaj—la vorton po. Krom tio povas esti uzataj numeraloj substantivaj kaj adverbaj.
V
The Pronouns.—Personal pronouns = mi, vi, li, ŝi, ĝi (referring to thing or animal), si, ni, vi, ili, oni; the possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the adjectival termination. Declension is as with the substantives.
(See pars. 125–138.)
V
Pronomoj personaj: mi, vi, li, ŝi, ĝi (pri objekto aŭ besto), si, ni, vi, ili, oni; la pronomoj posedaj estas formataj per la aldono de la finiĝo adjektiva. La deklinacio estas kiel ĉe la substantivoj.
VI
The Verb.—The verb is not changed in person or number. Forms of the verb: the present tense (the time being) takes the termination -as; the past tense (the time been, or having been) -is; the future tense (the time about to be, or going to be) -os; the Conditional mood -us; the Imperative (ordering) mood -u; the Indefinite (infinitive) mood -i. Participles (with an adjectival or adverbial sense): active present -ant; active past -int; active future -ont; passive present -at; passive past -it; passive future -ot. All forms of the passive are formed by help of a corresponding form of the verb esti and a passive participle of the required verb. The preposition with the passive is de.
(See pars. 159–237.)
VI
La verbo ne estas ŝanĝata laŭ personoj nek nombroj. Formoj de la verbo: la tempo estanta akceptas la finiĝon -as; la tempo estinta -is; la tempo estonta -os; la modo kondiĉa -us; la modo ordona -u; la modo sendifina -i. Participoj (kun senco adjektiva aŭ adverba): aktiva estanta -ant; aktiva estinta -int; aktiva estonta -ont; pasiva estanta -at; pasiva estinta -it; pasiva estonta -ot. Ĉiuj formoj de la pasivo estas formataj per helpo de responda formo de la verbo esti kaj participo pasiva de la bezonata verbo; la prepozicio ĉe la pasivo estas de.
VII
The Adverb.—Adverbs end in e; degrees of comparison as with adjectives.
(See pars. 238–248.)
VII
La adverboj finiĝas per e; gradoj de komparado kiel ĉe la adjektivoj.
VIII
The Preposition.—All prepositions require the nominative.
(See pars. 249–261.)
VIII
Ĉiuj prepozicioj postulas la nominativon.
IX
Pronunciation.—Every word is read as it is written.
(See pars. 5–19.)
IX
Ĉiu vorto estas legata, kiel ĝi estas skribita.
X
Accent.—The accent is always on the penultimate syllable.
(See par. 17.)
X
La akcento estas ĉiam sur la antaŭlasta silabo.
XI
Compound Words.—Compound words are formed by the simple junction of words (the chief word stands at the end); the grammatical terminations are also regarded as independent words.
XI
Vortoj kunmetitaj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la vortoj (la ĉefa vorto staras en la fino); la gramatikaj finiĝoj estas rigardataj ankaŭ kiel memstaraj vortoj.
XII
Negation.—When another negative word is present the word ne is omitted.
(See pars. 59–62.)
XII
Ĉe alia nea vorto la vorto ne estas forlasata.
XIII
Direction.—In order to show direction, words take the termination of the accusative.
(See par. 67.)
XIII
Por montri direkton, la vortoj ricevas la finiĝon de la akuzativo.
XIV
Use of Prepositions.—Every preposition has a definite and constant meaning; but if we have to use some preposition and the direct sense does not indicate to us what special preposition we are to take, then we use the preposition je, which has no meaning of its own. Instead of the preposition je we can also use the accusative without a preposition.
(See par. 251.)
XIV
Ĉiu prepozicio havas difinitan kaj konstantan signifon; sed se ni devas uzi ian prepozicion kaj la rekta senco ne montras al ni, kian nome prepozicion ni devas preni, tiam ni uzas la prepozicion je, kiu memstaran signifon ne havas. Anstataŭ la prepozicio je oni povas ankaŭ uzi la akuzativon sen prepozicio.
XV
Foreign Words.—The so-called foreign words, that is, those which the majority of languages have taken from one source, are used in the Esperanto language without change, receiving only the orthography of the latter language; but with various words from one root it is better to use unchanged only the fundamental word, and to form the rest from this latter in accordance with the rules of the Esperanto language.
XV
La tiel nomataj vortoj fremdaj, t.e., tiuj, kiujn la plimulto de la lingvoj prenis el unu fonto, estas uzataj en la lingvo Esperanto sen ŝanĝo, ricevante nur la ortografion de tiu ĉi lingvo; sed ĉe diversaj vortoj de unu radiko estas pli bone uzi senŝanĝe nur la vorton fundamentan kaj la ceterajn formi el tiu ĉi lasta laŭ la reguloj de la lingvo Esperanto.
XVI
Elision.—The final vowel of the substantive and the article can be dropped and replaced by an apostrophe.
XVI
La fina vokalo de la substantivo kaj de la artikolo povas esti forlasata kaj anstataŭigata de apostrofo.
COMMENTARY
ON THE
GRAMMAR.
Parts of Speech (Parolpartoj)
95. There are nine parts of speech in Esperanto, as found in most other languages, viz., the Article (Artikolo), Noun (Substantivo), Pronoun (Pronomo), Adjective (Adjektivo), Verb (Verbo), Adverb (Adverbo), Preposition (Prepozicio), Conjunction (Konjunkcio), Interjection (Interjekcio).
Nouns, derived adjectives and adverbs, and verbs have distinctive terminations. If a word ends in -O, it is a noun; if in -A, an adjective; if in -E, an adverb; if in -I, -U, -AS, -IS, -OS, or -US, a verb. If it ends in -N, it is in the accusative case, and if in -J, it is plural.
Examples.—Domo = a house. Facila = easy. Feliĉe = happily. Doni = to give (Infinitive). Batu lin = beat him (Imperative and Accusative). Mi vidas la homojn = I see the men (Present tense and Accusative plural). Vi diris = you said (Past tense). Ni iros = we shall go (Future tense). Se ili estus bonaj = If they were good (Conditional mood and plural adjective).
The Article (la Artikolo)
Examples.—Tio estas floro = That is a flower. Patrino kaj filo = Mother and son. Ĉu vi vidas birdon sur tiu arbo? = Do you see a bird on that tree?
97. The definite article is la = the. It is, as in English, the same for all genders, numbers, and cases.
Examples.—La patro = The father. La patrino = The mother. Donu al mi la libron = Give me the book. Ili estas la lernantoj diligentaj = They are the diligent scholars.
98. As regards its use, la is used very nearly as the definite article “the” in English, namely, to show that one is speaking of something known or definite, as opposed to what is indefinite.
Examples.—En la mezo de la korto mi vidis du infanojn el la apuda vilaĝo = In the middle of the yard I saw two children of the neighbouring village. In this sentence the yard and village are each defined by the article la, as they are also in English by “the.” But if we omit the article the sentence runs:—En la mezo de korto mi vidis du infanojn el apuda vilaĝo = In the middle of a yard I saw two children of a neighbouring village. In this case the children might have been in any yard, and have belonged to any village in the neighbourhood of the speaker.
99. There are, however, cases in which the article is often used in Esperanto, though omitted in English, and also vice versa.
(a). It is usually used before nouns denoting the totality of persons or things.
Examples.—La homo estas mortema = Man is mortal. La homoj estas mortemaj = Men are mortal. La medicino estas scienco kaj la pentrado arto = Medicine is a science and painting an art. Kelkaj kuracistoj pretendas, ke la vino estas malutila al la sano = Some doctors maintain that wine is hurtful to health. Sen la akvo nia terglobo rapide fariĝus dezerto = Without water our earth would rapidly become a desert. La nokto estis tiel nigra, kiel la peĉo = The night was as dark as pitch. La azenoj amas la kardojn = Donkeys love thistles. La vento kaŭzas ofte teruran detruon en kelkaj landoj = Wind often causes terrible ruin in some countries. (In this case la vento means wind in general, spoken of as a whole, but “To-day we shall have wind” (meaning some wind) would be: Hodiaŭ ni havos venton.) Hajlo falas = Hail is falling (viz., some hail), but La hajlo estas tre malutila al la vinbero = Hail is very injurious to grapes (to the grape), means hail in general.
(b). It is not used before proper names, for the simple reason that they cannot be more definite than they are in themselves. In English it is sometimes used and sometimes not.13
Examples.—Danubo = The Danube. Tibro = The Tiber. Mediteraneo = The Mediterranean. Alpoj = The Alps. Unuiĝintaj Ŝtatoj Amerikaj (or, Usono) = The United States of America.
Footnote
(c). If, however, a proper name is preceded by a qualifying word, the article is used.
Examples. La glora poeto, Dante = The famous poet, Dante. La imperiestro de Japanujo = The Emperor of Japan. La bona reĝino Viktorio = The good Queen Victoria.
Examples.—Li havas doloron en la kapo = He has a pain in his (the) head. Ŝi prezentis al mi la manon = She offered me her hand. Mi malkovris la okulojn = I uncovered my eyes (see also par. 134(a)).
(a). It is also frequently used instead of a possessive pronoun in speaking of one’s own relatives, or when there is no doubt as to the person to whom the article la refers.
Examples.—Mi amas la patron = I love my (the) father. Iru al la patrino = Go to your (the) mother. Kie estas la kuzo? = Where is your (the) cousin? La patro staras apud la filo = The father stands by (at the side of) his (the) son.
101. The article is almost always used before numeral adjectives showing the day, hour, month, etc., when these nouns are understood.
Example.—Hodiaŭ estas la dudek-sepa (tago) de Marto = To-day is the 27th of March.
(a). Its use is optional before the names of the seasons, and also before each separate noun or adjective.
Examples.—En la vintro, or, En vintro = In the winter. En la somero, or, En somero = In the summer. La arboj, la floroj kaj la kreskaĵoj de la ĝardeno (or, La arboj, floroj kaj kreskaĵoj) = The trees, (the) flowers and (the) plants of the garden.
(b). It is not generally used after ĉiuj = all, or, all the.
Example.—Mi ne vidis ĉiujn arbojn en la ĝardeno = I did not see all the trees in the garden.
(c). It is not used after da (see par. 259).
N.B.—From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that the English student will have no difficulty in the use of the article, if he be careful to use it with words defining a class or the totality of persons or things. He will get a good idea of its use if he will carefully study the first few exercises in the “Ekzercaro,” or Exercises 1 to 4 in Part III.
In case of doubt whether the article should be used or not, it is better to omit it.
102. Elision.—The final A of the article may be omitted in certain cases (see par. 56 and Rule 16, par. 94).
The Noun (la Substantivo)
Arb-o = a tree (nominative, singular).
Arb-on = a tree (accusative, singular).
Arb-oj = trees (nominative, plural).
Arb-ojn = trees (accusative, plural).
Examples.—Domo = A house. La domo = The house. La domoj = The houses. Rigardu la domojn = Look at the houses. Knabo = A boy. La knabo = The boy. Mi vidis la knabon = I saw the boy. Knabino = A girl. La knabino = The girl.
Declension of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns
104. There are but two cases in Esperanto (Rule 2, par. 94), viz., the nominative and the accusative (or objective); the latter is obtained from the nominative by adding N to the singular or plural. Other cases are expressed by the aid of prepositions, as:—
| Nominative | Mia bona patro | = My good father. |
| Accusative | Mian bonan patron | = My good father. |
| Genitive or Possessive | De mia bona patro | = Of my good father, or, My good father’s. |
| Dative | Al mia bona patro | = To my good father. |
| Ablative | De mia bona patro | = From (by, see par. 259 (9)) my good father. |
| Kun mia bona patro | = With my good father. | |
| Per bona glavo | = With (by means of) a good sword. |
Note that per = by is the instrumental ablative, meaning “by means, or aid, or use, of,” and that kun = with means “in company with,” but not in an instrumental sense, as it is sometimes in English, e.g., I held him with both hands = Mi lin tenis per ambaŭ manoj, not kun ambaŭ manoj (see par. 259 (22)).
Plural
(a). In the plural the declension is the same, with the addition of the plural termination J, as:—
| Genitive | De miaj bonaj filoj | = Of my good sons. |
| Accusative | Miajn bonajn filojn | = My good sons. |
Examples.—La frato skribas, kaj la fratino legas = The brother is writing and the sister reading. La patro donis la libron al sia filo = The father gave the book to his son. Tiu ĉi kaŭĉuka ringo (or, ringo el kaŭĉuko) estas por la infaneto = This india-rubber ring is for the baby. Mi vidis Jozefon kun lia kuzo = I saw Joseph with his cousin. Venu, ni atendas Vin (Cin), Savinto de la mondo = Come, we await You (Thee), O Saviour of the world. Mi lin salutis per la mano = I saluted him by the hand. La domo estas kovrita per ardezoj = The house is covered with slates. Mi vidis vian patron kun liaj du filoj = I saw your father with his two sons. Kie estas la domo de via patro? = Where is your father’s house?
Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vi (konas lin) = I know him better than you (do, or know him).
Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vin (ol mi konas vin) = I know him better than you (than I know you).
Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom (li amas) Johanon = Peter loves Paul as much as (he loves) John.
Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom Johano (amas lin) = Peter loves Paul as much as John (loves him).
N.B.—In the above sentences we cannot, in English, tell the meaning until the ellipsis is supplied, whereas, in Esperanto, the meaning is at once clear from the case of the noun or pronoun (par. 112).
Li iris tien, kiel ankaŭ vi (iris) = He went there as well as you (went).
Mi vidis lin tie, kiel ankaŭ (mi vidis) vin = I saw him there as well as (I saw) you.
Mi neniam vidis tian hundon, kia (estas) via = I never saw such a dog as yours.
105 (a). Elision.—The final O of a noun may be omitted (par. 57, and Rule 16, par. 94).
Examples.—La domo de la patro = The father’s house, or, the house of the father. La libro de mia patrino = My mother’s book, or, the book of my mother. La tranĉilo de Georgo = George’s knife. Tio estas la domo de miaj fratoj = That is my brothers’ house (the house of my brothers). (See par. 73.)
(b). Possession is also denoted by the correlative words ending in ES, viz.:—ies = someone’s, somebody’s, ĉies = everyone’s, kies = whose, nenies = nobody’s, ties = that one’s, of those (see par. 154).
Examples.—Ĉies ideo estis diversa = Everyone’s idea was different. Kies domo estas tiu? = Whose house is that? Ĝi estas nenies domo = It is nobody’s house. Ĉu ĉi tio estas ies tranĉilo? = Is this anyone’s (someone’s) knife? (see par. 154).
(c). An adjective is sometimes conveniently used when in English we employ an apostrophe.
Examples.—Unutaga laboro (for, la laboro de unu tago) = One day’s work. La unuataga laboro (for, la laboro de la unua tago) = The first day’s work. Lia unuataga laboro estis en la ĝardeno, kaj poste li faris unutagan laboron en la domo = His first day’s work was in the garden, and then (afterwards) he did one day’s work in the house. Mi atendis la kapitanan respondon = I awaited the captain’s reply.
(d). In speaking of places, the English preposition “of” is not translated.
Examples.—La urbo Londono = The City of London. La Kolonio Natalo = The Colony of Natal (see par. 253 (a)).
For numeral nouns, see par. 118; for participial, pars. 208, 209; for predicative, par. 109; for compound nouns, par. 49; for form of accusative with proper names, par. 69 (d); for the infinitive used as a noun, par. 180.
The Adjective (la Adjektivo)
Examples.—Forta = Strong. Saĝa = Wise. Brava = Brave. Forta homo = A strong man. Saĝa patro = A wise father. Saĝaj patroj = Wise fathers. La brava filo = The brave son. La bravaj filoj = The brave sons.
108. There are two kinds of adjectives, viz.:—(a) Qualifying or attributive (apudmetita = put adjacent), and (b) Predicative (predikateca).
(a). A qualifying adjective is one placed before or after its noun, with which it agrees both in number and case (par. 36).
Examples.—Johano havas bonan panon = John has good bread. Vilhelmo akrigis la tranĉilojn malakrajn = William sharpened the blunt knives.
(b). A predicative adjective, usually placed after the verb, denotes what is said about the noun or pronoun to which it refers, or denotes their state, condition, appearance, etc. It agrees with them in number, but is never in the accusative case (par. 36).
Examples.—La pomo estas bona = The apple is good. Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakraj = William found the knives blunt. If the adjective were in this sentence in the accusative, the meaning would be quite altered, for, Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakrajn would mean, “William found the blunt knives,” that is to say, he was looking for blunt knives, and he found them. A predicative adjective shows that ellipsis has taken place, and the omitted verb is generally esti. For instance, the ellipsis in the above sentence might be as follows:—William found (that) the knives (are) blunt—Vilhelmo trovis, ke la tranĉiloj estas malakraj. If we elide ke and estas, the substantive takes the accusative (tranĉilojn) and the adjective (malakraj) remains in the nominative. Other examples are:—La kutimo faris lin (ke li estu) indiferenta por tio ĉi (Hamleto V., 1) = Habit made him (to be, lit., that he be) indifferent to this. Kion vi intencas nun fari, por vin montri (ke vi estas) inda filo de via kara patro? (Hamleto IV.,7) = What do you now intend to do to show yourself (that you are) a worthy son of your dear father? (see par. 105 on ellipsis).
Examples.—La patro nomis sian filon Johano = The father named his son John. Now in English it is not clear whether the father gave the name of “John” to his son, or whether he made mention of his son whose name was John. In Esperanto it is quite clear that he gave the name, for otherwise “John” would be in the accusative (Johanon, so:—La patro nomis sian filon Johanon = The father named (made mention of) his son John. Ili nomis lin Adolfo = They called him (gave him the name of) Adolphus.
110. Nominative or Accusative.—The rule, therefore, for qualifying and predicative adjectives or nouns is:—
(a). The word will be in the accusative if the object already possesses the quality in question.
(b). The word will be in the nominative if that quality, which it did not before possess, or was not known to possess, is being given to the object.
111. Participial Adjectives.—Participles are often used in Esperanto to qualify nouns and pronouns, and they are then in reality true adjectives. To distinguish them from other adjectives they are called “Participial Adjectives” (Participaj adjektivoj).
Examples.—Johano kaj Georgo estis perditaj = John and George were lost. Ni trovis ilin mortantajn = We found them (who were) dying. Ni estis finintaj, kiam vi alvenis = We had finished when you arrived (see par. 209 (b)).
(a). The comparative of equality is tiel... kiel = as, so... as.
Johano estas tiel forta, kiel Georgo = John is as strong as George.
(b). The comparative of superiority is pli... ol = more... than.
Johano estas pli forta, ol Georgo = John is stronger than George.
(c). The comparative of inferiority is malpli... ol = less... than.
Johano estas malpli forta, ol Georgo = John is less strong (weaker) than George.
(d). The other modes of expressing comparison are:—
tia... kia = such, such a, such kind... as.
sama... kia = the same... as.
same... kiel = the same... as.
Ju pli... des pli = the more... the more.
Ju malpli... des malpli = the less... the less.
Ju pli... des malpli = the more... the less.
Ju malpli... des pli = the less... the more.
Examples.—Tia domo, kia tiu, estas malofte vidata = Such a house as that is rarely seen. Mia bastono estas tia sama, kia via, or, Mia bastono estas same, kiel via = My stick is the same as yours. Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin estimas = The more I know him, the more I esteem him. Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon dormi = The less I sleep, the less I feel the want (need) to sleep. Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi = The more I see him, the less he pleases me. Ju malpli mi manĝas, des pli mi trinkas = The less I eat, the more I drink.
Be careful to note that the second term in a comparison is in the nominative or accusative, according as it is the subject or complement, e.g., Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mia fratino = I love my brother more than my sister (loves him). Mia fratino is in the nominative, amas lin being understood. But Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mian fratinon = I love my brother more than my sister. Here fratinon is in the accusative, and the meaning is perfectly clear. In English we should have to add “does” to the first example to make the phrase clear: “I love my brother more than my sister does” (see par. 105).
(a). The superlative of superiority is la plej = the most.
(b). The superlative of inferiority is la malplej = the least.
The preposition el = out of, of, is used with the superlative when it relates to numbers, or something collective, as a “group,” “society,” etc. But when the superlative relates to the place or position where the superiority is or was, then some other appropriate preposition is used.
Examples.—Johano estas la plej forta el la knaboj = John is the strongest of the boys. Petro estis la plej malforta el ĉiuj = Peter was the weakest of (out of) all. Georgo estas la malplej kuraĝa knabo en la domo = George is the least courageous boy in the house. Ŝi estis la plej bela virino, kiun mi iam vidis = She was the most beautiful woman whom I ever saw. Tiuj ĉi estas la plej grandaj arboj en la arbaro = These are the largest trees in the wood. Li estis la plej bona Esperantisto el la grupo (klubo, societo) = He was the best Esperantist of the group (club, society). Metu la plej grandajn glasojn sur la tablon = Put the largest glasses upon the table. Ne ĵetu la plej grandajn ŝtonojn en la puton, sed la plej malgrandajn (malplej grandajn) = Do not throw the largest stones into the well, but the smallest (the least large).
(c). The superlative absolute is indicated by tre = very, or treege = exceedingly, or troe = excessively, or some other suitable adverb.
Example.—Tiu virino estas tre malbela kaj treege grasa = That woman is very ugly and exceedingly fat.
| Tre varmega = Broiling hot. | Tre malvarmega = Intensely cold. |
| Varmega = Hot. | Malvarmega = Bitterly cold. |
| Tre varma = Very warm. | Tre malvarma = Very cold. |
| Varma = Warm. | Malvarma = Cold. |
| Iom varma = Warmish. | Iom malvarma = Coldish. |
| Varmeta = Mild. | Malvarmeta = Cool. |
See remarks on the suffixes -EG- and -ET-, par. 277.
Numerals
Cardinal Numbers (Numeraloj Fundamentaj)
(1) unu, (2) du, (3) tri, (4) kvar, (5) kvin, (6) ses, (7) sep, (8) ok, (9) naŭ, (10) dek, (100) cent, (1,000) mil, (0) (zero, naught) = nulo.
Miliono (million) is a noun, the root being milion-.
(a). The numbers 11 to 19 are formed by simply placing (10) dek before the first nine, as:—(11) dek unu, (12) dek du, (13) dek tri, (14) dek kvar, (15) dek kvin, (16) dek ses, (17) dek sep, (18) dek ok, (19) dek naŭ.
(b). The numbers (101 to 119), or (1,001 to 1,019), are formed by the addition cent, or mil, as:—(101) cent unu, (102) cent du, (110) cent dek, (116) cent dek ses, (1,001) mil unu, (1,006) mil ses, (1,114) mil cent dek kvar.
(c). The tens, hundreds, and thousands are formed by prefixing one of the numbers 2 to 9 before dek, cent, or mil, as:—(20) dudek, (30) tridek, (40) kvardek, (200) ducent, (500) kvincent, (900) naŭcent, (2,000) dumil, (4,000) kvarmil, (8,000) okmil.
(d). The intermediate numbers (21 to 29), (31 to 39), etc., are formed by adding the required number to the tens, as:—(21) dudek unu, (22) dudek du, (33) tridek tri, (96) naŭdek ses, (121) cent dudek unu, (342) tricent kvardek du, (1,021) mil dudek unu, (8,754) okmil sepcent kvindek kvar.
(e). The cardinal numbers never change their forms for case or number.
Examples.—La du infanoj dividis inter si sep pomojn = The two children divided between themselves seven apples. Unu prenis tri kaj la alia prenis kvar el la pomoj = One took three and the other took four of the apples. Kvin kaj sep faras (or, estas) dek du = 5 and 7 make (are) 12.
(f). Unu is sometimes used in the plural, and unuj then means some. It is used generally in relation with aliaj = others.
Examples.—El ŝiaj multaj infanoj, unuj estas bonaj kaj aliaj malbonaj = Among (out of) her many children, some are good and others bad. Li ekzamenis la pomojn, kaj trovis unujn bonaj kaj aliajn malbonaj = He examined the apples, and found some good and others bad. Note that bonaj and malbonaj are predicative adjectives, and therefore in the nominative (see pars. 36, 108 (b)).
(g). Unu is sometimes used when our indefinite article is employed as a numeral.14
Example.—Ĉar ĉiu el ni havas unu vortaron, prenu vian kaj lasu mian = Since we have each a dictionary, take yours and leave mine.
Ordinal Numbers (Numeraloj Ordaj)
116. Ordinal numbers, being really adjectives, are, in Esperanto, made such in the usual way by adding A to the cardinals, as:—unua = first, dua = second, tria = third, kvara = fourth, kvina = fifth, sesa = sixth, sepa = seventh, oka = eighth, naŭa = ninth, deka = tenth.
(a). If the cardinal is composed of two or more numbers, A is added to the last only, as:—dek-unua = eleventh, dek-dua = twelfth, dek-naŭa = nineteenth, dudeka = twentieth, dudek-unua = twenty-first, cent-tridek-naŭa = hundred and thirty-ninth.
N.B.—Note that the ordinal numbers are linked by hyphens.
(b). The Ordinals follow all the rules of adjectives as to case and number.
Examples.—Donu al li la trian, kaj prenu la kvaran = Give him the third, and take the fourth. La kvinaj etaĝoj de tiuj domoj estas tre altaj = The fifth stories of those houses are very high.
(c). The Ordinals are usually used in speaking of pages, hours, days, months, years, kings, etc.
Examples.—Paĝo trideka = Page thirty. Vidu paĝon kvardekan (or, 40an) = See page forty (40). Henriko kvara = Henry IV. La dek-unua horo = 11 o’clock. En la dek-sesa (tago) de Aprilo = On the 16th of April. En la jaro mil-okcent-naŭdek-naŭa = In 1899. Mil-naŭcent-kvara = 1904.
In asking questions about the above, the adjective kioma is often used.
Examples.—Sur kioma paĝo vi vidis tion? = On what page did you see that? Kioma paĝo estas? = What page is it? Kioma horo estas? = What o’clock is it? Estas la dua = It is two o’clock. Kiun daton ni havas? = What is the date (or, day of the month)? Hodiaŭ estas la dudek-sepa (or, 27a) de Marto = To-day is the 27th of March.
117. Ordinal adverbs are formed by adding E to the cardinals, as:—unue, firstly, due, secondly, sepe, seventhly, etc.
Examples.—Li havas dudekojn da ĉevaloj, centojn da ŝafoj, kaj milojn da birdoj = He has scores of horses, hundreds of sheep, and thousands of birds. Tiuj ludkartoj estas la kvaro pika kaj la seso kera = Those cards are the four of spades and the six of hearts. Tiu cifero estas oko = That figure is an eight.
Multiples (Numeraloj Multoblaj)
Examples.—Unuobla = Single. Unuoble = Singly. Duobla = Double, twofold. Duoble = Doubly. La duoblo = The double. Duobligi = To double, to duplicate. Duobliĝi = To become double. Triobla = Triple, threefold. Trioble = Trebly. La trioblo = The treble (of). Triobligi = To treble, to triplicate. Kvarobla = Fourfold, quadruple. Kvaroble = Quadruply. Kvaroblo = A quadruple. Kvarobligi = To quadruple, to make fourfold. Kvarobliĝi = To become quadruple. Sepobla = Sevenfold, septuple. Centoblo = A centuple. Kvinoble sep estas tridek kvin = Five times (fivefold) 7 is 35. Naŭoble ok estas sepdek du = Nine times (ninefold) 8 is 72. Kvaroble kvar estas dek ses = Four times four is 16. Dudek estas la kvaroblo de kvin = Twenty is the quadruple of five. Duobla fadeno estas pli forta ol unuobla = A double thread is stronger than a single (one). Kvarobligante sepdek kvin vi ricevas la centoblon de tri = By quadrupling 75 you get the centuple of 3.
Fractional Numbers (Numeraloj Nombronaj)
120. Fractional numbers are formed by the addition of the suffix -ON- to the cardinals, and then adding A, E, or O to mark the adjective, adverb, or noun, as:—Duona = half, duone = by halves, duono = a half (1⁄2), triona = third, trione = by thirds, triono = a third (1⁄3).
Examples.—La kvarona parto de dudek kvar estas la duono de dek du, tio estas ses = The fourth part of 24 is the half of 12, that is 6. Unu triono = One third (1⁄3). Tri okonoj = Three eighths (3⁄8). Neniam faru ion poduone = Never do anything by halves. Duone ses estas tri = half of six is three.
The Collectives (Numeraloj Kolektaj)
121. The collectives are formed by the addition of the suffix -OP- to the cardinals, and then adding A or E to mark adjectives or adverbs, as:—Duopa = double, two together, duope = by twos, in pairs, triope = in threes, in triplets, dekope = by tens.
Example.—Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me.
Reiteratives (Numeraloj Ripetaj)
122. Reiteratives are formed by adding the adverb foje to the cardinals, as:—Unufoje = once, dufoje = twice, trifoje = thrice, kvarfoje = four times.
Examples.—Hieraŭ mi renkontis lin unufoje (or, unu fojon), sed hodiaŭ dufoje (or, du fojojn) = Yesterday I met him once, but to-day twice.
N.B.—Note that when the substantive fojo is used, it is in the accusative, as denoting point of time (par. 68 (b)).
Distributives (Numeraloj Disdividaj)
Examples.—Al ĉiu el la laborantoj mi pagis po kvin ŝilingoj = I paid each of the workmen at the rate of five shillings. Tiu ĉi libro enhavas sesdek paĝojn; tial, se mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek kvin paĝoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj = This book contains 60 pages, therefore if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days (see “po” in list of prepositions, par. 259 (22)).
The Time of Day (la Horo)
124. There are several possible ways of expressing the time of day. “A quarter to three” (2.45) may be either:—
(a). Tri kvaronoj de la tria = three-quarters of the 3rd (hour).
(b). La dua kaj tri kvaronoj = the 2nd (hour) and three-quarters.
(c). Kvarono antaŭ la tria = a quarter before the 3rd (hour).
The last example is the only one which would be easily understood by an Englishman. Other nations use one or two of these methods, hence we find a diversity of methods used in Esperanto also. There is, however, one way used by nearly all nations, namely, that in railway time tables, and it is to be hoped that this will come into general use. Therefore to the question:—Kioma horo estas? = What time (hour) is it? we might simply say as follows:—
| 2.0 | =La dua (horo). |
| 2.15 | =La dua (horo) kaj dek kvin (minutoj). |
| 3.5 | =La tria (horo) kvin. |
| 10.2 | =La deka (horo) du. |
| 11.45 | =La dek-unua (horo) kvardek kvin. |
In Italy, Belgium, etc., where the hours are numbered from one to twenty-four, this system is equally applicable, as:—4.10 p.m. in Italy = 16.10 = La dek-sesa (horo) dek.
Pronouns (Pronomoj)
As, however, the last five classes are so intimately connected with other parts of speech, and as some of the pronouns represent two classes, and some two parts of speech, it is better to treat them as correlative words (see pars. 139–157), so under the head of “Pronouns” we give only the personal and possessive.
Personal Pronouns (Personaj Pronomoj)
126. The personal pronouns are:—
Nominative.
| Singular. | 1st Person. | Mi = I. |
| ″ | 2nd Person. | Vi = you, thou. (Ci = thou is rarely used). |
| ″ | 3rd Person. | Li = he, Ŝi = she, Ĝi = it. |
| Plural. | 1st Person. | Ni = we. |
| ″ | 2nd Person. | Vi = you, ye. |
| ″ | 3rd Person. | Ili = they. |
Accusative.
| Singular. | 1st Person. | Min = me. |
| ″ | 2nd Person. | Vin = you, thee. (Cin = thee is rarely used). |
| ″ | 3rd Person. | Lin = him, Ŝin = her, Ĝin = it. |
| Plural. | 1st Person. | Nin = us. |
| ″ | 2nd Person. | Vin = you. |
| ″ | 3rd Person. | Ilin = them. |
Oni = one, people, they, we (like the French “on”), is an indefinite pronoun of the 3rd person. Oni may be deemed singular or plural.
Owing to the fact that in most languages the word corresponding to oni is invariable, Esperanto authors have generally avoided the accusative and possessive forms onin and onia, although they are occasionally met with. These forms are, however, perfectly regular, and may be used without hesitation if desired.
Si = self, selves, oneself, is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, singular or plural.
Vi, like “you” in English, represents both the singular and plural, but when it refers to more than one person, words depending on it take the plural form.
Ĝi, like “it” in English, is used to represent things, and also persons and animals when the name does not reveal the sex.
Examples.—Mi lin amas = I love him. Li min vidas = He sees me. Ili trovis lin kaj min en la ĝardeno = They found him and me in the garden. Vi ne vidis nin = You did not see us. Vi (plural) estas pli saĝaj, ol ili (estas) = You are wiser than they are. Ŝi vidis ilin en la dormoĉambro = She saw them in the bedroom. Oni diras, “Per mono oni povas aĉeti ĉion” = They (people) say (it is said), “With money one (or, we) can buy everything. Mi vidis la domon, sed ĝi estis tro malgranda = I saw the house, but it was too small. Se oni estus riĉa, or riĉaj = If one were rich.
(a).—In words like infano = child, persono = person, individuo = individual, etc., the sex is not revealed; neither is it in the general name of an animal, as:—leono = a lion, hundo = a dog, birdo = a bird, etc., unless we add the feminine suffix -ino. In all such cases, when we do not know the sex, we use the pronoun ĝi. If, however, the sex is known, and we wish to demonstrate it, we can use the pronouns li or ŝi respectively. Zamenhof advises the use of li and ŝi for human beings only, and of ĝi for all other animals, even when the sex of the animal is known and indicated; the use of li or ŝi in such cases is nevertheless legitimate if desired.
Examples.—La infano forkuris, kiam mi parolis al ĝi (or li if we know the sex) = The child ran away when I spoke to it. Tio estas bela ĉevalino, ĝi (or, ŝi) trotas bone = That is a fine mare, she trots well. Se iu vizitos min dum mi forestas, diru al ĝi, ke ĝi revenu morgaŭ = If anyone (someone) should call upon (visit) me whilst I am away, tell him or her (it) to come again to-morrow.15
Footnote
127. The word mem = self or selves is sometimes used with a personal pronoun or noun to give emphasis.
Examples.—Mi mem ĝin vidis = I myself saw it. Ni mem ĝin trovis, or, Ni ĝin trovis mem = We found it ourselves. Vi venu mem = Come yourself. Ŝi mem parolos = She herself will speak. Li mem respondu = Let him answer (for) himself. La virinoj venu mem = Let the women come themselves.
Examples.—Li razis sin = He shaved himself. Petro razis sin = Peter shaved himself (Petro razis lin would mean Peter shaved him, viz., some other man referred to in the sentence). Ŝi diris al si = She said to herself (Ŝi diris al ŝi would mean “She said to her,” viz., some other woman). Ĝi vundis sin = It wounded itself (Ĝi vundis ĝin would mean “It wounded it,” viz., some other animal). Ili mortigis sin = They killed themselves. Li pensis en si mem, ke... = He thought to (in) himself that... La du fratoj renkontas la rabistojn: la fratoj atakas kaj vundas ilin, sed, tiel farante, ili vundas sin (or, sin mem) = The two brothers meet the robbers: the brothers attack and wound them, but, in so doing, they wound themselves. Mia fratino havas amikinon, kiu faras ĉion por si, kaj nenion por ŝi = My sister has a friend, who does everything for herself, and nothing for her. Oni kelkfoje tro laŭdas sin = One (or people) sometimes praises oneself (or praise themselves) too much (see conjugation of a reflexive verb, par. 170).
Footnote
[16] The reason for the use of si is the avoidance of ambiguity. Si is not used with the 1st and 2nd persons, because there is no possibility of ambiguity in these cases.
129. The pronoun “it” is not expressed with impersonal verbs (see par. 164).
Examples.—Kiu estas tie? Estas mi = Who is there? It is I. Neĝas = It snows. Pluvis = It rained. Necesas, ke oni manĝu = It is necessary to eat.
Possessive Pronouns (Pronomoj Posedaj)
130. Possessive Pronouns are formed by adding the adjectival A to the personal pronouns. They are essentially adjectives, and follow the adjectival rules as to the formation of the plural and the accusative.
131. They are mia = my, mine, via = your, yours, thy, thine (cia = thy, thine, like its personal pronoun, ci, is rarely used), lia = his, ŝia = her, hers, ĝia = its, nia = our, ours, ilia = their, theirs, sia = his (own), her (own), hers, its (own), their (own), theirs, one’s (own).
Examples.—Mia patro, via frato, lia fratino, ŝia onklo, kaj iliaj onklinoj, estas en la domo = My father, your brother, his sister, her uncle, and their aunts are in the house. Mi vidis vian libron, lian bastonon, ŝian ombrelon, kaj ilian keston en la stacidomo = I saw your book, his stick, her umbrella, and their box in the station. Mi havas viajn librojn = I have your books. Ĝia koloro estas ruĝa = Its colour is red. Mia fratino renkontis vian fraton kaj viajn amikojn = My sister met your brother and your friends.
132. When a possessive pronoun stands alone, as in sentences like the following, it may or may not be preceded by the article la, at the writer’s option, but many authors prefer to omit the article on the ground that it is superfluous.
Examples.—Ĉar ni ĉiuj havas (or, ĉar ĉiu el ni havas) unu vortaron, prenu (la) vian kaj lasu (la) mian = Since we have each a dictionary, take yours and leave mine. Ŝiaj infanoj estas pli grandaj, ol (la) viaj = Her children are bigger than yours.
Note in the first example that ĉiuj is in the plural because it is in apposition to ni (see par. 69 (c)).
133. Mia is sometimes placed after a noun to denote affection.
Examples.—Patrino mia = Mother mine, or Mother dear. Fratino mia = Sister dear.
Example.—Lia patro, lia patrino, kaj lia fratino, or, liaj patro, patrino, kaj fratino, estis en la domo = His father, his mother, and his sister were in the house.
134 (a). Personal pronouns, preceded by the preposition al, are sometimes used in a possessive sense.
Examples.—Mi kovris al mi la orelojn = I covered my (to myself the) ears. Li fermis al si la okulojn = He closed his (to himself the) eyes (see also par. 100).
135. Sia, Lia, etc.—Great care must be taken not to use sia, when the sense requires one of the other possessives of the 3rd person, or vice versâ. Sia can only refer to the subject of the sentence or proposition in which it occurs, and being reflexive, it can never form part of the subject of a sentence, as:—Li diris al ni, ke lia (not, sia) hundo ĵus mortis = He told us that his dog had just died. Like its root si, it is used for the 3rd person, singular or plural, and may represent “his (own), her (own), hers, its (own), their (own), theirs, or one’s (own).”
Since sia, being reflexive, can never form part of the subject of a sentence, we cannot say Li kaj sia edzino iris Parizon, because li and edzino are equally subjects of the same clause. But if we substitute kun for kaj, then li becomes the sole subject, and we can correctly say, Li kun sia edzino iris Parizon, or, Li iris Parizon kun sia edzino = He went to Paris with his wife. If we use kaj we must say, Li kaj lia edzino iris Parizon = He and his wife went to Paris.
136. In the four following examples sia refers to the subject of the sentence:—
Mia patrino forgesis sian libron = My mother forgot (or, has forgotten) her book. Tiuj infanoj perdis siajn gepatrojn = Those children have lost their parents. La hundo amas sian mastron = The dog loves its master. Oni devas ami sian najbaron, kiel sin mem = One must love one’s neighbour as oneself. N.B.—Sin is here in the accusative owing to ellipsis, the words oni amas after kiel being understood (see par. 105).
137. In the following three sentences the possessive pronoun does not refer to the subject of the sentence, and therefore we use lia, ŝia, ĝia, or ilia, as the case may be:—
Li vidis mian amikon kaj lian edzinon = He saw my friend and his (his friend’s) wife. Ŝi venis al mi hieraŭ, por ke mi redonu ŝiajn leterojn al ŝi = She came to me yesterday in order that I might return her letters to her. La reĝo amas Johanon kaj lian filon = The king loves John and his son.
N.B.—Here the English does not show whether it is John’s son or his own son whom the king loves, but in Esperanto it is clear it is John’s son, otherwise it would be sian filon; lian filon is in the accusative here, because the conjunction kaj connects like cases (see par. 266).
(a). Note in the following examples how the possessive varies in accordance with the construction of the sentence.
El ĉiuj siaj amikinoj, ŝi plej amas Marion = Of all her friends (female), she loves Mary best. (Here siaj refers to ŝi).
El ĉiuj ŝiaj amikinoj, Mario estas le plej amata = Of all her friends, Mary is the most loved. (Here ŝiaj refers to some woman not mentioned.)
Leginte sian libron, li ekdormis = After reading (having read) his book, he fell asleep. (Here sian refers to li, understood in leginte = When he had read his book, he...). Leginte lian libron, li ekdormis = After reading his book, he fell asleep. (Here lian refers to some man not mentioned, who might have lent him the book.)
Johano, legante sian libron, venkiĝis de dormo = John, while reading his book, was (became) overcome by sleep.
138. The following are sentences more complicated, showing the advantage of Esperanto over English, or indeed over most national languages, in respect of its great clearness of expression:—
Petro skribis al Paŭlo, ke li konduku al li sian hundon = Peter wrote to Paul to bring him his dog (sian refers to Paul because li = he (Paul) becomes the subject, and sia always, as we have said, refers to the subject of its own particular clause; if, therefore, lian had been the possessive, it would have been Peter’s dog.)
Post kiam la reĝo mortis, lia filo edziĝis kun sia/lia kuzino = After the king died, his son married his cousin. Here sia would refer to filo, the son’s cousin, but lia to reĝo, the king’s cousin.
Mia patrino petis sian filinon, ke ŝi donu al sia/ŝia fratino sian/ŝian libron. This sentence in English, whichever of the possessives be used, would be “My mother requested her daughter to give (that she give) to her sister her book.” Now the mother is the first subject in this sentence, therefore sian filinon is the mother’s daughter (ŝian would mean someone else’s daughter). But afterwards ŝi (the daughter) becomes the subject, therefore sia fratino would be the daughter’s sister, and ŝia fratino the mother’s. For the remainder of the sentence ŝi (the daughter) still remains the subject, therefore sian libron would be the daughter’s book, and ŝian libron the sister’s or the mother’s book. Ties libron would definitely specify it as the sister’s book.
138 (a). From the examples given in paragraphs 128, 135, 136, and 138, we see that the reflexive pronoun si and the possessive sia always refer to the subject (noun or pronoun) of their own clause.
(b). Si and sia are likewise used when the noun or pronoun to which they refer is not expressed, but only understood.
Example.—Tio estas nova metodo brosi sian (or, la) ĉapelon! = That is a new method of brushing one’s hat!
(c). Phrases introduced by an infinitive or a participle may be regarded as new sentences, the subject of which is mentally supplied: i.e., the infinitive or the participle may be expanded to make the full sentence implied.
Examples of Infinitive.—Estas bone ne trompi (ke oni ne trompu) sin = It is well not to deceive oneself. La patrino lasis Marion legi (ke ŝi legu) sian libron (Mary’s book); ŝian libron (the mother’s book). La oficiro petis Aŭguston rigardi (ke li rigardu) lin (him) sin (himself). La patro petis sian filon, helpi (ke la filo helpu) sian (the son’s) amikon; lian (the father’s) amikon.
Examples of Participle.—La reĝo ordonis, ke ĉiuj renkontante (kiam ili renkontis) lin, eliru. La princo montris viron, starantan post li. La knabo vidis siajn fratinojn, ludantajn (kiuj ludas) per sia (their own) pupo—per lia (with his) pupo. La reĝo forveturis, ne sciiginte (kaj ne sciigis) sian ministron pri sia (the king’s) devo—pri lia (the minister’s) devo.
(d). Boirac names lia, ŝia, ĝia, etc., the direct or normal form of the pronoun, “La rekta formo,” and sia the secondary or accessory form, “flanka kaj akcesora.” He points out that where the use of the normal form could cause no possible ambiguity, the use of the reflexive form, though always advisable if justified by rule, is nevertheless not obligatory. It is even possible, as shown by Millidge, that the non-use of si may in some cases be felt to be somewhat clearer than its use, e.g., “La Ĥino legas siajn skribajn signojn en sia dialekto, kaj la aliaj popoloj de Azio legas tiujn samajn signojn en ilia (instead of sia) lingvo (F.K., p. 258). In any case it is better, in case of doubt, to use the normal form. It is worse to use the reflexive form when it should not be used, than to omit it when it might be used.
Correlative Words. (Korelativaj Vortoj.)
140. They consist of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs. Many of them can be applied to denote not only one word, but also expressions which require several English words to define clearly.
141. The words in the table (par. 147) are placed in series horizontally and vertically. All the words in each of the vertical series commence with the same letter, and all in each horizontal series have the same termination. It will be seen that the letter I is the first letter in the first vertical series, and that this is a central letter in each of the other words in the table. The first letter of a word conveys an idea of its meaning, and the terminal letters following I show how that idea is applied, and consequently the full meaning of the word.
(a). The initial letters convey the following ideas:—
I- that the word is “indefinite.”
Ĉ- that the word is “distributive” or “collective.”
K- that the word is “interrogative” or “relative.”
NEN- that the word is “negative” (nen- = ne, not, and N added for euphony).
T- that the word is “demonstrative.”
(b). The terminal letters following I denote that the idea is to be applied, in accordance with the termination, as follows:—
-A in relation to “quality” or “the kind of” (adjectival).
-AL in relation to “motive” or “reason for” (adverbial).
-AM in relation to “time” (adverbial).
-E in relation to “place” (adverbial).
-EL in relation to “manner” (adverbial).
-ES in relation to “possession” (pronominal).
-O in relation to “a thing” (substantival or pronominal).
-OM in relation to “quantity” or “number of” (adverbial).
-U in relation to “person” or “thing specified”. (pronominal or adjectival).
142. The correlative words are all complete in themselves, but some of them can be used as root-words, taking grammatical terminations when required by the sense to be conveyed. Those ending in the vowels A, E, O, U, must not necessarily be presumed to be the parts of speech these letters indicate; the letters are not grammatical terminations, they simply show, as before stated, how the idea conveyed in the preceding letters is to be applied. Those ending in a vowel all take the accusative N, and those ending in A and U also take the plural J.
Theoretically it is possible for the words ending in O also to take the plural J; but in practice this is seldom useful.
144. The adverb, tie = there, is also followed by ĉi to denote “here.” Thus tie = there, tie ĉi = here, tien (accusative) = thither, tien ĉi = hither. Occasionally ĉi is placed first, thus: ĉi tie, ĉi tien.
Some writers use ajn after other correlatives, but Dr. Zamenhof himself has rarely used it except after the series kia, kial, etc. However, he does not say it is wrong to extend its use, for when asked the question whether it could be employed after the series ia, ial, etc., he replied that it could, because, in Esperanto, any word could be combined with any other. See par. 158 (c) (d).
146. Grammatical terminations and suffixes may be added to the correlatives if required, thus making them nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, etc., as shown in the following examples. The hyphens are given to show the construction of the words, but should not be used in writing.
Ĉiam-a = Everlasting, continual. Ĉiam-e = Everlastingly, forever. Ĉie-a = Of everywhere. Ĉi-tie-a (ĉi tiea) = Of here. Tie-a = Of there. Ĉi-tie-ulo (ĉi tieulo) = A man of this place. Tie-ulo = A man of that place. Kiom-a = Of what quantity. Kioma horo estas? = What time is it? Neni-igi = To reduce to nothing, to destroy completely. Neni-iĝi = To become nothing, to vanish. Tiam-a = Of then, of that time. Tiam-ulo = A man of that time, a contemporary. La kial-o = The why and wherefore, the reason (cause). Tiel-e = In that way.
| Indefinite. | Distributive, General or Collective. | Interrogative and Relative. | Negative. | Demonstrative. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Quality Kind of (adjectival) | IA some (any) kind or sort of some (any) of some kind | ĈIA every kind of every of every kind | KIA what kind of? of what kind? what a! ... as | NENIA no kind of no, no such of no kind (not any kind of) | TIA that kind of such a of that kind |
| Motive Reason for (adverbial) | IAL for some (any) reason or cause | ĈIAL for every reason/cause for all reasons | KIAL for what reason/cause why? wherefore | NENIAL for no reason/cause | TIAL for that reason/cause therefore |
| Time (adverbial) | IAM at some (any) time ever once | ĈIAM always every time for all time ever | KIAM at what time? when | NENIAM at no time never | TIAM at that time then |
| Place (adverbial) | IE in some (any) place somewhere (anywhere) | ĈIE in every place everywhere | KIE in what place where | NENIE in no place nowhere (not anywhere) | TIE in that place there yonder |
| Manner (adverbial) | IEL in some manner/way somehow (anyhow) (in any manner) | ĈIEL (in) every manner/way (in) every way all ways | KIEL in what manner/way how? ... as like | NENIEL in no manner/way nohow by no means not at all | TIEL in that manner/way thus, so, like (that) as... in such a manner |
| Possession (pronominal) | IES somebody’s (someone’s) (anyone’s) | ĈIES everybody’s everyone’s each one’s of each, of all | KIES whose of which | NENIES no one’s nobody’s of none | TIES that one’s of that of those |
| Thing (not specified) (substantival or pronominal) | IO something (anything) | ĈIO everything all things all | KIO what (thing) which | NENIO nothing not anything | TIO that (thing) |
| Quantity (adverbial) | IOM some quantity somewhat rather, some a little, at all (any) | ĈIOM every quantity all, the whole all of it | KIOM what quantity how much how many | NENIOM no quantity none none at all | TIOM that quantity so much/many as much/many |
| Individuality Person or thing (pronominal or adjectival) | IU some one (anyone) | ĈIU each one, each everybody ĉiuj=all, all the... | KIU which one who, he who which, that | NENIU no one nobody | TIU that one the former |
Examples of the Use of Correlative Words
148. In the following examples (pars. 149–157) we have taken the correlative words in the table in the nine horizontal series, since in this way we can best show how some of the words are used in pairs.
149. Series ending in A (quality, kind of), adjectival.
Ia = some sort of, some, a, an.
Ĉia = every (each) kind of, every sort of.
Kia = what a! what kind of? of what kind, ... as.
Nenia = no, no such, no kind of, of no kind, not any kind of.
Ia ajn, of any kind (whatever).
Tia = such a, that kind of, of that kind.
Tia... kia = such... as.
Examples.—Ĉu vi ne havas ian libron, kiu klarigos tion? = Have you not some book which will explain that?
Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari = I have some (or, an) idea how to do it.
Ekster ĉia dubo = Beyond any (every sort of) doubt.
Tiaj frazoj troviĝas en ĉiaj libroj = Such (kind of) phrases are found in all kinds (sorts) of (or, in any) books.
Ni ne scias, kiel ili fariĝis tiaj, kiaj ili estas = We do not know how they became what (such as) they are.
Nenia antaŭa sperto estas necesa = No (kind of) previous experience is necessary.
Tian virinon oni ĉiam estimas = Such a woman one always esteems.
Mi donis al li la libron tian, kia ĝi estas = I gave him the book such as it was.
Kiun aĝon li havas? = How old is he? (what age has he?)
Kia estas la vetero? = How (what kind) is the weather?
Komencante de (k)ia ajn momento = Commencing at any (whatever) moment.
Kia bela domo! = What a beautiful house!
Kiaj estas la kondiĉoj? = What are the stipulations (or terms)?
Ili estas fieraj, ni ne estas tiaj = They are proud, we are not so.
Ŝi eksentis ion tian, kion ŝi mem komence ne povis kompreni = She began to feel something such as she herself at first could not understand.
Mi ĵus eksciis iajn aferojn, kiuj ne plaĉas al mi = I have just learnt some things that do not please me (that I do not like).
Jen estas la monumento tia, kian oni priskribis = Here is the monument such as they described.
Via aĝo estas tia sama, kiel tiu de via frato = Your age is the same as your brother’s.
N.B.—Do not confuse the series ending in A with that ending in U.
Examples.—Kian libron vi bezonas? = What (sort of) book do you want? Kiun libron vi bezonas? = What (or which) book do you want? Tia homo = Such a man, that sort of man. Tiu homo = That man. Ĉiaj libroj = All (kinds of) books. Ĉiuj libroj = All (or, all the) books. Mi ĝin prenos, kia ajn ĝi estas = I shall take it whatever (sort of thing) it is.
Ial = for some reason or cause (for any reason)
Ĉial = for all reasons, for every reason, for every cause.
Ial ajn, for any reason (whatever).
Kial = why? wherefore, for what reason.
Nenial = for no reason, or cause.
Tial = therefore, for that reason.
Examples.—Ial li subite forlasis Londonon = For some reason he suddenly left London.
Ĉial tio estas la plej bona = For every reason that is the best.
Kial vi ne respondis? = Why did you not answer?
Li nenial ĉesis skribi al mi = He for no reason ceased writing to me.
Ŝi neniam volis sekvi mian konsilon, tial mi forlasis ŝin = She never would follow my advice, therefore I forsook her.
Mi ne povas imagi kial ajn li ĝin faris = I cannot imagine why ever he did it.
Iam = ever, at some time (any time), once, one day, once upon a time.
Ĉiam = always, for all time, ever, at every time.
Kiam = when, at what time, as (relating to time).
Neniam = never, at no time.
Tiam = then, at that time.
Examples.—Se iam mi venos = If ever I come (shall come).
Ĉiam skribu legeble = Always write legibly.
En tiaj okazoj ĉiam mankas io = On such occasions something is always wanting.
Kiam vi skribis tiel? = When did you write like that (thus)?
Kiam la pastro venos, diru al li la veron = When the priest comes (shall come), tell him the truth.
Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa, or, Kiam mi estis riĉa, tiam mi ne estis feliĉa = At that time when (or, when) I was rich I was not happy, or, When I was rich then I was not happy, or the sentence might be simply Kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa = When I was rich I was not happy.
Mi neniam skribas longajn leterojn = I never write long letters.
Mi neniam aŭdis tion = I never heard that.
Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos = Send him to me whenever he comes.
Kiam ajn li venos? = Whenever will he come?
N.B.—Kiam is used after tiam, and any word denoting “time” except antaŭ = before, when ol is generally used, though kiam is used occasionally after antaŭ also (see par. 259 (3)).
Examples.—Unutage, kiam = One day, when. Iun tagon, kiam = On a day, when. Tuj kiam = As soon as, immediately when. Samtempe, kiam = At the same time, when. De l’ tempo kiam = From the time when, since. Post kiam = After. Antaŭ ol li venis = Before he came.
Ie = somewhere (anywhere), in some (any) place.
Ĉie = everywhere, in every place, in all places.
Ie ajn, anywhere (whatever).
Kie = where, in what place, in which place.
Tie = there, yonder, in that place. Ĉi tie or tie ĉi = here, in this place.
Examples.—Mi ne povis trovi mian libron ie en la ĉambro = I could not find my book anywhere in the room.
Ĉu vi metis ĝin ien? = Did you put it anywhere (somewhere)?
Ĉie mi trovis amikojn = Everywhere I found friends.
Tion oni povas aĉeti ĉie = That can be bought (one can buy) anywhere (everywhere).
Kien vi iras? = Where are you going?
Mi iras nenien = I am going nowhere.
Kie estas la poŝtoficejo? = Where is the post office?
Ĝi estas tie, kie staras tiu domo = It is there where that house stands.
Kien vi iras? = Whither are you going?
Mi iras tien = I am going thither.
Ĉu vi estas ĉi tie? = Are you here?
Li venas ĉi tien = He is coming here.
Kie ajn li estas? = Wherever is he?
Kie ajn li estas, li ne estas tie ĉi = Wherever he is, he is not here.
Iel—somehow (anyhow), in some way, in some manner.
Iel ajn, in any way (whatever).
Ĉiel = in every way, in every manner, in all ways.
Kiel = how, in what manner, like,... as.
Neniel = nohow, in no manner, not at all, by no means.
Tiel = thus, in that manner, like (that), so, as...
Tiel... kiel (in comparison) = as... as; so... as.
Examples.—Iel li ĉiel sukcesas = Somehow he succeeds in every way.
Mi havis nenian ideon, kiel ĝin fari = I had no idea how to do it.
Kiel vi fartas? = How do you do? or, How are you?
Ŝi neniel povis lin kompreni tiel longe, kiel li parolis la lingvon francan = She could nohow (or, not at all) understand him as long as he spoke in the French language.
Same kiel la prudento estas donita al la homo, tiel la instinkto estas donita al la besto = Just as reason has been given to man, so instinct has been given to beasts.
Kaj tiel plu (often written k.t.p.) = And so on, and so forth.
Kiel eble plej baldaŭ (k.e.p.b.) = As soon as possible.
Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi = He is as strong as you.
Kiel ajn malmulte = However little.
Ies = somebody’s, someone’s (anyone’s, anybody’s).
Ĉies = everyone’s, each one’s, of each, of all.
Kies = whose, of whom, of which.
Nenies = no one’s, nobody’s, of none.
Ties = that one’s, of that, of those.
Examples.—Ĉies devo estas nenies = Anybody’s (everybody’s) duty is nobody’s.
Ies perdo ne estas ĉiam ies gajno = Someone’s loss is not always somebody’s gain.
Ĉies ideo estis diversa = Everyone’s idea was different.
Kies libro estas tiu ĉi? = Whose book is this?
Kies plumon vi uzas? = Whose pen are you using?
La domo, kies tegmenton vi vidas, apartenas al mia patro = The house the roof of which you see belongs to my father.
El kies ĉiuj paŝoj, oni povas konkludi, ke ili estas lacaj = From all of whose steps we can conclude that they are tired.
Tiu libro estas tre malpura, kies ajn ĝi estas = That book is very dirty, whosesoever it is.
Ties opinio ne multe valoras = That one’s opinion is not worth much.
Mi neniam sekvas ties konsilon = I never take (follow) that one’s (his, her, their) advice.
N.B.—Be careful not to use kies for “of which,” when these words do not mean possession. We cannot say La afero kies ni parolis for “The affair of which we spoke”; we must say La afero, pri kiu ni parolis.
155. Series ending in O (thing (not specified) indefinite), substantival or pronominal.
Io = something.
Io ajn, anything (whatever).
Ĉio = everything, all things, all.
Kio = what (thing), which.
Nenio = nothing, not any thing.
Tio = that (thing). Ĉi tio or tio ĉi = this (thing).
Examples.—Kio estas tio, kion vi skribas? = What is that (or, that which) you are writing?
Io estis sub la tablo, sed mi ne povis vidi ion tie = Something was under the table, but I could not see anything (something) there.
Li vidis ion, kion li tre amis = He saw something he liked very much.
Estas tempo por ĉio = There is a time for everything.
Ĉio (tio) ĉi montras, ke... = All this shows that...
Ĉio, kion mi havas, estas (la) via = All I have is yours.
Kio estas tio ĉi, kion mi vidas? = What is this that I see?
Nenio estas preta = Nothing is ready.
Mi nenion trovis = I found nothing.
Tio havas malbonan odoron, kio ajn ĝi estas = It (that) has a bad smell, whatever it is.
Li ne diris eĉ unu vorton pri ĉio tio ĉi (or, ĉio ĉi) al iu = He did not say even one word about all this to anyone.
Iom = somewhat, some quantity, rather, a little, some.
Ĉiom = all, all of it, the whole, every quantity.
Kiom = how much, how many, what quantity.
Neniom = none, none at all, no quantity.
Tiom = so much, so many, as much, as many, that quantity.
Tiom... kiom = as much (many)... as.
Examples.—La vetero estas iom pli varma = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer.
Jen estas sukero, prenu iom, sed ne ĉiom = Here is sugar, take some, but not all (the whole).
Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas? = How many horses have you?
Mi havas neniom = I have none (none at all).
Tiom pli bone = So much the better.
Tiom estas malfacile memori = So much is difficult to remember.
Donu al mi tiom da akvo, kiom da vino = Give me as much water as wine.
Kiom vi scias = As far (much) as you know.
Kiom eble = As far (much) (many) as possible.
Kiom ajn da teo tiu kesto povas enhavi, tiu ĉi povas enhavi duoble tiom = Whatever quantity (however much) of tea that chest will (can) hold, this one will hold twice as much.
157. Series ending in U (persons or specified things), pronominal or adjectival.
Iu = someone, somebody.
Iu ajn, anyone (whatever).
Ĉiu = everyone, each one. Ĉiuj = all, all (of) the....
Kiu = who, which, that, which one.
Neniu = nobody, no one, no.
Tiu = that (one), the former. Ĉi tiu, or tiu ĉi = this one, the latter. Tiuj, those; Ĉi tiuj, these.
Examples.—Iu estas tie = Someone is there.
Mi ne vidis iun = I did not see anyone (someone).
Ĉiu aĝo havas siajn devojn = Each age has its duties.
Ŝi legis ĉiun libron, kiun ŝi povis ricevi = She read every book she could get.
Kiu estas en la ĝardeno? = Who is in the garden?
Mi konis ĉiun viron, kiun mi renkontis = I knew every man whom I met.
Mi legis ĉiujn librojn, kiujn vi pruntis al mi = I read all the books that you lent to me.
Tiu pano estas freŝa, sed tiu ĉi estas pli freŝa = That bread is new, but this is newer.
Tiu, kiu havas la harojn nigrajn = He who has the black hair.
Neniu estis tie, tial mi vidis neniun = No one was there, therefore I saw nobody.
Tiu homo, kiu ajn li estas, ne estas malsaĝulo = That man, whoever he is, is not a fool.
Ŝi fariĝis edzino de iu bankiero, kiun ŝi konis pli bone, ol ĉiun alian = She became wife of a certain (someone, a) banker, whom she knew better than anyone (everyone) else.
Ĉiu vorto povas esti kombinata kun ĉiu alia = Any (each) word can be combined with any (each) other word.
Li pli sincere malĝojis je li, ol (k)iu ajn el liaj parencoj = He was more sincerely sorry for him, than any of his relations.
La pafilo povos en ĉiu tempo (ĉiam) esti ŝargita = The gun can be (will be able to be) loaded at any time.
Li ne permesos al (k)iu ajn tion fari = He will not allow anyone (whatever) to do that (see par. 158 (d)).
(a). -AL and -EL. It will be noticed that the series AL represent phrases in English commencing with “for,” as:—“for some reason,” “for every reason,” etc.; whereas in the series EL the phrases commence with “in,” as:—“in some way,” “in every way.” Bear in mind that -AL relates to motive, and -EL to manner. Note the difference of meaning in tial and tiel when followed by ke. Tial, ke = for the reason that, forasmuch as, because that. Tiel, ke = in such a manner that, so that. Some beginners seem to think that kial and kiel have no difference in meaning, which is equivalent to using “why” and “how” indiscriminately. Kial li faras tion? = Why (for what reason) is he doing that? Kiel li faras tion? = How (in what way) is he doing that?
(b). -O and -U. The series O is rarely used in the plural; it relates to things which are not mentioned by name or referred to by a personal pronoun. Examples.—Kio estas tio? = What is that? Kiu estas tiu? = Who is that? Tiu estas mia frato, kiu promenadas kun sia edzino = That is my brother who is walking with his wife. Tio estas, kion mi bezonis = That is what I wanted. Tio, kio kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas arbo = That which is growing in my garden is a tree. Tiu arbo, kiu kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas kverko = That tree, which is growing in my garden, is an oak.
Tio is sometimes used for “it,” relating to both persons and things, as:—Tio (or, ĝi) estis mi, kiu lin vidis = It was I who saw him. Tio estas ponto = It (that) is a bridge.
(c). -I: “ANY” (= SOME). It will be seen from the table of Correlative Words on pages 98, 99, that the words in the column commencing with I have as their main idea indefiniteness, corresponding to the English some (or other). Thus: Li estas ie = he is somewhere (or other). Mi manĝos ion = I shall eat something (or other). Iu faris tion = Someone (or other) did that.
In English, especially in a sentence which is negative, interrogative, or suppositional, the word any is often used in this sense instead of the word some. In such cases (as shown in brackets in the table) the i- words may be translated with any; thus: Ĉu vi manĝis ion? = Did you eat anything (something)? Mi ne manĝos ion = I shall not eat anything. Se li estus ie en la ĉambro = If he were anywhere (somewhere) in the room. Ĉu iu faris tion? = Did anyone (someone) do that? Mi ne konas iun, kiu povus = I do not know anyone who could. Se iu faris tion = If anyone did that....
(d). “ANY” (= ANY WHATEVER). Sometimes, however, the word any is used not with the meaning of some (as in the preceding paragraph), but with the meaning any whatever. Take, for example, the questions: What will you eat for breakfast? Where shall we go? The answers might be: Oh, anything (you like, it doesn’t matter what); and Anywhere (you like). This meaning of any (any whatever) may be expressed in various ways: (1) By a k-word followed by ajn, thus: Kion ajn, Kien ajn (the words vi volas or similar words being understood). (2) By an i-word followed by ajn, thus: Ion ajn, Ien ajn. Method 1 is usually adopted by Zamenhof, but method 2 is increasingly used. (3) Sometimes a ĉ-word may be used. Thus, the sentence: Anyone could do that, may be translated: Kiu ajn (or, Iu ajn, or, Ĉiu) povus tion fari.
(e). AJN. The word ajn is used not only as shown in the preceding paragraph, but also after the k-series, to correspond to the English -ever (see par. 248 (b)). It is also occasionally used with the ĉ-series and the nen-series, thus: Mi serĉis lin ĉie ajn = I looked for him absolutely everywhere. Li estas nenie ajn = He was nowhere at all, absolutely nowhere.
The Verb (la Verbo)
159. There are no irregular verbs in Esperanto. Every verb is conjugated exactly the same.
160. The following are the grammatical terminations of all verbs, from which it will be seen that there are only three tenses (see pars. 214–236), three moods (see pars. 171–202), and six participles (see pars. 203–213).
Tenses. (Indicative Mood.)
| -AS, | Present, as: | Mi faras = I do, or, make. |
| -IS, | Past, as: | Vi faris = you did, or, have (or, had) done. |
| -OS, | Future, as: | Ili faros = they will do. |
CONDITIONAL, or US MOOD.
-US, as: Se mi farus = if I did, or, should (or, would) do, or, were to do.
IMPERATIVE, or U MOOD.
-U, as: Diru al li, ke li tion faru = tell him to do that (lit., that he do that).
Ni faru tion = let us do that.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
-I, as: Fari = to do.
Participles
| -ANTA, | Active, Present, as: | Faranta = doing. |
| Farante (adv.) = in (when, or, other prep.) doing. | ||
| -INTA, | Active, Past, as: | Farinta = having done. |
| Farinte (adv.) = in having done. | ||
| -ONTA, | Active, Future, as: | Faronta = (being) about to do. |
| Faronte (adv.) = on being about to do. | ||
| -ATA, | Passive, Present, as: | Farata = being done, or, done. |
| Farate (adv.) = on being done. | ||
| -ITA, | Passive, Past, as: | Farita = been done, or, having been done. |
| Farite (adv.) = on having been done. | ||
| -OTA, | Passive, Future, as: | Farota = (being) about to be done. |
| Farote (adv.) = on being about to be done. |
N.B.—For examples of the noun-participles see par. 209.
Classes of Verbs
There are two classes of verbs—transitive and intransitive.
Transitive Verbs (Transitivaj Verboj)
(a). A verb is in the active voice when the subject is acting upon the object. The object then, being governed by the verb, must be in the accusative case; as:—Johano batis la hundon = John beat the dog. Here Johano is the subject acting upon hundon, the object; therefore hundon is in the accusative.
(b). A transitive verb is in the passive voice when the subject is acted upon; as:—La hundo estis batata de Johano = The dog was (being) beaten by John. The preposition “by” or “with,” preceding the complement of a verb in the passive voice, is de or per. De is used for the agent, and per for the means or manner, as:—La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = The house built by my father is (having been) covered with slates.
Intransitive Verbs (Netransitivaj Verboj)
Auxiliary Verb (Helpa Verbo)
163. There is but one auxiliary verb in Esperanto, esti = to be. This verb is used to form the passive voice, and also all the compound tenses of the active voice. The verb havi = to have is in no sense an auxiliary, but is an ordinary active verb denoting ownership, and governing the accusative case, as: Mi havas libron = I have a book.
In Esperanto the following and other verbs are often used where English would usually employ “to be,” viz., kuŝi = to lie; sidi = to be situate; sin trovi = to find oneself; troviĝi = to be found; stari = to stand; farti, or, stati = to be (well or ill).
Examples.—La krajono kuŝas (estas) sur la tablo = The pencil is (lies) on the table. Sur la kameno staris (estis) fera kaldrono, en kiu sin trovis (estis) bolanta akvo; tra la fenestro, kiu sin trovis (estis) apud la pordo, la vaporo iris sur la korton = On the hearth was (stood) an iron kettle, in which was (found itself) boiling water; through the window, which was near the door, steam went out into (on to) the yard. Kiel statas via tuso? = How is your cough?
Impersonal Use of Verbs
(a). Verbs which relate to the weather.
Examples.—Pluvas = It rains. Pluvos = It will rain. Fulmis = It lightened. Neĝus = It would snow. Hajlis = It hailed.
(b). Verbs which are generally used with the subject expressed, but occasionally without.
Examples.—Okazas = It happens. Ŝajnos = It will seem. Prosperis al mi trovi = It was my fortune to find.
(c). The verb esti = to be, when used with an adjective-adverb, or passive participle-adverb.
Examples.—Estas pli bone forkuri = It is better to run away. Estas dirite, ke... = It is said that...
(d). In the compound tenses the participle takes the adverbial form, since there is no noun or pronoun with which it can agree (see par. 245).
Examples.—Se estus pluvinte hieraŭ, ni ne estus povintaj eliri = If it had (should have) rained yesterday, we should not have been able to go out. Mi tondigos la herbon, kiam estos pluvinte = I shall get the grass cut, when it has (will have) rained.
Reflexive Verbs (Refleksivaj Verboj)
165. Reflexive verbs show the action of the subject on itself. They are used only when the subject really acts on itself, and not, as in many other languages, on other occasions (see par. 128 on the use of the reflexive pronoun si, and par. 170, conjugation of a reflexive verb).
Examples.—Mi lavas min = I wash myself. Li lavis sin = He washed himself. Vi razos vin = You will shave yourself. Ili vestis sin = They dressed themselves.
166. When there are more subjects than one, and the act goes from one to another of the subjects, the word reciproke, or the expression unu la alian, may be used. With the latter the personal pronoun is not repeated.
Examples.—Ili batis sin reciproke, or, Ili batis unu la alian = They beat one another. Ili ĵetis terbulojn al la kapo unu de la alia = They threw clods (lumps of earth) at one another’s heads.
The following are the simple tenses and moods of esti, by the aid of which all the compound tenses in the active voice and all the tenses in the passive voice of every verb in Esperanto are formed. The compound tenses of esti, such as mi estas estanta = I am being, etc., are very rarely used.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Esti = to be.
PARTICIPLES.
| Present, | Estanta | = being. |
| Past, | Estinta | = been, or, having been. |
| Future, | Estonta | = about to be, or, going to be. |
Note that participles take the plural J and accusative N if required (see par. 207); also the adverbial E (see par. 209 (c)).
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.
| Mi | estas | = I am. |
| Vi, ci | estas | = You (thou) are (art). |
| Li, ŝi, ĝi, oni | estas | = He, she, it, one is. |
| Ni | estas | = We are. |
| Vi | estas | = You are. |
| Ili | estas | = They are. |
N.B.—The pronoun ci = thou is rarely used.
Past.
| Mi | estis | = I was. |
| Vi | estis | = You were. |
| Li, etc. | estis | = He was. |
| Ni | estis | = We were. |
| Vi | estis | = You were. |
| Ili | estis | = They were. |
Future.
| Singular. | Mi | estos | = I shall be. |
| Vi | estos | = You will be. | |
| Li, etc. | estos | = He will be. | |
| Plural. | Ni | estos | = We shall be. |
| Vi | estos | = You will be. | |
| Ili | estos | = They will be. |
CONDITIONAL MOOD.
The Conditional or US mood has no tenses (see par. 192). We can show its meaning best by using the conjunction se, which frequently introduces it. It has no time value in itself, and may relate to the past, present, or future.
| Sing. | (Se) | Mi | estus | = (If) I should be, were, had been. |
| (Se) | Vi | estus | = (If) you would, were, had been. | |
| (Se) | Li, etc. | estus | = (If) he would, were, had been. | |
| Plural. | (Se) | Ni | estus | = (If) we would, were, had been. |
| (Se) | Vi | estus | = (If) you would, were, had been. | |
| (Se) | Ili | estus | = (If) they would, were, had been. |
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
The imperative or U mood has no tenses.
The following is its form and meaning in a chief proposition (see par. 199).
| Singular. | Mi estu | = Let me be. |
| Estu | = Be, or, be you, or, be thou. | |
| Li, ŝi, ĝi, estu | = Let him, her, it be. | |
| Plural. | Ni estu | = Let us be. |
| Estu | = Be, or, be you, or, be ye. | |
| Ili estu | = Let them be. |
The following is its meaning in a dependent proposition, which is usually introduced by the conjunction ke = that (par. 200).
| Sing. | (Ke) | Mi | estu | = (That) I | (may, might, should) be. |
| (Ke) | Vi | estu | = (That) you | ||
| (Ke) | Li, etc. | estu | = (That) he | ||
| Plural. | (Ke) | Ni | estu | = (That) we | |
| (Ke) | Vi | estu | = (That) you | ||
| (Ke) | Ili | estu | = (That) they |
168. CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB.
The conjugation of the compound forms is given in par. 169. When simple forms sufficiently convey the meaning, they are preferable to the compound forms.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
| Simple | Present, | Teni | = To hold. |
| Compound | Present, | Esti tenanta | = To be holding. |
| Compound | Past, | Esti teninta | = To have held. |
| Compound | Future, | Esti tenonta | = To be about (or, going) to hold. |
PARTICIPLES.
| Present, | Tenanta | = Holding. |
| Past, | Teninta | = Having held. |
| Future, | Tenonta | = About (or, going) to hold. |
Indicative Mood
Present (Simple).
| Sing. | Mi | tenas | = I hold, am holding, do hold. |
| Vi (or, ci) | tenas | = You hold, are holding, do hold. | |
| Li, ŝi, ĝi | tenas | = He, she, it holds, is holding, does hold. | |
| Plural. | Ni | tenas | = We hold, are holding, do hold. |
| Vi | tenas | = You (or, ye) hold, are holding, do hold. | |
| Ili | tenas | = They hold, are holding, do hold. |
N.B.—Ci = thou is rarely used. Vi = you is used, as in English, for both singular and plural; but when vi is plural, the participle in compound tenses takes the plural J.
Past (Simple).
Mi, vi, etc., tenis = I, you, etc., held, have (or, had) held, was holding, did hold.
Future (Simple).
Mi, vi, etc., tenos = I, you, etc., shall hold, or, shall be holding.
Conditional Mood (Or “Us” Mood)
The translation of this mood into English depends upon the context, viz., whether we use the auxiliaries “should,” “would,” “were,” “had,” or simply the English past tense. It is frequently introduced by the conjunction se = if (see pars. 190–194).
(Se) mi tenus = (If) I held, or, should hold, or, should be holding, or, were holding, or, were to hold, or, had held.
IMPERATIVE MOOD (OR “U” MOOD).
| Singular. | Mi tenu | = Let me hold. |
| Tenu | = Hold. | |
| Li, ŝi, ĝi, tenu | = Let him, her, it hold. | |
| Plural. | Ni tenu | = Let us hold. |
| Tenu | = Hold. | |
| Ili tenu | = Let them hold. |
| Sing. | (Ke) mi tenu | = (That) I | may, might, should hold. |
| (Ke) vi (or, ci) tenu | = (That) you (or, thou) | ||
| (Ke) li tenu | = (That) he | ||
| Plural. | (Ke) ni tenu | = (That) we | |
| (Ke) vi tenu | = (That) you (or, ye) | ||
| (Ke) ili tenu | = (That) they |
(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195–202).
CONJUGATION OF THE COMPOUND FORMS OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES.
| The Present in the | Present | Mi estas tenanta | = I am holding. |
| Mi estas tenata | = I am (being) held. | ||
| Past | Mi estis tenanta | = I was holding. | |
| Mi estis tenata | = I was (being) held. | ||
| Future | Mi estos tenanta | = I shall be holding. | |
| Mi estos tenata | = I shall be (being) held. |
| The Past in the | Present | Mi estas teninta | = I have held. |
| Mi estas tenita | = I have been, or, was held. | ||
| Past | Mi estis teninta | = I had held. | |
| Mi estis tenita | = I had been held, or, was held, if the action is completed. | ||
| Future | Mi estos teninta | = I shall have held. | |
| Mi estos tenita | = I shall have been held. |
| The Future in the | Present | Mi estas tenonta | = I am about (or, going) to hold. |
| Mi estas tenota | = I am about (or, going) to be held. | ||
| Past | Mi estis tenonta | = I was about (or, going) to hold. | |
| Mi estis tenota | = I was about (or, going) to be held. | ||
| Future | Mi estos tenonta | = I shall be about to hold. | |
| Mi estos tenota | = I shall be about to be held. |
CONDITIONAL, OR “US” MOOD.
Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.
| Se mi estus tenanta | = If I should be, or, were, holding. |
| Se mi estus tenata | = If I should be or, were (being) held, or, if I be held. |
| Se mi estus teninta | = If I should have held, or, if I had held. |
| Se mi estus tenita | = If I should have been held, or, if I had been, or, were, held. |
| Se mi estus tenonta | = If I should be, or, were, about to hold. |
| Se mi estus tenota | = If I should be about to be held. |
N.B.—In the active voice use the simple form instead of the present and past participle, unless the compound form is necessary to emphasize the meaning. For instance, in the sentence “He would not have struck me if you had held him,” we use the past participle to show the anteriority, but we need not use it for the first clause; so we say:—Li ne frapus min, se vi estus teninta lin. If we use the simple form, Li ne frapus min, se vi tenus lin, it would be read:—“He would not strike me if you held him,” unless the context clearly showed the action was completed. We could, however, use the adverb antaŭe instead of the compound form, and say:—Li ne frapus min, se vi antaŭe tenus lin = He would not have struck me if you had held him (lit., if you beforehand held him) (see par. 226 (a) and remarks on the Conditional mood, pars. 190–194).
IMPERATIVE, OR “U” MOOD.
Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.
| (Por ke) mi estu tenanta | = (In order that) I may be holding. |
| (Por ke) mi estu tenata | = (In order that) I may be held. |
| (Por ke) mi estu teninta | = (In order that) I may have held, or, might hold. |
| (Por ke) mi estu tenita | = (In order that) I may have been held, or, might be held. |
| (Por ke) mi estu tenonta | = (In order that) I may be about to hold. |
| (Por ke) mi estu tenota | = (In order that) I may be about to be held. |
(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195–202.)
(INDICATIVE MOOD).
Present (Simple).
| Singular. | Mi lavas min | = I wash myself. |
| Vi lavas vin | = You wash yourself. | |
| Li, ŝi, ĝi, lavas sin | = He, she, it washes himself, herself, itself. | |
| Plural. | Ni lavas nin | = We wash ourselves. |
| Vi lavas vin | = You, ye wash yourselves. | |
| Ili lavas sin | = They wash themselves. |
Present (Compound), with the Three Participles.
| Ili ne estas lavantaj sin | = They are not washing themselves. |
| Ĉu ni estas lavintaj nin? | = Have we washed ourselves? (lit., are we having washed ourselves?) |
| Mi estas lavonta min | = I am about (or, going) to wash myself. |
Past (Simple).
| Ŝi ne lavis sin | = She did not wash herself. |
| Ĉu ni lavis nin? | = Did we wash ourselves? |
| Ĉu ili ne lavis sin? | = Did they not wash themselves? |
Past (Compound), with the Three Participles.
| Kiam vi estis lavantaj vin? | = When were you washing yourselves? |
| Ni estis lavintaj nin | = We had washed ourselves. |
| Kiam li estis lavonta sin? | = When was he about (or, going) to wash himself? |
Future (Simple).
| Ĉu ni lavos nin? | = Shall we wash ourselves? |
| Li ne lavos sin | = He will not wash himself. |
Future (Compound), with the Three Participles.
| Ŝi estos lavanta sin | = She will be washing herself. |
| Kiam li estos lavinta sin? | = When will he have washed himself? |
| Mi estos lavonta min | = I shall be about (or, going) to wash myself. |
CONDITIONAL, OR “US” MOOD (Simple Form).
| Se li lavus sin | = If he should wash himself. |
| Ĉu ŝi lavus sin, se...? | = Would she wash herself, if...? |
Conditional (Compound), with the Three Participles.
| Se ni estus lavantaj nin kiam.... | = If we should be washing ourselves when.... |
| Ĉu ili estus lavintaj sin, se.... | = Would they have washed themselves if...? |
| Se li estus lavonta sin kiam.... | = If he should be about to wash himself when.... |
IMPERATIVE, OR “U” MOOD (Simple Form).
| Singular. | Mi lavu min | = Let me wash myself. |
| Mi ne lavu min | = Let me not wash myself. | |
| Lavu vin | = Wash yourself. | |
| Ne lavu vin | = Do not wash yourself. | |
| Li lavu sin | = Let him wash himself. | |
| Li ne lavu sin | = Let him not wash himself. | |
| Plural. | Ni lavu nin | = Let us wash ourselves. |
| Ni ne lavu nin | = Let us not wash ourselves. | |
| Lavu vin | = Wash yourselves. | |
| Ne lavu vin | = Do not wash yourselves. | |
| Ili lavu sin | = Let them wash themselves. | |
| Ili ne lavu sin | = Let them not wash themselves. |
MOODS (Modoj).
171 (a). The moods in Esperanto differ from those in English. They are three in number, the Conditional, Imperative, and Infinitive. Dr. Zamenhof makes no mention of any other mood. In Rule 6 (see par. 94) he mentions only the three tenses:—Present, ending in -AS, Past, in -IS, Future, in -OS; the Conditional (kondiĉa) mood in -US, the Imperative (ordona) mood in -U, and the Infinitive (sendifina) mood in -I; the three Active Participles:—Present, -ANT-, Past, -INT-, Future, -ONT-, and the three Passive Participles:—Present, -AT-, Past, -IT-, Future, -OT-. These twelve forms serve amply to represent all the various tenses and moods in English. However, to make the forms of the verb clearer to the student accustomed to the use of our indicative mood, we have called the tenses -AS, -IS, -OS, by that name.
(b). There is no Subjunctive mood, and it is not required. This mood has been defined as one governed by conjunctions, but since conjunctions have no bearing on any mood in Esperanto, it is clear that a mood, under the name of “subjunctive,” is not required (see remarks on ke, par. 198).
The English Subjunctive, in the Present and Perfect, is represented by the Esperanto Imperative, and in the Pluperfect, Future, and Future Perfect, by the Esperanto Conditional mood. The auxiliaries “may” and “might” of the English Subjunctive are often rendered by the aid of such verbs as permesi, povi, or some word expressing possibility, as eble (see par. 237 (m)).
172. The mood to be used in Esperanto is determined solely by the meaning the speaker wishes to convey, and as Esperanto is a purely logical language, we must be careful not to pedantically copy our own, but to use the logical mood and tense required by the ideas we wish to convey. If, therefore, we translate English literally into Esperanto, we may, in some points, be misunderstood by a foreigner, although our translation might be perfectly clear to an Englishman. For instance, our verbs in the present and past tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive moods have the same inflection in the first person singular and in the three persons of the plural. In Esperanto there is no such ambiguity. In such a phrase as “If they were rich, they would be happy,” we must be careful to use the proper mood. Both the first and second propositions are conditional or suppositive, therefore in Esperanto the Conditional mood is logically employed, as:—Se ili estus riĉaj, ili estus feliĉaj = If they were rich, they would be happy. There is nothing of the past in the first proposition; the idea to be conveyed is of something that has not occurred, but which might occur.
THE INFINITIVE MOOD (Sendifina Modo).
173. The Infinitive mood in the active voice is formed by adding -I to the root of the verb for the simple tense, and by the auxiliary verb esti = to be with one of the active participles -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA of the verb for the compound tenses, as:—
| Present (simple), Skribi | = To write. |
| Present (compound), Esti skribanta | = To be writing (lit., to be being-writing). |
| Past (compound), Esti skribinta | = To have written (lit., to be having-written). |
| Future (compound), Esti skribonta | = To be about to write (lit., to be being-about-to-write). |
174. The passive voice is formed by the verb esti and one of the passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.
Present, Esti skribata = To be written (lit., to be being-written).
Past, Esti skribita = To have been written (lit., to be having-been-written).
Future, Esti skribota = To be about to be written.
175. The Infinitive mood expresses the state of action denoted by the verb.
176. In Esperanto the infinitive is almost always used without a preposition, whereas in English the preposition “to” nearly always precedes the verb.
Examples.—Mi volas lerni danci = I wish to learn to dance. Li devigis min kuri = He compelled me to run. Mi hontas esti laŭdata de li = I am ashamed to be praised by him. Mi devas peni atingi tiun rezultaton = I must try to attain that result.
178. Por is used before the infinitive, when in English for the word “to” we could substitute the words “in order to” or “for to”; or, in some cases, when we could use “for” or “of” with a participle instead of the infinitive (par. 259 (24)).
Examples.—La plej bonaj metodoj por ricevi ĝin.... = The best methods to (in order to) obtain it (or, for, or, of obtaining it).... Mi havas ion por diri al vi = I have something to (for to) say to you. Kion vi havas ankoraŭ por skribi? = What have you still to (for to) write? La tempo por legi = The time to read (for reading). Tio estas malfacila por kompreni = That is difficult (for to) understand.
179. Anstataŭ, Antaŭ ol and Krom are used before the infinitive, when in English we use the participle or a simple tense.
Examples.—Anstataŭ trinki = Instead of drinking. Anstataŭ agi honeste, li fariĝis ŝtelisto = Instead of acting honestly, he became a thief. Antaŭ ol manĝi = Before eating. Antaŭ ol foriri, ili surmetis la ĉapelojn = Before going away (before they went away), they put on their (the) hats. Ne ekzistas alia bono por la homo krom manĝi kaj trinki = There is nothing better for a man, than that he should eat and drink (than eating and drinking) (Pred. II, 14; III, 12).
(a). As the subject when the act demonstrated is general.
Examples.—Erari estas home = To err is human. Bone pensi kaj bone agi sufiĉas por vivi bone kaj feliĉe = To think well and to act well suffice for living well and happily.
(b). As the complement to explain an idea.
Examples.—Vivi estas agi; kiu ne agas, tiu ne vivas = To live is to act; he who acts not, lives not. Li ĉesis kuri = He ceased to run (running, or, from running).
181. The infinitive, used thus as the subject, resembles a noun, but, of course, never takes the article before it. The qualifying word, used as its predicate, takes the adverbial -E. The infinitive, when used as the subject, can always be changed into the noun by substituting -O or -ADO for -I; the noun then takes the article, since it is used in a general sense (see 99 (a)).
Examples.—Scii estas utile = To know (or, to have knowledge) is useful; or, La scio estas utila = Knowledge is useful. Legi estas agrabla okupo, or, La legado estas agrabla okupo = Reading is an agreeable occupation.
182. The infinitive, or its noun, is used for the gerund, or a gerundial phrase in English.
Examples.—Promenadi estas sanige, or, La promenado estas saniga = Walking is healthy. Instrui infanojn diligentajn (or, La instruado al infanoj diligentaj) estas agrabla okupo = Teaching diligent children is an agreeable occupation.
183. Occasionally another mood, a participle, or the suffix -EBLA is used for our infinitive (par. 275 (c)).
Examples.—Vi bone faris, ke vi venis (or, venante) = You did well to come (that you came). Diru do al li, ke li al mi respondu = Tell him, then, to answer me. Estos pli saĝe, se ni ne piediros domen = It will be wiser not to walk (go on foot) home (lit., if we shall not walk). Estus malfacile renkontebla sindonemo pli plena, ol lia = It would be difficult to meet with more complete devotion than his. Ŝi ŝajnis (esti) forgesinta, ke ŝi estas maljunulino = She seemed to have forgotten that she was (is) an old woman.
184. Sometimes the infinitive is used when we use another mood or the participle.
Examples.—Mi prenos miajn glitilojn kaj iros por gliti = I shall take my skates and go skating. Mi ĉesos kanti, se vi farados tiom de bruo = I shall cease singing if you go on making so much noise. Mi kredis vidi ŝipon = I thought I saw a ship.
185. In the following examples it will be seen that the infinitive (present or past) is used in Esperanto after a noun, adjective, or participle, when in English a participial form is usually employed, as:—
La deziro morti = The desire of dying (to die). La ĝojo esti venkinta = The joy of having conquered. Tro laca marŝi = Too tired for walking. Lerta paroli = Clever in speaking. Bona por manĝi = Good for eating.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
186. As stated in par. 171 (a), the indicative is not an Esperanto mood, but we use the name in order to explain more clearly to the English student the present, past, and future tenses of Esperanto verbs.
The Indicative mood, in the Active Voice, has three terminations, viz., -AS for the Present, -IS for the Past, and -OS for the Future simple tenses. For the Compound tenses the auxiliary verb esti = to be, is used with one of the three Active participles of the verb, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA.
187. The Passive Voice is formed by the auxiliary esti with one of the Passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.
188. By the Indicative mood we express something as actually true, either affirmatively, or negatively, or interrogatively. It is therefore the mood of certainty.
Examples.—La patro venas = Father comes, or, is coming. Patrino venis = Mother came, has come, or, did come. Kiam mia frato venos, ni foriros = When my brother comes (shall come), we will go away. Se li estas malsana, mi senkulpigas lin = If he is ill, I excuse him. Li estis juste rekompencita = He had been justly rewarded. Oni devas pardoni al li = One must pardon him. Li estis amata de ĉiuj = He was (being) loved by all. Mi estas vestita du horojn = I have been dressed for two hours (lit., I am having-been-dressed two hours).
189. The Indicative is therefore obligatory in Esperanto after verbs, adjectives, participles, and nouns expressing in a positive manner what one thinks or feels about an act presented as certain.
Examples.—Mi esperas, ke li venos hodiaŭ = I hope that he will come to-day. Ŝi ne estas certa, ĉu Petro sukcesis = She is not sure whether Peter succeeded (or, has succeeded). Mi ne dubas, ke li venos = I do not doubt that he will come. Mi timas, ke la respondo alvenos, dum mi estos promenanta = I fear that the answer will arrive whilst I am (shall be) taking a walk. Mi timas, ke li venos, kaj eble difektos la ĝardenon = I fear that he will come, and possibly (perhaps) damage (or, and may damage) the garden. Mi ne dubas, ke ŝi estos vestita kiam mi alvenos = I do not doubt that she will be (will have been) dressed when I arrive. Ĉu vi opinias, ke li estas juste rekompencita? = Do you think that he has been justly rewarded?
THE CONDITIONAL MOOD (Kondiĉa Modo).
191. In the Passive Voice it is formed by ESTUS and one of the participles -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.
Examples.—Se li estus riĉa, li havus multajn amikojn = If he were rich, he would have many friends. Se vi volus, vi estus feliĉa = If you wished, you would be happy. Se ni estus avertitaj, ni estus defendintaj vin = If we had been (should have been) warned, we should have defended you. Se li forirus, li riskus, ke la patrino ne trovus lin = If he went (should go) away he would risk that his (the) mother would not find him.
193. (a). Note the various ways in which estus may be translated with the present and past passive participles in the following two sentences:—
(1). Se li estus sendata Berlinon, li estus devigata lasi sian edzinon hejme.
(2). Se li estus sendita Berlinon, li estus devigita lasi sian edzinon hejme.
(1). If he were (should be) sent to Berlin he would be compelled to leave his wife at home.
(2). If he had (should have) been sent to Berlin he would have been compelled to leave his wife at home.
194. As in other languages, the Conditional is used in Esperanto to attenuate or soften an expression that would be harsh or imperative, if the verb were in the Indicative; in fact, such attenuation implies some unexpressed condition.
Example.—Mi volus, ke tiu laboro estu finita hodiaŭ vespere = I should like that work (to be) finished this evening. Here the condition might be, “if you possibly can do it” (see par. 202 as to estu, Imperative mood, for the Infinitive).
THE IMPERATIVE or “U” MOOD (Ordona Modo).
196. In the Passive Voice it is formed by estu and one of the participles, -ATA, -ITA, or -OTA.
Examples.—Venu tien ĉi = Come here. Donu al mi tiun libron = Give me that book. Li venu tien ĉi tuj = Let him come here at once. Ni iru Parizon morgaŭ = Let us go to Paris to-morrow. Do ne maltrankviligu vin (or, Vi do ne maltrankviliĝu) pri la afero = Do not then trouble yourself about the matter. Ordonu, ke li venu = Order him to come (that he come). Diru al ŝi, ke ŝi foriru = Tell her to go away (that she go away). Atentu, ke vi ne falu = Take care not to fall (or, lest you fall). Ni ne toleru, ke li tiamaniere kontraŭstaru al ni = Let us not suffer him in that way to oppose us (or, Let us not tolerate that he oppose us in that manner). Ni zorgu, ke li nenion povu difekti = Let us take care that he can damage nothing. Diru al li, ke mi deziras, ke li estu silenta = Tell him that I desire him to be silent (that he be silent). For other examples see par. 237 (m).
Examples.—Mi ordonis al li, ke li donu al mi la libron = I ordered him to give me the book. Mi petas, ke vi sendu al mi la hundon = I beg you to send me the dog. Li ne postulis, ke mi fermu la fenestron = He did not require me to shut the window. Mi volas, ke vi skribu al via frato = I wish you to write to your brother. Estas necese, ke ni tien iru = It is necessary for us to go thither. Vi meritas, ke oni pendigu vin = You deserve to be hanged (that they hang you). Mi bezonas, ke li venu = I want him to come (I have need that he come). Mi ne volis, ke li venu = I did not wish him to come (that he should come). Ŝi konsilis, ke mi ne sendu la leteron = She advised me not to send the letter (she advised “do not send the letter”). Mi lin tien ĉi invitis, ke li klarigu la aferon = I invited him here to explain (that he might explain) the matter. Ili skribis, ke mi ne venu hodiaŭ = They wrote to me not to come to-day (They wrote that I should not come to-day, or, They wrote “do not come to-day”).
Examples.—Por ke vi povu pagi tiun ĉi ŝuldon, estas necese, ke vi kunportu sufiĉe grandan sumon da mono = In order to be able to pay (in order that you may be able to pay) this debt it is necessary for you to bring (that you bring) a sufficient large sum of money. Por ke vi estu elektata, vi bezonas batali kun ekstrema energio = In order to be elected (that you may be elected), you need to fight with extreme energy. Por ke oni rekompencu vin, konvenas, ke vi tion meritu = In order that they may reward you, it is fitting that you merit it. Mi volas ĉion fari, por ke vi estu kontenta pri mi = I wish to do everything to satisfy you (so that you may be satisfied with me). Respondu al mi antaŭ morgaŭ, por ke mi sciu, kion mi devos diri al li = Answer me before to-morrow, so that I may know what I must (shall have to) say to him. Mi volas, ke li estu ordonata atendi mian alvenon = I wish that he may be ordered to await my arrival, or, I wish him to be ordered to await my arrival.
201 (a). The compound forms of the Imperative in the active voice are very rarely used, but they are occasionally useful to give exactitude to an expression.
Examples.—Mi deziras, ke li estu min atendanta en la stacidomo je la dua horo morgaŭ posttagmeze = I desire that he be awaiting me in the station at 2 o’clock to-morrow afternoon. Estas necese, ke li estu fininta sian laboron, je la tria horo = It is necessary that he have (for him to have) finished his work at 3 o’clock. Mi ne volas, ke li estu fininta sian laboron, kiam mi alvenos, sed ke li estu finonta ĝin = I do not wish that he shall have finished his work when I (shall) come, but that he be about to finish it.
Examples.—Mi volas lin vidi morgaŭ = I wish to see him to-morrow. La lernejestro deziris rekompenci la knabon = The schoolmaster desired to reward the boy. Ni bezonos forte labori, se ni deziras fini la falĉadon hodiaŭ vespere = We shall need to work hard if we wish to finish the mowing this evening.
THE PARTICIPLES (Participoj).
There are three forms of the participle, viz.:—The adjectival in -A, the adverbial in -E, and the substantival in -O.
Present, Skribanta = Writing (lit., being writing).
Past, Skribinta = Having written.
Future, Skribonta = About (going) to write.
204. In the passive voice by adding -ATA, -ITA, -OTA, as:—
Present, Skribata = Being written.
Past, Skribita = Written, or, having been written.
Future, Skribota = About (or, going) to be written.
205. The active participles, preceded by the auxiliary verb esti = to be, in its various moods and tenses, form the compound tenses of the active voice.
206. The passive participles, with the verb esti, form all the moods and tenses in the passive voice.
Examples. Ni estas vidintaj la viron = We have seen the man. Ŝi vidis la virojn legantajn = She saw the men who were reading (the reading men). Ni vidas la krimojn elfaratajn ĉiutage sur la stratoj = We see the crimes being perpetrated daily in the streets.
(a). Participial nouns, as:—La leganto = The reader (person now reading). La leginto = The reader (person who has been reading). La legonto = The reader (person about to read).
Examples.—La leganto havas bonan voĉon, sed la leginto havis pli bonan; mi kredas, tamen, ke la legonto havos la plej bonan voĉon el ĉiuj = The (present) reader has a good voice, but the (previous) reader had a better; I believe, however, that the (coming) reader will have the best voice of all. Ĉi tiu (or, tiu ĉi) ideo okupis la grandan pensanton ĝis la fino de lia vivo = This idea occupied the great thinker up to the end of his life.
(b). Participial adjectives agree with their nouns in number and case, but when predicative they agree in number only (see remarks on adjectives, pars. 36, 108, 110, also par. 87 (d)).
Examples.—La mortanta viro vidis mortintan virinon sur la apuda lito = The dying man saw a dead woman in the next bed. Ŝi paliĝis kaj aspektis kiel virino mortonta = She grew pale and appeared like a woman about to die. In the above sentences participial nouns might be used when the translation in English would be word for word the same, as:—La mortanto vidis mortintinon sur la apuda lito. Ŝi paliĝis, kaj aspektis kiel mortontino. This shows the wonderful flexibility of Esperanto!
(c). Participial adverbs are invariable.
Examples.—Legante ni lernas = In reading we learn. Fininte sian laboron, li iris hejmen = Having finished his work, he went home. Aĉetonte libron, li petas, ke mi pruntu al li tri ŝilingojn = Being about to buy a book, he begs me to lend him (that I lend him) three shillings.
210. Examples in the passive voice.
(a). Participial nouns, as:—La aludato = The person being spoken of, or, the person in question. La aludito = The aforesaid (person). La aludoto = The person about to be spoken of.
Examples.—La pendigotino nun aperis sur la eŝafodo = The woman about to be hanged now appeared on the scaffold. La batito tute meritis la punon, kiun la batinto donis al li = The beaten one quite deserved the punishment that the beater gave him.
(b). Participial adjectives and adverbs. La konstruata domo = The house under construction. La konstruita domo = The (actually) constructed house. La konstruota domo = The house (about) to be constructed. Konstruota does not show obligation to construct, but simply that it is intended to build the house, and that it will be eventually built.
Examples.—Li venis al mi tute ne atendite = He came to me quite unexpectedly. Ne estas atendate ke li venos = It is not expected (being expected) that he will come. La domo estas vendota morgaŭ = The house is to be sold to-morrow.
N.B.—Note that when the subject is not expressed, the participle takes the adverbial form (see par. 245).
(a). When a participle, relating to the subject of a sentence, but not qualifying it, expresses the circumstances, manner, time, occasion, etc., of an act, it takes the adverbial form. Zamenhof states that the “ablative absolute” does not exist in Esperanto, as its use would be against the spirit of the language.
Examples.—Promenante sur la strato, mi falis = (While) walking in the street, I fell. Trovinte pomon, mi ĝin manĝis = Having found an apple, I ate it (see par. 245 (a)).
(b). If, however, the participle does not relate to the subject of the sentence, we must either change the construction so as to make the participial portion of the sentence relate to the subject, or else use another mood with a conjunction, adverb, etc.
For instance, we might say in English, “The enemy having run away, we crossed the bridge,” but we cannot translate this literally into Esperanto, because “having run away” does not relate to those who crossed the bridge; therefore it would be wrong to say La malamiko forkurinte, ni transiris la ponton. So we must change the construction, thus:—“Having put to flight (made to run away) the enemy, we crossed the bridge” = Forkuriginte la malamikon, ni transiris la ponton. Or, another construction would be:—“After the enemy ran away, we crossed the bridge” = Post kiam la malamiko forkuris, ni transiris la ponton. In the sentence, “Swimming in the lake, the man saw a large swan,” it is not clear whether the man or the swan was swimming, but in Esperanto there is no ambiguity. In the sentence, Naĝante sur la lago, la homo vidis grandan cignon, the participle, naĝante, relates to the man, the subject of vidis. If we wish it to relate to the swan, we make it agree with cignon, and say, Naĝantan sur la lago, etc. But it would be better to alter the order, thus: La homo vidis grandan cignon naĝantan (kiu naĝis) sur la lago.
212. Participial expressions with prepositions.
(a). Without can be rendered by the negative ne and an adverbial participle, or by sen followed by a noun.
Examples.—Li alvenis, ne avertinte min (or, sen averto al mi) = He arrived without (not) having warned me. Mi ne povos tion ĉi fari, ne estante subtenata (or, ne subtenate, or, sen subteno) = I shall not be able to do this without being supported. Ni iru al la danĝero, ne timante la morton (or, sen timo pri la morto) = Let us go to the danger without fearing death.
(b). For can be rendered by ke = that (or, pro tio, ke or, tial, ke) and the indicative.
Examples.—Mi estas al vi danka, ke vi avertis min = I am thankful to you for having (that you) warned me. Pardonu al mi, ke mi tiel faras = Pardon me for so doing. Pardonu al mi pro tio, ke mi tiel faris = Pardon me for having done so (that I so did).
(c). Of, by por and the infinitive.
Example.—Mi pripensis pri rimedo por deturni lin de lia projekto = I reflected on a means of turning him from his project.
(d). After, by an adverbial past participle.
Example.—“Kion ni faros?” li diris, sidinte momenton silente = “What shall we do?” he said, after sitting (having sat) for a moment in silence.
(e). Before, by antaŭ ol and the infinitive.
Example.—Li ludis antaŭ ol labori = He played before working.
213. The participle for the adjective.
(a). Be careful not to use the participle terminations -ANTA, -INTA for simple adjectives that have a form of their own. Some English words ending in “ing” and “ed” may be used either as participles or as simple adjectives. Note that the participle denotes action, whilst the adjective denotes quality, state, etc.
(b). Such words have, in Esperanto, an adjectival as well as a participial form, and we must be careful to use the right one in accordance with the sense.
Examples..—Laboranta and labora = Working. Ĉarmanta and ĉarma = Charming. Interesanta and interesa = Interesting. Sufokanta and sufoka = Suffocating. Kontentigita and kontenta = Satisfied; pleased, content.
(c). Observe the difference in meaning of the following:—
Rigardu tiun homon, laborantan (kiu laboras) sur la kampo! = Look at that man, working in the field! Rigardu tiun homon laboran (better, tiun laboriston) sur la kampo! = Look at that working-man in the field! In the first sentence, laborantan, the participle, denotes the action of the man: in the second, laboran, the adjective, denotes his state, condition, etc. Ŝi estas ĉarmanta nin per sia kantado = She is charming us with her singing. Ŝi estas ĉarma, kiam ŝi kantas = She is charming when she sings. It would be better, instead of using the participle ĉarmanta, to say, Ŝi ĉarmas nin per sia kantado. Mi ne estas kontentigita per liaj respondoj = I have not been satisfied with his replies. Mi ne estas kontenta je li = I am not pleased with him.
THE TENSES (La Tempoj).
The Tenses, Active Voice.
215. The three Tenses used in Esperanto are the Present, Past, and Future.
(a). To show that an action is continuous or habitual, the suffix -AD- may be added to the verb (see remarks on suffix -AD-, par. 270 (1)).
Examples.—Ŝi kantadas la tutan tagon = She keeps on singing the whole day. La birdoj flugadis de arbo al arbo = The birds were (kept on) flying from tree to tree.
(b). The commencement of an action, or a sudden action, is shown by adding the prefix EK-.
Examples.—Ŝi ekkantis = She began to sing. La lumo brilis = The light shone. La lumo ekbrilis = The light flashed (see remarks on prefix EK-, par. 288).
Examples.—Mi ja lin amas = I do love him. Mi tiel multe amis ŝin = I did so love her.
The Present.
218. The Present tense (simple) ends in -AS. It is used to express not only what is happening at the moment, but also what happens in all time, or what is understood to be present.
Examples.—Mi kuras = I run, or am running. La vero ĉiam venkas = Truth always conquers. La aŭtoro diras en sia verko, ke.... = The author says in his book that.... Kiun vi vidas? = Whom do you see? Mi vidas neniun = I see nobody. Mi foriras, ĉar mia patro min atendas = I am going away, for my father awaits (or expects) me. Mi ĉiam leviĝas tre frue = I always get up (rise) very early. Nenion oni faras sen peno = One does nothing without effort.
219. The Present in place of the Past or Future.—In Esperanto, as in other languages, the Present is often used for the Past or Future, to give vividness to an expression.
Examples.—Mi haltas, perdante la spiron, kiam subite mi aŭdas post mi voĉon = I stop, losing breath, when suddenly I hear behind me a voice. Hodiaŭ plenaj de vivo, ni estas morgaŭ la akiro de la tombo = To-day full of life, to-morrow we shall be (are) the prey (acquirement) of the tomb.
220. Esperanto logically always employs the Present, even in a phrase relating to what has past, if the action is present relatively to the time in question.
Example.—Ĉiuj, kiuj ŝin vidis povis pensi, ke ili vidas la patrinon = All who saw her could think that they saw (see) her (the) mother. In this sentence, what did they think? Their thought was, “We see her mother,” not “We saw her mother.” The sight was present to them, hence ili vidas.
221. Present in place of the Past.—If it is a question of the truth of all time, or of a fact existing at the moment spoken of, English generally uses the Past tense, but in Esperanto the Present is always employed.
Examples.—Ni eksciis, ke vi estas en Londono ok tagojn = We learnt that you were (are) in London for eight days. Ni kredis, ke vi estas kuracisto = We believed that you were (are) a doctor. Li instruis nin, he ĉiam oni devas esti indulga = He taught us that one must always be forbearing (merciful).
222. The Present tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary esti = to be and one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA. The compound tenses are seldom used in Esperanto, and their use is to be avoided if the simple tenses suffice to convey our meaning. Their use, therefore, is confined to giving exactitude to the time of an action or to an idea (see par. 169).
Examples.—Li estas vojaĝanta = He is travelling. The simple form, Li vojaĝas, might mean that he travels generally, but possibly is not at this moment on his way to any place. If, therefore, we wish to convey that he is actually on his way to some place, we use the compound form, or some additional word, as nun, e.g., li nun vojaĝas. Kiam la abeloj estas forflugontaj, ili zumadas laŭte = When bees are about to fly away, they (are accustomed to) hum loudly (see par. 216 (a)). Esti skribanta = To be writing.
The Past.
223. The Past tense (simple) ends in -IS. It expresses something that has passed. It is used for the three tenses in English; the past, imperfect, and perfect; and sometimes for the pluperfect, if its use does not cause ambiguity.
Examples.—Mi skribis = I wrote, I was writing, or, I have written. Li venis antaŭ du horoj = He came two hours ago. Pluvis hieraŭ = It rained yesterday. Se li estis malsana, li ne povis veni = If he was ill, he could not come. Ĉu vi lin vidis? = Did you see (or, have you seen) him? Li foriris, antaŭ ol mi alvenis = He had left before I arrived. Mi promenis hieraŭ, kaj renkontis vian amikon = I took a walk (or, I was walking, better promenadis) yesterday, and met your friend.
224. The Past tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary verb esti = to be and one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA. This form should not be used when the simple form suffices to convey the required meaning. It is better employed only when we wish to give to an expression more exactitude as regards the state of the subject at the time of the principal action than is conveyed by the simple form (see pars. 169, 226 (a)).
Examples.—Kiam li estis fininta sian laboron, li iris hejmen = When he had finished his work, he went home. Mi estis skribanta leteron, kiam okazis tertremo = I was writing a letter when an earthquake took place. Ili interkonsentis kaj estis enirontaj la landon, sed io okazis, kio ilin malhelpis = They mutually agreed, and were about to enter the country, but something happened which prevented them.
225. To show that something has just happened, or is very soon going to happen, the words ĵus = just, or tuj = immediately, are often used respectively.
Examples.—Mi ĵus vidis tre belan pentraĵon = I have just seen a very beautiful picture. Ni estis tuj elirontaj, kiam ekpluvis = We were on the point of (or, just) going out when it began to rain.
Examples.—Kiam ŝi estis rakontinta ĉion, kio okazis, ŝi ekploris = When she had related everything that happened, she began to weep. Here, in English, we should probably say “everything that had happened,” but “ĉion, kio estis okazinta” is unnecessary in Esperanto, as the meaning is quite clear with “okazis.” Li ne estis parolinta du sekundojn, kiam mi diris al li “Silentu!” = He had not spoken for two seconds when I said to him, “Be silent!”
226 (a). The adverb antaŭe = beforehand (or jam, or jam antaŭe) is sometimes used with the past and future simple tenses, or with the simple forms of the Conditional or Imperative mood, instead of the compound tenses or forms (see Part III, Exercise 8).
Examples.—Kiam vi eniris en la ĉambron, la gastoj jam antaŭe foriris (or, estis foririntaj) = When you entered the room, the guests had departed (lit., already beforehand departed). Kiam vi venos al mi, mi jam antaŭe finos (or, estos fininta) la laboron = When you have (will) come to me, I shall have finished the work. Li ne aĉetus la libron, se vi antaŭe ne donus (or, estus doninta) al li la monon = He would not have bought the book unless you had given him the money (lit., if you beforehand should not give him the money).
The Future.
227. The Future (simple) ends in -OS. The future (compound) is formed by the auxiliary esti and one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA, but the compound form should be used only when we wish to express anteriority, that is to say, action taking place previous to that of the principal action.
228. The future denotes an action yet to take place.
Examples.—La patro venos post du tagoj = Father will come in two days. Ĉu vi pruntos al mi la libron? = Will you lend me the book? Kiam li alvenos? = When will he arrive? Li venos la lundon proksiman = He will come next Monday.
229. If we wish to mark a near future, we can use with the verb the adverbs tuj = immediately, baldaŭ = soon, tre baldaŭ = very soon.
Examples.—Li tuj alvenos = He will arrive immediately. Li tre baldaŭ estos tie ĉi = He will very soon be here.
230. The future compound with the present participle is used when we wish to mark that an action will be going on at some particular time in the future.
Example.—Je la deka morgaŭ matene mi estos veturanta Parizon = At 10 o’clock to-morrow morning I shall be travelling to Paris.
231. The future compound with the past participle is used when we wish to mark that an action will be finished at some particular time in the future (see par. 226 (a)).
Example.—Mi estos fininta mian laboron je la sesa horo morgaŭ vespere = I shall have finished my work at six o’clock to-morrow evening.
Examples.—Se pluvos, li ne venos = If it rains, he will not come. Kion vi faros, kiam mi estos en la tombo? = What will you do when I am in the grave? Mi skribos la leteron dum vi ripozos = I shall write the letter whilst you are resting. Ŝi skribis al ni, ke ŝi estos tie ĉi morgaŭ = She wrote to us that she would (will) be here to-morrow (she wrote what? not “that she would,” but “that she will,” so the future is the correct tense).
The Tenses, Passive Voice.
233. The tenses of the passive voice are formed by the simple tenses of the auxiliary verb esti and the passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA. All the tenses are therefore compound. As with the active participles, J is added to the three persons of the plural in all the tenses.
234. The signification of the tenses is the same as in the active voice, except, of course, that the subject of a passive verb is acted upon. Since esti is the only auxiliary verb used in Esperanto, it represents the two English auxiliaries, “to be” and “to have”; we must, therefore, translate it accordingly.
235. Care must be taken in the use of these participles. For instance, the participles of skribi = to write used alone mean—
Present, Skribata = Written, or, being written (action going on).
Past, Skribita = Written, or, been written (lit., having been written) (action completed).
Future, Skribota = About to be, or, going to be, written (action about to occur).
236. The various tenses of the verb esti show the time of the action, and the three participles the state of the subject at that time. Note carefully the various shades of meaning in the following examples:—
La pordego estas fermata, ĉar la ludo estas ludota = The gate is being shut, for the game is about to be played.
La pordego estas fermita, ĉar la ludo estas ludata = The gate is (or, has been) shut, for the game is being played.
La pordego estis fermita, dum la ludo estis ludata = The gate was (or, had been) shut whilst the game was being played.
Kiam estos pendigata la homo? = When will the man be (being) hanged?
Li estis pendigota morgaŭ, sed oni diras, ke li ne estos pendigata ĝis mardo = He was to have been (was about to be) hanged to-morrow, but they say he will not be hanged till Tuesday.
Kaj kiam li estos pendigita, kie li estos enterigota? = And when he is (has been) hanged, where is he to be buried? (lit., and when he shall have been hanged, where will he be about to be buried?). Note that after the interrogative kiam the English present tense is often future in Esperanto, as:—Kiam li venos? When is he coming? or, When will he come?
Pasero estis kaptita kaj enmetita en kaĝon, sed kiam la pordeto de la kaĝo estis malfermata, ĝi forflugis = A sparrow was (or, had been) caught and put into a cage, but when the door of the cage was being opened it flew away.
N.B.—In the above sentence we see that the sparrow was (estis) first in the state of having been caught (kaptita); then in the state of having been put (enmetita) into a cage; then that the door was in the state of being opened (malfermata), and that during this action the bird flew away (forflugis).
(For examples of the passive conditional mood see par. 193.)
(For examples of the rare use of the passive imperative mood see par. 201.)
The Use of Certain Verbs
Devi.
237 (a). Devi = to be obliged to, to have to, means to be physically or morally obliged to do something, as:—Vi devas fari tion = You must (have to, are to) do that. Vi ne devas fari tion = You are not obliged to do that. If, however, the action is not immediate, the future tense is used for “must,” as:—Vi devos fari tion morgaŭ = You must (will have to) do that to-morrow. In its Conditional form devi may be used, like other verbs, to soften an expression, and then it can be translated by “ought,” as:—Vi devus ne fari tion = You ought not to (should not) do that. Here devus is used instead of the more peremptory form, devas; Vi devas ne fari tion would mean You must not (are not to) do that (see par. 194, also pars. 237 (o), (p), on “should,” “must,” “ought,” and par. 59 (a)).
Examples.—Mi devas vin forlasi, ĉar oni atendas min = I must (have to) leave you, for they are waiting for me. Ĉu mi devas fari tion tuj? = Must I (am I to) do that at once? Ĉu mi devos veni morgaŭ = Must I (shall I have to, am I to) come to-morrow? Mi devis skribi leteron = I had (have had) to write a letter. Li devis min vidi hodiaŭ, sed li ne povas veni = He was to see me to-day, but he cannot come. Ili devis vidi min hieraŭ, sed ili ne povis veni = They were to have seen me yesterday, but they could not come. Li estis kolera hieraŭ, ĉar li devis iri lernejon = He was angry yesterday, because he was obliged to (had to) go to school. Sed por tio ĉi mi devos atendi iom da tempo = But for this I shall have to (I must) wait some time. Se mi lin vidus, mi devus paroli kun li = If I saw him, I should have to speak to him. Se mi lin vidus, mi estus devinta paroli kun li = If I had seen (saw) him, I should have been obliged (have had) to speak to him. La celo de ĉiu estas, aŭ devus esti, bonfaradi = The aim of everyone is, or ought to (should) be, to do good. Li devus kolekti kaj aranĝi siajn faktojn = He ought to (should) collect and arrange his facts. Kiam vi estas tie, vi devus vidi la kastelon = When you are there, you ought to see the castle. Kiam vi estis tie, vi devus vidi (or, vi devus esti vidinta) la kastelon = When you were there, you ought to have seen the castle. Mi devus tute ne aŭskulti ŝin = I ought not to listen to her at all.
From these examples we see that the following is the meaning of devi in its moods and tenses. The compound forms should not be used unless absolutely necessary to render the meaning clear.
Present.
Vi devas (paroli) = You must, have to, are to (speak).
Past.
Mi devis (paroli) = I had to (speak); or, I was to (speak, or, have spoken).
Mi estas devinta (paroli) = I have been obliged, or, I have had to (speak).
Mi estis devinta (paroli) = I had been obliged to (speak).
Future.
Mi devos (paroli) = I shall have to, I am to, I must (speak).
Conditional.
Mi devus (paroli), se... = I should have to, or, be obliged to (speak), if...
Mi estus devinta (paroli), se... = I should have had to, or, have been obliged to (speak), if...
Conditional (softened sense).
Vi devus (paroli) = You ought to, or, you should (speak, or, have spoken).
Vi devus (esti parolinta) = You ought to have, or, you should have (spoken).
N.B.—Do not use devi for “were to,” when no obligation is implied. Note the difference in meaning in the following sentences:—Se ili venus, mi vidus ilin = If (supposing) they were to come (if they came), I would see them. Ili devis veni la lastan semajnon, sed io malhelpis ilin = They were to (have) come last week, but something prevented them.
Also do not use devi for “am to,” “was to,” etc., when these words express not “obligation,” but “purpose” or “intention.” For instance, “Are you to speak at the meeting?” may mean either (1) “Do you intend to (Shall you) speak?” or, (2) “Have you to (Must you) speak?” So we translate (1) Ĉu vi intencas paroli (Ĉu vi parolos) ĉe la kunveno? or, (2) Ĉu vi devos paroli ĉe la kunveno? In such a phrase as “You are to do that” the obligation is clear, so we say Vi devas tion fari.
Further, do not use devi in translating such a sentence as “The man must be a fool,” which is La viro sendube estas malsaĝulo, not, devas esti...
Kuŝi.
237 (b). Kuŝi = to lie, to be situated, is sometimes used to denote anything in a state of rest, or in a recumbent position. It has, therefore, also the meaning of “to be.”
Examples.—La krajono kuŝas sur la libro = The pencil lies (is) on the book. La libroj kuŝas sur la breto = The books are (lie) on the shelf.
Koni and Scii.
237 (c). Koni and scii are used in the same sense as the French verbs connaître and savoir.
Koni means to know, to be acquainted with, to know a person, or, thing.
Examples.—Mi konas vian fraton = I know your brother. Li konas la hundon, sed li ne konas ĝian posedanton = He knows the dog, but he does not know its owner.
N.B.—It is never followed by the conjunction KE; Mi konas, ke, is wrong. Mi scias, ke vi... = I know that you...
Scii means to know, to be aware of, to know something is or was happening, etc.
N.B.—It is never used of persons.
Examples.—Mi scias, ke li estas prava = I know that he is right. Mi sciis, ke li estis tie hieraŭ = I knew he was there yesterday. Mi ne sciis, ke vi konas lin = I did not know that you knew him. Mi konas la francan lingvon, sed mi ne scias ĝin = I know (recognize) the French language (when I see it), but I do not know it.
Lasi.
237 (d). Lasi, like the English verb “to leave,” has various meanings.
(1). To let remain, as:—Li lasis la libron sur la tablo = He left the book on the table.
(2). To leave in a place, not to take with one, as:—Li lasis sian edzinon en la domo = He left his wife in the house. Lasu vian bastonon tie ĉi = Leave your stick here.
(3). To lose restraint upon something, as:—Li lasis fali la libron = He let the book fall.
(4). To leave in a certain state, as:—Li lasis min en la plej granda embaraso = He left me in the greatest embarrassment. Li lasis la domon tre malpura = He left the house very dirty.
(5). To leave to the care of someone, as:—La juĝisto lasis la infanojn al la patro = The judge left the children to the father.
(6). To have remaining at death, to leave behind one, as:—Kiam li mortis, li lasis (or, postlasis) grandan riĉaĵon, kiun li testamentis al diversaj bonfaraj institucioj = When he died, he left great wealth, which he left to various charitable institutions (note that to “leave,” “bequeath,” is testamenti).
(7). Lasi, followed by the preposition en, means to “leave in,” or to “let into,” according as the complement is in the nominative or accusative, e.g.:—Mi lasis la hundon en la domo = I left the dog in the house. Mi lasis la hundon en la domon = I let the dog into the house.
(8). In the “Krestomatio,” page 25, it is used in the sense to “leave off,” “cease,” as:—Aleksandro lasis sian paroladon pri batalo kaj petis de ili panon = Alexander left off talking of battle, and asked them for bread.
(9). Lasi, followed by an infinitive, means to “let,” or, “allow,” as:—Lasu al mi ĝin fari = Let me do it, or, Leave it to me to do. Sometimes we find it used in the sense “allow to be,” as:—Neniu volis lasi rimarki, ke li nenion vidas = No one wished to let it be noticed that he saw (sees) nothing. This imitates the idiom of some national languages. It can be explained as an omission of onin or some other pronoun, thus:—Neniu volis lasi onin (nin) rimarki, ke... = No one wished to let people (us) notice that...
(10). Allasi = to admit (own the truth), as:—Li allasis, ke li estas malprava = He admitted he was (is) wrong.
(11). Delasi = to allow to leave, as:—Li delasis lin de la domo = He let him leave the house.
(12). Enlasi (like lasi en) = to let go in, as:—Enlasu min! = Let me in!
(13). Forlasi = to abandon, as:—Li forlasis sian postenon = He abandoned his post.
(14). Preterlasi = to let pass, as:—Li preterlasis la okazon = He let the opportunity pass, or, He missed the opportunity. Li ne povis uzi sian bileton, ĉar ĝia limtempo preterlasiĝis = He could not use his ticket because its time limit had expired.
(15). Tralasi = to allow to pass through, as:—Li tralasis la homon tra la pordo = He let the man pass through the door. Kiam ŝi atingis la pordegon, ili ŝin tralasis = When she reached the gate, they let her through.
Pesi and Pezi.
237 (e). Pesi = to weigh, to examine by balance (transitive).
Pezi = to weigh, to have weight (intransitive).
Peso = the weighing, the act of weighing.
Pezo = the weight, or, heaviness of a thing.
Pesilo = the scales, or, the weighing machine.
Pezilo = a (metal) weight.
From the above words we see that the roots pes- and pez- both signify “weight,” and care must be taken to use the words in their transitive or intransitive sense.
Examples. Tiuj ĉi tabloj estas de granda pezo: mi kredas, ke ilia pezo estas pli ol cent okdek funtoj = These tables are a great weight; I believe that their weight is more than a hundred and eighty pounds. Tiu kesto estas tre peza; mi estas certa ke ĝi pezas almenaŭ naŭdek funtojn; metu ĝin sur la pesilon, alportu la pezilojn, pesu ĝin, kaj diru al mi la ĝustan pezon = That chest is very weighty (heavy); I am certain that it weighs at least ninety pounds; put it on the scales (weighing machine), bring the weights, weigh it, and tell me the exact weight.
Povi.
237 (f). Povi = to be able. Beginners sometimes find a difficulty in dealing with this verb, owing to the irregularity of the English equivalents. For instance, the beginner may say, “How can ’can’ be both present and future, or ’could’ both past and conditional?” The following examples giving translations of povi in its various tenses should be helpful in removing the difficulty.
Present, Mi povas = I am able to, I can.
Past, Mi povis = I have been (or, was) able to, I could.
Future, Mi povos = I shall be able to, I can.
Future, Ni estos povintaj = We shall have been able to.
Conditional, Mi povus = I should (or, would) be able to, or, I could, or, I might.
Conditional, Li estus povinta = He would have been able to, or, He could have.
Examples.—Ĉu vi povas tion fari? Jes, mi povas = Are you able to (can you) do that? Yes, I can. Mi ne povas vidi la arbon, kiun vi montras = I cannot see the tree which you point out. Mi povis fari tion, kion vi volis = I was (have been) able to do what you wished. Mi ne povis fari tion, kion vi postulis = I was not (have not been) able to do (I could not do) what you required. Mi povos tion fari morgaŭ = I shall be able to (I can) do that to-morrow. Se vi povus veni mardon, mi povus vin vidi = If you should be able to (if you could) come on a Tuesday, I could see you. Mi povus tion fari morgaŭ, se.... = I could (should be able to) do that to-morrow if.... Ĉu li estos povinta plenumi la laboraĵon, kiam vi lin vidos morgaŭ? = Will he have been able to complete the work when you (will) see him to-morrow? Se vi venus hieraŭ, mi estus povinta vin vidi = If you had come yesterday, I could have seen you. Li povus veni, se li volus = He might (would be able to) come if he wished (see pars. 237 (l), (m)).
Sidi.
237 (g). Sidi = to sit, to be sitting. Sidi has sometimes the signification “to be” in some defined place.
Examples.—En la ĉambro sidis nur kelke da homoj = In the room were (sat) only a few (some) men. La kuiristo sidas en la kuirejo = The cook is (sits) in the kitchen. En la kandelingo sidis brulanta kandelo = In the candlestick was (sat) a burning candle.
Sin trovi.
237 (h). Sin trovi = to find oneself. This expression (or, troviĝi = to be found, to find oneself, to be, or, to be situated) is often used for the English verb “to be.”
Examples.—Sur la arbo sin trovis multe da birdoj = On the tree were (found themselves) many birds. Super la tero troviĝas aero = Over the earth is air.
Ĉesi, Daŭri, Pasi, Fini, Komenci.17
237 (i). In English the following and many other verbs are used in both a transitive and intransitive sense:—to stop, to continue, to pass, to finish, to commence. In Esperanto ĉesi, daŭri, pasi are intransitive; so, to make them transitive, we must add IGI. On the other hand, fini and komenci are transitive; therefore, to make them intransitive, we must add IĜI (par. 280).
| Transitive. | Intransitive. |
|---|---|
| Ĉesigu tiun bruon = Cease (stop) that noise. | La pluvo ĉesis fali = The rain ceased to fall (stopped). |
| Li daŭrigis sian rakonton = He continued his story. | La ventego daŭris unu horon = The storm lasted an hour. |
| Li pasigis du horojn en la budo = He passed two hours in the booth. | La tempo pasas rapide = Time passes rapidly. |
| Li finis sian laboron = He finished his work. | La monato finiĝos morgaŭ = The month will finish to-morrow. |
| Ŝi komencos sian vojaĝon morgaŭ = She will commence her journey tomorrow. | La semajno komenciĝis hieraŭ = The week commenced yesterday. |
Footnote
Transitive Verbs (can be used in the passive, and with -ebla, -inda; may be used intransitively with -iĝ-):—
Aplik, balanc, ban, ĉagren, etend, fend, ferm, fin, flar, fleks, izol, klin, kolekt, komenc, lev, mezur, montr, mov, nask, paŝt, renvers, romp, rul, renkont, sku, sving, sufok, ŝancel, ŝanĝ, ŝir, tren, turn, vek, verŝ.
Intransitive Verbs (cannot be used in the passive, nor with -ebla, -inda, unless made transitive by -ig-):—
Bol, brul, ĉes, daŭr, degel, dolor, dron, eksplod, fal, glit, halt, kresk, krev, kuŝ, lum, odor, pas, pend, sid, son, sonor, ŝpruc, ŝrump, ŝvel, velk.
Do, Did.
237 (j). The English verb “to do” is represented as follows:—
(1). In the sense of to “perform,” “make,” “commit,” “execute,” etc., it is represented by fari or agi.
Examples.—Ne faru tion = Don’t do that. Batante la knabon, li faris (or, agis) malprave = He did wrong in beating the boy. La ĉambristino faris tion, kion mi ordonis = The chambermaid did what I ordered.
(2). In interrogation and negation it is represented by the present and past tenses (pars. 58, 63, 64).
Examples.—Ĉu vi pensas, ke li venos? = Do you think that he will come? Ĉu vi lin vidis hieraŭ? = Did you see him yesterday? Mi ne konas lin = I do not know him.
(3). As an emphatic auxiliary, it may be represented by ja = indeed, in fact, or other similar adverb: e.g., sincere (par. 217).
Example.—Mi ja esperas, ke li venos = I do hope he will come.
(4). As an inquiry after health.
Example.—Kiel vi fartas? or, Kia estas via sano? or, Kiel vi statas? = How do you do? or, How are you?
(5). To “do,” in the sense of “to cheat,” by trompi or friponi. In the sense of “to suffice” by sufiĉi.
Examples.—Li friponis min = He did (cheated) me. Tio sufiĉos = That will do.
(6). Followed by prepositions, it must be translated in accordance with the sense of the phrases.
Examples:—
To do away with (abolish) = neniigi, (destroy) = detrui.
To do business = komerci, fari negocon kun.
To do for, or away with (murder, kill) = mortigi.
To do into (translate) = traduki.
To do well (prosper) = prosperi.
To do up (arrange) = aranĝi, (tie up) = kunligi, (repair) = ripari.
To do with (make use of) = fari uzon el.
To do without (dispense with) = forlasi, ne bezoni.
Get.
237 (k). The English verb to “get” must be translated in accordance with its numerous meanings. For instance:—
(1). To “get,” in the sense of to “become,” may be rendered by iĝi = to become, or the suffix -IĜ-.
Examples.—Edziĝi = To get married (man). Edziniĝi = To get married (woman). Leviĝi = To get up. Alproksimiĝi = To get near. Laciĝi = To get tired. Tediĝi = To get bored. Ĉu vi pretiĝas = Are you getting ready? Mi malsatiĝas = I am getting hungry. Mi kutimiĝas je tio = I am getting accustomed (used) to that. Mallumiĝas (or, Iĝas mallume) = It is getting dark. La tagoj pli mallongiĝas = The days are getting shorter. La infanoj kuŝiĝis = The children got into bed (lit., lay down). La vespermanĝo malvarmiĝas = The dinner is getting cold; but malvarmumi = to get (or catch) a cold.
(2). To “get,” in the sense of to “make,” to “cause,” is rendered by igi = to make, or the suffix -IG- added to a verb.
Examples.—Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado = Get her to come to our dance. Mi presigos la libron baldaŭ = I shall get the book printed soon.
(3). To “get,” in the sense of to “have got,” or to “possess,” is not translated.
Examples.—Mi havas (or, posedas) du ĉevalojn = I have got two horses. Kion vi havas? = What have you got?
(4). To “get,” in the sense of to “procure,” “fetch,” is rendered by havigi, or, venigi.
Examples.—Mi havigos al mi tiom, kiom mi povos = I shall get as much as I can. Venigu al mi veturilon = Get me a carriage. Venigu la kuraciston = Send for (get) the doctor.
(5). “Get” is translated in various other ways according to its meaning. Note the following examples:—
Alveni en = To get to, to arrive at.
Alkonduku mian ĉevalon = Get my horse.
Alportu al mi la mustardon = Get me the mustard.
Mi ricevis vian leteron = I got your letter.
(6). To “get,” followed by prepositions, etc., must be translated in accordance with the sense of the phrase.
Examples:—
To get across = transiri.
To get along, forward, on = antaŭeniri.
To get at (attain, reach) = atingi.
To get back (something lent) = rericevi, (to a place) = reveni.
To get down = deiri, malsupreniri.
To get off (be acquitted) = senkulpiĝi, (escape) = forkuri, (a horse or coach) = deiri.
To get dirty = malpuriĝi.
To get on (a horse or coach) = supreniri, (in learning) = progresadi, (in business) = prosperi.
To get on with (continue) = daŭrigi.
To get out (of doors) = eliri, (publish) = eldoni, or, elirigi.
To get over (across) = transiri, (surmount) = venki.
To get ready = pretigi (trans.), pretiĝi (intrans.).
To get round (coax, allure) = logi, allogi, (persuade) = konvinki.
To get up (rise) = leviĝi, (ascend) = supreniri.
Can and Could.
237 (l). “Can” and “could” are translated by povi = to be able, except when “can” has the permissive sense of “may” (see par. 237 (m) (3)).
Examples.—Mi ne povas lin vidi nuntempe = I cannot see him at present. Li ne povis iri hieraŭ = He could not go yesterday. Li povus iri hodiaŭ, se li volus = He could (would be able to) go to day, if he would.
For other examples of “can” and “could,” see povi, par. 237 (f).
May and Might.
237 (m). These verbs are used (1) as auxiliaries in the English Subjunctive mood; also to express (2) wish, (3) permission, (4) possibility, (5) power or ability.
(1). When used as auxiliary verbs, they can be expressed by the Esperanto Imperative mood.
Examples.—Li rapidas, por ke li alvenu ĝustatempe = He hastens that he may arrive in time. Li kuris rapide, por ke li ne maltrafu la vagonaron = He ran quickly that he might not miss the train.
(2). When they express “wish,” the Esperanto Imperative is also used.
Examples.—Vi estu feliĉa! = May you be happy! Via deziro efektiviĝu! = May your wish be realized! Ĉielo vin benu! = May Heaven bless you! Nenio difektu vian feliĉon! = May nothing mar your happiness! Ĉia beno estu via! = May every blessing be yours!
In the above examples ellipsis takes place both in Esperanto and English, some such words as mi deziras, ke... = I wish that..., being omitted (par. 66 (c)). Ke vi prosperu, estas mia fervora deziro! = That you may succeed, is my fervent desire! Ke li vivu, estis mia ĉiutaga preĝo! = That he might live, was my daily prayer! Mi mortu, se mi iom mensogas! = May I die, if I am lying at all!
(3). When they express “permission,” some word denoting this must be used, or the imperative may be used, the verb expressing permission being omitted (par. 58 (a)). The English verb “can” is sometimes employed to express the permissive sense of “may”; in that case it is better to avoid the use of povi = to be able.
Examples.—Ĉu vi (oni) permesas, ke mi parolu kun vi? = May (can) I speak to you? (lit., Do you permit that I speak to you?) Ĉu oni permesas, (or, ĉu estas permesate), ke mi vidu la kastelon? = May (can) I see the castle? Mi permesas, ke vi tion faru, se vi volas, or, Vi faru tion, se vi volas = You may (I permit that you) do that, if you like. Se mi estus permesita tion diri (or, se estus permesite, or, se oni permesus, ke mi tion diru) = If I might (were permitted to) say so (that).
The above questions may be shortened thus:—Ĉu mi parolu kun vi? Ĉu mi vidu la kastelon? in this sense. The ellipsis understood here might, however, equally well be Ĉu (vi volas, ĉu necesas, ĉu estas bone, ke) mi parolu? vidu la kastelon? = Shall I (Am I to) speak (see the castle)?
(4). When they express “possibility,” some word showing that the action is more or less a matter of doubt must be used, as eble = possibly, kredeble = probably, etc.
Examples.—Eble li venos = He may come, or, Maybe (possibly) he will come. Eble li tranĉos la fingron, se vi donos al li tranĉilon = He may (possibly he will) cut his finger, if you (will) give him a knife. Eble li venus, se vi lin invitus = He might (possibly he would) come, if you invited (were to invite) him. Se vi tien irus, eble (kredeble) vi lin vidus = If you went (were to go) there, you might (possibly, probably would) see him.
Note that the possibility of something happening varies with the adverb used. “May” rendered by eble throws greater doubt on the contingency than kredeble.
(5). When they express “power,” or “ability,” povi = to be able can be used.
Examples.—La malsano povas konduki el komplikaĵoj = The illness may lead to complications. Li povus tion fari, se li antaŭe volus (or, estus volinta) ĝin fari = He might (could) have done that, if he had wished to do it.
Shall and Will.
237 (n). These verbs are used in English to denote:—
(1). Futurity.
(2). Determination or will.
As they are sometimes misplaced, it would be well for the student, not thoroughly conversant with their proper use, to consult some good English Grammar.
(1). Futurity. As the auxiliary for the Future tense, “shall,” in direct speech, is generally used for the first person, and “will” for the second and third persons, as “I, or we, shall go,” “He, you, or they will go,” except in interrogation, when “shall” is generally used for the second person, as “Shall you go?” But in indirect speech “shall” is used for all three persons, as, “He says he shall come.” “You say you shall write.” In any of these cases they are translated by the future in -os.
(2). Determination or Will. When the meaning is not futurity, but determination on the part of the speaker, then, in direct speech, “will” is used for the first person, and “shall” for the second and third persons, as, “I will do it, you cannot stop me.” “You shall not kill that bird.” “Thou shalt not steal.” But in indirect speech “will” is used for all the persons, as, “He says he will go” (it is his determination to go). “You say you will try it” (you are determined to try it). In such cases one must, in Esperanto, use not the future, but the imperative, or some word expressing “will” or “determination.”
N.B.—In some cases it is difficult to tell in which of the above senses “shall” or “will” is used, unless the context makes it clear; so, in writing, we have to underline the words, or, in speaking, to emphasize them strongly when they mean “determination.” Note carefully their meaning in the following sentences. The number prefixed to each example denotes the heading under which it comes.
Examples.—(1). Mi revenos, kiam ili foriros = I shall come back when they go away. (2). Mi intencas ĝin fari, ĉu vi konsentos, aŭ ne = I will (intend to) do it whether you consent or not. (1). Vi mortigos tiun birdon, se vi rekte pafos = You will kill that bird if you shoot straight. (2). Mi ne permesas, ke vi mortigu tiun birdon = You shall not (I do not allow you to) kill that bird. (1). Mi scias, ke vi ĝin faros = I know that you will do it. (2). Mi scias, ke vi povas ĝin fari, se vi volos = I know you can do it if you will.
Note the difference in meaning of “shall” and “will” in the following sentences:—I shall/will not see you to-morrow unless you come early. If “shall” be used, it means that something will prevent the speaker from seeing the individual; the speaker may be out, or engaged; therefore, since the reason is unimportant, we can translate the sentence, as in English, by the future, as:—(1). Mi ne vidos vin morgaŭ, se vi ne (or, krom se vi) venos frue. But if “will” be used, determination on the part of the speaker is implied; nothing prevents him; he could see you if he wished, but he will not (won’t). Therefore, in Esperanto, we must express this determination, and say (2). Mi ne volas (or, mi ne intencas) vin vidi morgaŭ, krom se vi venos frue = I will not (I do not intend to) see you to-morrow unless you come early. (1). Mi ne mortos sola = I shall not die alone. (2). Mi ne volas (or, mi certe ne intencas) morti sola = I will not (I certainly do not intend to) die alone. (1). Ĉu vi estos (or, ĉeestos) tie ĉi morgaŭ? = Will you be here to-morrow? (1). Jes, mi estos = Yes, I will. Note that “will” here repeats the verb in the question, and is used instead of “shall.” (1). Li diras, ke li venos, sed (1) ĉu li venos? or, (2) ĉu li volos? = He says he will come, but will he? Here the words “but will he?” must be translated in accordance with the sense to be conveyed, viz.:—(1) will something prevent him? (2) will he have the will?
The phrase “Shall I do that?” can be translated by the future, Ĉu mi tion faros? = Is it a fact that I shall do that? or, Ĉu estos plej bone tion fari = Is it best to do that? or, Ĉu estos profite, saĝe, k.c. = Will it be expedient, wise, etc., or, Ĉu decos, ke mi tion faru? = Will it be proper (right) to do that? or, Ĉu vi volas (or, deziras), ke mi tion faru, or, Ĉu mi faru tion? = Shall I (do you wish me to, Am I to) do that? (1). Ĉu vi iros? = Shall you go? (2). Ĉu vi volas iri? = Will you go? Ĉu vi volas, ke mi iru? or, Ĉu mi iru? = Shall I go? Am I to go? (pars. 58 (a), 237 (m) (3)). “Will I go” is bad English, and untranslatable!
Should and Would.
237 (o). “Should” and “would” follow the rules of “shall” and “will” when employed in parallel circumstances. They express:—
(1). Supposition, or a future that is doubtful, conditional, or merely supposed (par. 192), as “I should do it if I knew how.”
(2). Duty or obligation (par. 237 (a)) as “He should not do that.”
(3). Determination, as “Nothing could influence him, he would do it.”
(4). The softening of an expression (par. 194), as “Would you object to do that?”
(5). The future in indirect speech (par. 232), as “She said she would (will) come.”
(6). Would, when it signifies custom or habit, is sometimes translated by adding the suffix -AD- to the verb.
The following sentences will show how these various meanings may be expressed in Esperanto. The number before each example shows under which class of meanings it comes.
Examples.—(1). Mi ĝin farus, se vi min permesus = I should do it if you would permit me. (1). Li min frapus, se li ne timus = He would strike me if he were not afraid. (3). Li insistis ĝin fari malgraŭ la danĝero = He would do it in spite of the danger. (4). Ĉu vi donus al mi tiun libron? = Would you give me that book? (1). Se vi vidus Johanon morgaŭ (2) vi devus diri al li, ke li ne aĉetu tiun domon = If you should see John to-morrow, you should tell him not to buy that house. (5). Ŝi diris al mi, ke ŝi venos = She told me that she would (will) come. (1). Mi iomete suspektis, ke ili venos = I had a slight suspicion that they would come. (6). Ili ofte rajdadis tra la arbaroj, kie la branĉoj tuŝadis iliajn ŝultrojn, kaj la birdoj kantadis inter la freŝaj folioj = They would often ride through the woods, where the branches would touch their shoulders, and the birds would sing amid the fresh leaves.
Must, Ought.
237 (p). “Must” and “Have to” always signify physical or moral obligation, and are stronger terms than “ought,” which implies moral obligation or duty. Compare “You must (have to, are to) go” with “You ought to go.” The former can be rendered by devi, and the latter, “ought,” by deci, or some word implying moral obligation. Devi is also used for “ought” in the Conditional mood; devus, in this case, being the softened form of the Conditional mood (see par. 194). Care must be taken not to translate “must” when it signifies “have to” or “am to” by havi or esti (see par. 237 (a) on devi).
Examples.—Li devas labori = He must (has to) work. Mi devas havi tiun libron = I must have that book. Ĉio, kio troviĝas en tiu ĉi libro, devas esti rigardata kiel deviga por ĉiuj = Everything which is in this book must be regarded as obligatory for all. La “Fundamento de Esperanto” devas resti severe netuŝebla = The “Fundamento de Esperanto” must remain strictly unalterable (untouchable). Vi devus ne fari tion, or, Ne decas, ke vi tion faru = You ought not to (it is not proper, right that you should) do that. Vi devus viziti (Decas, ke vi vizitu) la patron = You ought to see (it is proper that you should see) your father. Li devus ne forgesi (or, esti forgesinta) = He ought not to have forgotten. Decas, ke mi alportu miajn servojn al la reĝo = I ought to offer my services to the king. Kiam vi devos vidi la homon? = When must you (will you have to) see the man? Mi devus vidi lin hieraŭ, sed li malsaniĝis, tial nun mi devos atendi ĝis morgaŭ = I ought to have seen him yesterday, but he fell ill, so now I must wait till to-morrow.
N.B.—Note, in the last example, that the adverb hieraŭ = yesterday, clearly shows the action is past; it is therefore unnecessary to use the past infinitive esti vidinta.
Adverbs (Adverboj)
238. Adverbs are more widely used in Esperanto than in any other language. The root of every word, and any grammatical termination or affix, the sense of which permits this, can be made into an adverb by adding the adverbial termination E. This facility enables the Esperantist to express in one word, to an unlimited extent, what in other languages often takes two, three, or more words to express adequately. E.g., Tiamaniere = In such a manner. Matene = In the morning. Vespere = In the evening.
239. An adverb answers to a preposition accompanied by a complement.
Example.—Li parolas saĝe = “He speaks wisely,” has the same signification as Li parolas kun saĝeco = He speaks with wisdom.
240. Adverbs are used to modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Examples.—Li agas bone = He acts well. Tiu ĉi estas tre granda domo = This is a very large house. Li skribas treege bone = He writes extremely well.
N.B.—When an adverb seems to qualify a preposition, it really qualifies an adverbial phrase, as:—Multe antaŭ la horo = Much before the time (hour).
241. Position.—Adverbs, as a rule, immediately precede or follow the words which they modify (see par. 88).
242. There are two classes of adverbs in Esperanto, which for the sake of distinction we will call (a) “Primary” and (b) “Grammatical.”
(a). Primary adverbs are all to be found in the list of primary words in Part V. They have no distinctive termination.
(b). Grammatical adverbs are those which are formed by adding E to a root, grammatical termination, or affix. Some are formed by adding E to a primary word.
A list of adverbs will be found at page 166.
244. Adverbs formed from Prepositions.—When a preposition has no complement, noun or pronoun, the preposition then takes the adverbial termination E. For instance, in the phrase mi staras apud li (I am standing by him); apud here is a preposition because it is followed by its complement li. But if li be omitted, we must alter the sentence, as:—Li staras apude = He is standing by (near).
Examples.—Mensogi estas honte (not honta) = To lie is shameful. Estas necese, ke.... = It is necessary that.... Estas bele, varme, malvarme = It is fine, warm, cold. Ne estas atendate, ke.... = It is not expected that.... If, however, a noun or pronoun is expressed, then the adjective is used, as:—La vetero (or, ĝi) estas bela, varma, malvarma = The weather (or, it) is fine, warm, cold.
245 (a). Participle-Adverbs.—In Esperanto, when the participle relates to the subject (par. 211), but does not qualify it, then the participle takes the adverbial form. For impersonal use see par. 164 (d).
Examples.—Legante, ni lernas = In (by, when, while) reading we learn. Starante sur la supro de la monteto, li povis vidi la preĝejon = By standing on the top of the hill, he could see the church. Estante kolera, ŝi ne volis paroli al sia nevo = Being (as she was) angry, she did not wish to speak to her nephew. Malferminte la fenestron, li vidis la amason sur la strato = Having opened (or, after opening) the window, he saw the crowd in (on) the street. Ekrigardinte la libron, ŝi ĝin metis sur la tablon = Having glanced (or, after glancing) at the book, she put it on the table. Forpelite el la urbo, ili rifuĝis en la arbarego = Having been (or, after being) driven from the town, they took refuge in the forest. Batate de la lernejestro, la knabo terure kriegis = Being beaten by the schoolmaster, the boy howled terribly.
246. Adverbs of quantity, like other words signifying quantity, usually have their complement introduced by the preposition da.
Examples.—Multe da homoj = Many men. Nur malmulte da virinoj = Only a few women. Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas? = How many horses have you? Multe pli da bovaĵo, ol (da) ŝafaĵo = Much more beef than mutton. Malpli da pano, ol (da) vino = Less bread than wine. Tro da kuiristoj malbonigas la buljonon = Too many cooks spoil the broth. Ne estas sufiĉe da supo = There is not sufficient soup.
246. (a). Expressions such as “more and more,” “at most,” etc., are thus rendered:—
Pli-malpli, pli aŭ malpli, plie aŭ malplie = More or less.
Plie = In addition, besides, moreover. Malplie = Less and less.18
Pleje = At (the) most, mostly. Malpleje = At (the) least, least.18
Troe = In excess, too many.
Footnote
Examples.—Unu pomo plie aŭ malplie ne gravas = One apple more or less does not signify. Plie, mi devas diri al vi, ke.... = Moreover, I must tell you that.... Ni estos kvin pleje haj ili sep malpleje = We shall be five at most and they seven at least. En la kesto mi trovis du librojn troe = In the box I found two books too many (in excess).
After such adverbs as konforme, rilate, escepte, spite, etc., it is optional either to use the accusative or to add a suitable preposition with the complement in the nominative, as konforme al, kun, or je; rilate al; escepte de (or, kun la escepto de = with the exception of); spite de (see par. 258 (a)).
Examples.—Pli rapide, ol bone = More quickly than well. Malpli forte, ol kutime = Weaker (less strong) than customary. Tiel dolĉe, kiel eble (or, kiel eble plej dolĉe) = As sweetly as possible. Ŝi kantas la plej bone el ĉiuj = She sings best of all. Li agis tre saĝe = He acted very wisely.
248 (a). Adverbs and adjectives.—Be careful not to use the adjective for the adverb.
Examples.—Li kuras rapide = He runs rapidly. Parolu pli laŭte (not laŭta) = Speak louder (more loudly). Ŝi vidis lin piediranta pli malrapide, ol kutime = She saw him walking (that he was (is) walking) more slowly than usual.
N.B.—Note that piediranta is predicative (see par. 209 (b)).
List of Adverbs
248 (b). The following list of adverbs contains all those found amongst the primary words and some formed from them, also a number of useful grammatical adverbs.
Adiaŭ = Adieu, farewell, good-bye.
Example.—Li diris al ŝi adiaŭ, kaj foriris = He said good-bye to her, and departed.
Afrankite = Post-paid.
Ajn = Ever. Ajn is generally used after the correlative words beginning with K, as kia, kiam, etc. (see table of correlative words, par. 147). It then answers to words ending in “ever,” but, unlike English, it is never joined to the preceding word (par. 145).
Examples.—Kia ajn = Whatever kind of. Kiam ajn = Whenever, whensoever. Kie ajn = Wherever, wheresoever. Kiel ajn = However. Kies ajn = Whosesoever. Kio ajn = Whatever, whatsoever. Kiom ajn = However much. Kiu ajn = Whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever.
Aliloke = Elsewhere.
Alivorte = In other words.
Almenaŭ = At least.
Example.—Donu al mi almenaŭ la duonon de tiu biskvito = Give me at least the half of that biscuit.
Alvenante, Alveninte = On arrival.
Ambaŭ = Both, one and the other (pronoun).
Examples.—Ili ambaŭ kuris al la stacidomo = They both ran to the station.
Ankaŭ = Also, too.
Examples.—Li ankaŭ ĝin faris = He, too, did it. Nek mi ankaŭ = Nor I either (also).
Ankoraŭ = Yet, still. (See remarks on Jam).
Examples.—Ĉu li estas ankoraŭ tie ĉi? = Is he still here? Mi ankoraŭ ne vidis lin = I have not seen him yet.
Antaŭe = Formerly, previously, beforehand, in front.
Aparte = Aside, apart, separately, specially.
Apenaŭ = Hardly, scarcely.
Example.—Mi apenaŭ pensas tion = I hardly think that (or, so).
Baldaŭ = Soon.
Example.—Mi esperas, ke li venos baldaŭ = I hope he will (may) come soon.
Bis = Once more, again, encore.
Example.—Bis! = Encore!
Bonstate = In good condition.
Certe = Certainly.
Ĉi = The nearest (tio = that, tio ĉi or ĉi tio = this), (tiu = that, the former, tiu ĉi or ĉi tiu = this, the latter), (tie = there, tie ĉi or ĉi tie = here), (tien = thither, tien ĉi = hither), (ĉio = all, ĉio ĉi = all this) (par. 143).
Examples.—Restu ĉi tie = Remain here. Venu ĉi tien = Come hither.
Ĉial = For all reasons, for every reason (par. 150).
Example.—Ĉial tio estas la plej bona = For every reason that is the best.
Ĉiam = Always, ever (par. 151).
Example.—Li venas ĉiam, kiam oni ne bezonas lin = He always comes when one does not want him.
Ĉiame = Perpetually, continually.
Example.—La infano ploras ĉiame (or, senĉese) = The child cries perpetually.
Ĉie = Everywhere (par. 152).
Examples.—Ĉie mi lin vidas = Everywhere I see him. Li iras ĉien = He goes everywhere.
Ĉiel = In every (manner) way, all ways (par. 153).
Example.—Tiu estas ĉiel la plej bona sidejo = That is in every way the best seat.
Ĉiom = All of it, the whole, all, every quantity (par. 156).
Example.—Prenu iom, ne ĉiom = Take some, not the whole.
Ĉirkaŭe = Round about.
Ĉiufoje kiam, or, ĉiun fojon kiam, or, kiam ajn = whenever.
Ĉiujare = Yearly, annually, every year.
Ĉiumonate = Monthly, every month.
Ĉiusemajne = Weekly, every (each) week.
Ĉiutage = Daily. Laŭtage = By the day. Tage = By day. Nokte = By night.
Ĉu = Whether. An interrogative adverb used at the beginning of a direct question; it has no English equivalent. Ĉu simply shows that the sentence is interrogative, and therefore, to translate it, we must look to the tense of the verb and to the subject, so as to preface the interrogation with “do,” “does,” “did,” “have,” “has,” “is,” “will,” “shall,” “was,” “were,” “should,” “would,” “can,” etc. etc.
Examples.—Ĉu vi komprenis? = Did you understand? Ĉu Johano skribas? = Is John writing? Ĉu vi povas fari tion? = Can you do that? (see remarks on Interrogation, par. 58).
Ĉu = whether (or if in the sense of whether) (a conjunction) is used in indirect questions, when we generally use “if.”
Examples.—Diru al mi, ĉu li venos = Tell me if (whether) he will come. Diru al mi, se li venos = Tell me if he comes.
Ĉu... Ĉu = Whether... whether.
Example.—Ĉu li venos, ĉu li ne venos, Paŭlo foriros = Whether he comes (will come) (or) whether he does not (will not come), Paul will depart.
Dekstre = On the right. Maldekstren = To the left.
Denove = Afresh, again, once again.
Due = Secondly, in the second place.
Dum = While, whilst, as (also a preposition and conjunction).
Dume = Meanwhile.
Eble = Possibly, perhaps.
Eĉ = Even.
Examples.—Li eĉ pensis, ke.... = He even thought that.... Eĉ la infanoj insultis min = Even the children abused me.
Efektive = In fact, really, as a matter of fact.
Ekstere = Outwardly. Interne = inwardly, internally, within, inside.
Entute = On the whole, as a whole.
Facile = Easily. Malfacile = With difficulty.
Fine = In conclusion, lastly.
For = Away, forth.
Example.—For de ĉi tie fripono! = Get thee hence (away), rascal!
Forme = In shape, in form.
Galope = At a gallop.
Grandnombre = In great numbers.
Ĝisdate = Up to date. Ĝisnune = Up to now, hitherto. Ĝisplue = Until further notice.
Ĝissate = Till satiety (is reached).
Ĝustatempe = Opportunely, to time.
Hieraŭ = Yesterday.
Examples.--Mi lin vidis hieraŭ = I saw him yesterday. Antaŭhieraŭ = The day before yesterday.
Hieraŭ matene = Yesterday morning.
Hodiaŭ = To-day.
Example.—Li alvenos hodiaŭ = He will arrive to-day.
Hodiaŭ vespere = This (to-day) evening.
Ial = For some (any) reason, or cause (par. 150).
Example.—Ial li venis Londonon = For some reason he came to London.
Iam = At some (any) time, once, ever (par. 151).
Examples.—Venu iam morgaŭ = Come some time to-morrow. Ĉu vi iam renkontis lin? = Did you ever meet him?
Ie = Somewhere, (anywhere) (par. 152).
Examples.—Mi ne povas ĝin trovi ie en la ĉambro = I cannot find it anywhere in the room. Ĝi estas ie = It is somewhere. Ĉu vi metis ĝin ien? = Did you put it anywhere?
Iel = Somehow, in some way, in some manner, anyhow, (in any way) (par. 153).
Examples.—Iel li sukcesas en ĉio = Somehow he succeeds in everything. Respondu iel = Answer in some manner.
Iom = Somewhat, some quantity, a little, some (par. 156).
Examples.—La vetero estas iom pli varma = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer. Jen estas cigaroj, ĉu vi deziras iom? = Here are cigars, do you want some?
Iomete = A very little, in a very slight degree, at all.
Example.—Ĝi estis iomete pli granda, ol kulo = It was slightly larger than a gnat.
Intence = Intentionally, on purpose.
Examples.—Li ja alvenos morgaŭ = He in fact will arrive to-morrow. Ja may be used to express the emphatic English use of “do,” “did,” as:—Mi ja volas, ke li estu tie ĉi = I do wish he were here (par. 217).
Jam = Already, as yet, by now, now.
Examples.—Vi jam diris tion = You said (have said) that already. Ĉu vi jam trovis vian horloĝon? = Have you as yet found your watch? Mi ĝin ankoraŭ ne serĉis = I have not yet looked for it. La knabo jam ne ridas = The boy does not laugh now (no longer laughs).
N.B.—Compare jam with ankoraŭ. Jam shows that the circumstances are changed; ankoraŭ, that there is no change. Ex.:—La infano jam dormas = The child is now sleeping (it was not sleeping before). La infano ankoraŭ dormas = The child is still sleeping.
Jen = Behold, here. Jene = As follows.
Examples.—Jen estas tio, kion vi bezonas = Here is what (that which) you want. Jen estas la libroj = Here are the books.
Jes = Yes, it is so (par. 63). Jese = Affirmatively.
Examples.—Jes, vi estas prava = Yes, you are right. Mi vin certigas, ke jes = I assure you that it is so.
Ju pli... des pli = The more... the more (par. 112).
Example.—Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin amas = The more I know him, the more I love him.
Ju pli... des malpli = The more... the less.
Example.—Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi = The more I see him, the less he pleases me.
Ju malpli... des malpli = The less... the less.
Example.—Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon dormi = The less I sleep, the less I feel the need (to sleep) of sleeping.
Ju malpli... des pli = The less... the more.
Example.—Ju malpli mi trinkas, des pli mi manĝas = The less I drink, the more I eat.
Ĵus = Just, at the (past) moment, just now.
Examples.—Mi ĵus vidis ŝin = I have just seen her. Mi ĵus diris al vi lian nomon = I have just told you his name. Lia ĵusa parolo = The speech he has just made.
Kaŝe or sekrete = In secret.
Kelkafoje or kelkfoje = Sometimes. Iafoje = At times. Multfoje = Many times.
Kia ajn = Whatever (kind of) (par. 145).
Example.—Mi aĉetos de vi tiun libron, kia ajn ĝi estos = I will buy from you that book whatever it may (shall) be.
Kial = Why, wherefore (par. 150).
Example.—Kial vi silentis? = Why were you silent?
Kiam = When, at what time (par. 151).
Example.—Kiam li alvenos? = When will he arrive?
Kiam ajn = Whenever, whensoever (par. 145).
Example.—Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos = Send him to me whenever he comes (shall come).
Kie = Where, in what place (par. 152).
Examples.—Kie kreskas tiuj floroj? = Where do those flowers grow? Diru al mi, kie li estas = Tell me where he is. Kien (accusative) = Whither. Kien vi iras? = Whither (or, where) are you going? De kie li venis? = Whence did he come?
Kie ajn = Wherever, wheresoever (par. 145).
Examples.—Kie ajn li estas, li estas ŝatata = Wherever he is, he is liked. Kien ajn = Whithersoever. Oni lin estimus, kien ajn li irus = He would be esteemed whithersoever he went (should go). De kie ajn ĝi venis, ĝi estas tre bela katido = Whencesoever (from wherever) it came, it is a very fine kitten.
Kiel = How, in what manner, like (in comparison = ... as).
Examples.—Kiel vi fartas? = How do you do? (how are you, or, fare you?) Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari = I have some idea how to do it. Tiel longe kiel = As long as. Se vi estus kiel mi = If you were (should be) like me. Kiel eble plej bone = As well as possible (as possibly, most well). Kiel bona vi estas! = How good you are! (par. 153).
Kiel ajn = However, in whatever manner (par. 145).
Example.—Kiel ajn vi ĝin faros, faru ĝin bone = In whatever way you (will) do it, do it well.
Kiom = How much, as much as, as far as (par. 156).
Examples.—Kiom kostas tio? = How much does that cost? Kiom mi scias = As far as I know. Kiom li povos = As much as he can (will be able).
Kiom ajn = However (many) much, whatever quantity.
Examples.—Mi ĝin aĉetos, kiom ajn ĝi kostos = I shall buy it, however much it may (will) cost. Kiom ajn da teo estas tie, tiom sufiĉas = Whatever quantity of tea is there, it (that quantity) is sufficient (par. 145).
Kompare = Comparatively, in comparison.
Kompate = Compassionately, mercifully. Senkompate = Pitilessly.
Kompreneble = Of course.
Kondiĉe = Conditionally, on condition.
Konforme = Conformably, in accordance.
Konsekvence = Consistently.
Konsente = By consent.
Kontente = Contentedly. Malkontente = Discontentedly.
Kontentige = Satisfactorily, in a satisfactory manner.
Kontraŭe = On the contrary, opposite to, vice versâ.
Kredeble = Likely, probably.
Kune = Together, jointly. Kune kun = Together with, along with. Malkune = Separately.
Kvazaŭ = As if, as though, as it were (also conjunction).
Examples.—Li staris, kvazaŭ li vidas fantomon = He stood as though he saw (sees) a phantom. Li parolis, kvazaŭ li vidis ŝin = He spoke as if he had seen her.
Laŭlarĝe = In breadth, broadways, transversely.
Laŭlonge = In length, lengthwise.
Laŭvole = At option, at will.
Laŭte = Loudly, in a loud voice. Mallaŭte = Softly, in a soft voice.
Lerte = Cleverly. Mallerte = Awkwardly.
Longe = Long, for a long time. Mallonge = Briefly, in short. Antaŭ ne longe = Recently, not long ago, a short time ago. De longe = Long ago, long since, for a long time.
Male = On the contrary, contrarily.
Malpleje = Least, at least.
Examples.—Li malpleje donis = He gave least. Ni estos tri mapleje = We shall be three at least (see pleje).
Malpli = Less (for comparatives) (par. 112).
Example.—Georgo estas malpli forta, ol Johano = George is less strong than John.
Malproksime = Afar, away, far off, in the distance.
Matene = In the morning. Vespere = In the evening.
Mem = Self, selves, very (pronoun) (par. 127).
Examples.—Mi mem iros = I shall go myself. Eĉ la virinoj mem laboris sur la kampoj = Even the women themselves (or, the very women) were working in the fields. Ĉe la pordo mem = At the very door (door itself).
Morgaŭ = To-morrow.
Examples.—Mi iros tien morgaŭ = I shall go there to-morrow. Li alvenos postmorgaŭ = He will arrive the day after to-morrow.
Multe pli multe da... = Many (much) more of... Nemulte = Not much, not many. Malmulte = Little, few.
Ne = No, not, nay.
Examples.—Ĉu vi deziras kafon? = Do you wish for coffee? Ne, mi jam havas = No, I have (some) already (see remarks on negation, par. 59).
Ne tute = Not entirely, not altogether, not quite.
Example.—Li ne estis tute malprava pri tio, kion li diris = He was not altogether wrong in what he said.
Nenial = For no cause (reason) (par. 150).
Example.—Nenial li ĉesis skribi al mi = For no reason he ceased writing to me.
Neniam = Never (par. 151).
Example.—Mi neniam vidis lin = I never saw him.
Nenie = Nowhere, in no place (par. 152).
Examples.—Nenie oni povis trovi mian hundon = Nowhere could they find my dog. Mi iras nenien speciale = I am going nowhere in particular.
Neniel = Nohow, by no means, in no way (par. 153).
Example.—Li neniel povis kompreni ŝin = He could in no way (not at all) understand her.
Neniom = None, nothing, nothing at all, no quantity (par. 156).
Example.—Li havas neniom = He has none at all.
Nepre = Unfailingly, surely, infallibly, without fail.
Example.—Tiu libro nepre apartenas al mi = That book certainly belongs to me.
Norden = Northwards, to the north. Suden = Southwards, to the south. Orienten = Eastwards, to the east. Okcidenten = Westwards. Okcidente = In the west.
Nun = Now.
Examples.—Mi nun foriras = I am now going out. Mi ne povas lin vidi nun = I cannot see him now.
Nune = At present.
Example.—Mi estas okupata nune = I am busy at present.
Nuntempe = Now-a-days, at the present time.
Nur = Only (but, in the sense of only), merely.
Example.—Li havas nur du ĉevalojn = He has but (only) two horses. N.B.—Care should be taken to place nur in such a position in a sentence so as to convey the required meaning of the phrase. It is best generally to place it before the word to which it specially refers (see par. 88).
Pace = In peace, peacefully.
Page = In payment. Senpage = Gratuitously.
Parkere = By heart.
Parole = Verbally, by word of mouth. Skribe = In writing.
Example.—Li tion komunikis al mi parole kaj skribe = He communicated that to me verbally and in writing.
Pasie = With passion, passionately. Kolere, angrily.
Pere = Indirectly. Senpere = In a direct way, direct.
Persone = Personally, in person.
Piedire = On foot.
Example.—Mi trapasis la arbaron piedire = I traversed the wood on foot.
(la) Plej = (the) Most (for superlatives), most (par. 113).
Examples.—La plej bela el ĉiuj = The finest of all. Vi agis plej saĝe, farante tion = You acted most wisely in doing that.
Pleje = Most, mostly, mainly, at most.
Examples.—Ŝi donis pleje = She gave most. Pleje (or, plejofte) mi forgesas, ke... = Mostly (frequently) I forget that... Ni estos kvin pleje = We shall be five at most (see malpleje).
Plezure = With pleasure.
Pli = More (for comparatives), rather (par. 112).
Examples.—Li ne vivos pli ol unu tagon = He will not live more than one day. Pli kaj pli mi ŝin amas = More and more I love her. Mi pli volis labori, ol ludi = I preferred to work than to play.
Plie = Further, moreover.
Plivole = Preferably, rather (par. 112).
Plu = Further, farther, more. Ne... plu = No longer.
Examples.—Mi ne faros unu paŝon plu = I shall not go (make) one step further. Li ne plu faros tion = He will not do that any longer (more), or, He will no longer do that.
Plue = Furthermore.
Poduone = By half, by halves.
Poste = Afterwards, after, then.
Precipe = Especially, particularly.
Prefere = Preferably, rather.
Preskaŭ = Almost, nearly, well-nigh.
Examples.—Li preskaŭ falis = He nearly fell. Ni preskaŭ pensas, ke... = We almost think that...
Pripensinte = On reflection.
Proksime = Near. Malproksime = Far off.
Proksimume = Approximately.
Prunte = On loan.
Example.—Mi prenis (donis) la monon prunte = I took (gave) the money on loan.
Rapide = Rapidly, quickly, apace. Malrapide = Slowly, tardily.
Rapidire = With speed, by express. Malrapidire = By slow train.
Rave = Enchantingly, delightfully.
Ree = Again, in return.
Rekte = Straightforwardly, direct. Malrekte = Aslant.
Renversite = Topsy-turvy, upset.
Returne = Back. Returnen = Backwards.
Ŝajne = Seemingly.
Samtempe = At the same time, simultaneously.
Sekve = Consequently, therefore. Intersekve = Consecutively, successively.
Sendube = No doubt; without doubt, doubtless.
Senintermanke = Continuously, without intermission.
Skribe = In writing.
Sovaĝe = In a wild state. Malsovaĝe = In a tame state.
Somere = In summer. Vintre = In winter.
Speciale = Specially.
Sube = Beneath, below, under, underneath.
Sufiĉe = Enough, sufficiently.
Supre = Above, up. Supren = Upwards. Malsupre = Below. De supre = From above.
Surgenue = On one’s knees, kneeling.
Surprize = By (with) surprise.
Tial = Therefore, accordingly, for that (such) reason.
Example.—Tial mi konsilas, ke vi skribu al li = For that reason (therefore, accordingly) I advise you to write to him (par. 150).
Tiam = Then, at that time. The correlative is kiam, and tiam, kiam = then, when (or, when) (par. 151).
Examples.—Tiam ni povos iri al la kunveno = We shall at that time be able to go to the meeting. Mi vizitos vin (tiam), kiam mi venos Londonon = I will visit you (then) when I (shall) come to London.
Tiamaniere = In this (such a) manner, thus.
Tie = There, yonder. Tien = Thither (par. 152).
Examples.—Ĉu iu estos tie? = Will anyone be there? Vi ne vidos iun tie. = You will not see anyone there. Ĉu vi iras tien? = Are you going thither (there)?
Tie ĉi, or, Ĉi tie = Here. Tien ĉi, or, Ĉi tien = Hither, here (par. 143).
Examples.—Ĉu viaj fratoj estas tie ĉi? = Are your brothers here? Venu tien ĉi = Come here (hither). Ĉi tie ni vidis amasojn da viroj kaj virinoj (or, geviroj) = Here we saw crowds of men and women.
Tiel = Thus, in that way, like that, so much so. Its correlative in comparison is kiel. Tiel... kiel = as... as (par. 153).
Example.—Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi = He is as strong as you.
Tiel... ke = So... that.
Example.—Li tiel kriegis, ke li raŭkiĝis pro tio = He shouted so, that he became hoarse through it.
Tiom = As much, as many, so much, so many. Its correlative is kiom, and tiom, kiom = as many as, as much as (par. 156).
Examples.—Tiom estas malfacile memori = So much is difficult to remember. Li tiom laboris, kiom vi = He worked as much as you. Donu al mi tiom da pomoj, kiom da piroj = Give me as many apples as pears.
Tiom pli = So much the more.
Examples.—Tiom pli bone = So much the better. Tiom pli malbone = So much the worse.
Trae = Right through.
Tre = Very, much.
Examples.—Li estas tre dika = He is very corpulent. Mi tre estimas lin = I esteem him much.
Treege = Extremely, exceedingly.
Example.—Ŝi estas treege kolera = She is extremely angry.
Trie = Thirdly.
Triumfe = Triumphantly.
Tro = Too, too much.
Examples.—Li estas tro grasa = He is too fat. Mi lin tro amas = I love him too much.
Troe = In excess.
Example.—Dudek funtoj troe = Twenty pounds in excess.
Tuj = At once, immediately, just (at the moment to come).
Examples.—Li tuj iris hejmen = He went home immediately (at once). Tuj kantonta = just about to sing.
Tuj kiam = As soon as (immediately when).
Example.—Tuj kiam mi lin vidis, kuris al li renkonte = As soon as I saw him, I ran to meet him.
Tute = Entirely, quite, utterly, stark.
Examples.—Vi estas tute prava = You are quite right. Li estas tute freneza = He is stark mad.
Tute ne = Not at all.
Example.—Mi tute ne komprenas vin = I don’t at all understand you.
Unue = First, firstly, at first.
Verŝajne = Probably, presumably.
Vete = Emulously.
Vole = With one’s will. Kontraŭvole = Against one’s will. Memvole = Voluntarily. Senvole = Involuntarily.
Vole-nevole = Willy-nilly.
Volonte = Willingly, readily.
248 (c). From the above list we see that the adverb is often used in Esperanto in place of a preposition and its complement (par. 252).
Examples.—Ŝi estas nigre vestita = She is dressed in black. Li donis al mi du ŝilingojn page por la libro = He gave me two shillings in payment for the book. Forme ĝi estis simila al krono = In shape it was like a crown. La libro estas angle skribita = The book is written in English. Hamleto estas tradukita Esperanten = Hamlet has been translated into Esperanto. Note that in the word Esperanten the accusative of movement is used figuratively. (par. 67).
Prepositions
The following is a list of the 34 simple prepositions, showing the paragraphs under which remarks and examples of their use will be found:—
| Par. | ||
|---|---|---|
| Al | To, towards | 259 (1). |
| Anstataŭ | Instead of | 259 (2). |
| Antaŭ | Before, in front of | 259 (3). |
| Apud | Beside, close by | 259 (4). |
| Ĉe | At, with | 259 (5). |
| Ĉirkaŭ | About, around | 259 (6). |
| Da | Of | 259 (7). |
| De | Of, from, by | 259 (8). |
| Dum | During | 259 (9). |
| Ekster | Outside | 259 (10). |
| El | Out of | 259 (11). |
| En | In | 259 (12). |
| Ĝis | Till, as far as | 259 (13). |
| Inter | Between | 259 (14). |
| Je | (Indefinite) | 259 (15). |
| Kontraŭ | Against, opposite | 259 (16). |
| Krom | Besides, except | 259 (17). |
| Kun | With | 259 (18). |
| Laŭ | According to | 259 (19). |
| Malgraŭ | Notwithstanding | 259 (20). |
| Per | By means of | 259 (21). |
| Po | At the rate of | 259 (22). |
| Por | In order to, for | 259 (23). |
| Post | After, behind | 259 (24). |
| Preter | Beyond, past | 259 (25). |
| Pri | Concerning, of, about | 259 (26). |
| Pro | Because of, for | 259 (27). |
| Sen | Without | 259 (28). |
| Sub | Under | 259 (30). |
| Super | Above, over | 259 (31). |
| Sur | On | 259 (32). |
| Tra | Through | 259 (33). |
| Trans | Across | 259 (34). |
PREPOSITIONS (Prepozicioj).
249. Prepositions express the relation between words, showing how some thing, action, or quality stands in relation to some other thing, action, or quality.
Examples.—La riveroj fluas al la oceano = Rivers flow towards the ocean. Li manĝas antaŭ la tagmezo = He eats before midday. Nia domo staras ekster la arbetaro = Our house stands outside the plantation.
(a). Je, with the nominative, is generally used before the complement of the adjectives “deep, high, long, thick, wide,” but the accusative without a preposition is equally correct.
Examples.—Profunda (alta, longa) je kvin futoj (or, kvin futojn) = Five feet deep (high, long). La rivero estas larĝa je kvindek metroj (or, larĝa kvindek metrojn) = The river is fifty metres wide. We could, however, say, La rivero havas kvindek metrojn da larĝo (or, da larĝeco).
Examples.—Li parolas saĝe = He speaks with wisdom, instead of, Li parolas kun saĝeco. Li estis frapata perfortege = He was being struck with great violence, instead of, Li estis frapata kun perfortego.
Examples.—Li venos la mardon proksiman (or, en la mardo proksima) = He will come next Tuesday. Mi iros Madridon (or, al Madrido) morgaŭ = I shall go to Madrid to-morrow. Mi lin vidis la dekan (or, en la deka) de Julio = I saw him on the 10th of July. Ni restis en la veturilo du horojn (or, dum du horoj) = We remained two hours in the carriage.
(a). Prepositions are also always omitted between two substantives, when the word nomata = named could be understood (par. 106 (d)), as:—
La urbo (nomata) Parizo = The city of (named) Paris. La monato Septembro = The month of September. Li uzadas la lingvon internacian (nomatan) Esperanto = He uses the international language Esperanto.
(b). The preposition el = of, out of, is sometimes omitted in such an expression as:—
Tri miaj parencoj = Three of my relatives (or, three relations of mine).
Examples.—Mi eliris el la korto = I went out of the courtyard. Li eniris en la ĉambron = He entered (into) the room. La birdo deflugis de la arbo = The bird flew from the tree. Li eliris el la domo = He went out of the house. Or we could say, Li iris el la domo, omitting the joined preposition.
255. Prepositions and case.—In contrast to prepositions in English, which govern the accusative case, all prepositions in Esperanto govern the nominative case. If the complement of a preposition is in the accusative case, this is owing not to the preposition, but to the rule that the accusative is used to show the direction or place towards which movement (physical or otherwise) is made (par. 67).
256. Preposition and the accusative of direction.—As already stated in par. 67, the accusative is used when direction (physical or otherwise) is implied towards something. But if the word towards which such movement is implied is the complement of a preposition, then such word is in the nominative or accusative, in accordance with the following rules:—
(a). If the preposition denotes of itself movement, its complement will be in the nominative, in accordance with Rule 8 that prepositions govern that case.
(b). If the preposition does not of itself denote movement, then movement is shown by placing its complement in the accusative (par. 67).
As regards the others, the following are those in general use, whose complement takes the accusative of direction when motion towards something is implied:—Antaŭ = Before. Ĉirkaŭ = Around, about. En = In. Kontraŭ = Against. Sub = Under. Super = Over. Sur = On, upon. Tra = Through. Trans = Across.
Examples.—Li staris momente antaŭ la spegulo, kaj tuj poste venis antaŭ la reĝon = He stood for a moment before the looking-glass, and then came before (into the presence of) the king. La infano dancis en la korto, kaj poste kuris en la ĝardenon = The child danced in (not into) the courtyard, and then ran into (not in) the garden. Ĵetu tion sub la tablon = Throw that under the table. Ĵetu la ŝtonon super la muron = Throw the stone over the wall. Mi prenas sur min tiun ĉi aferon = I take upon myself this business (moral movement, therefore accusative, since sur does not of itself show movement). La knabo vadis trans la riveron kaj trans ĝi trovis aliajn knabojn = The boy waded across the river, and, on the other side of it, found other boys.
Examples.—Meze de la kampo = In the middle of the field. Funde de kesto = At the bottom of a box. Flanke de la malliberulo = At the side of the prisoner. Proksime de la preĝejo = Near the church. Dekstre de la vojo = On the right of the road. Supre de la muro = At the top of the wall. Dank’ al lia konsilo = Thanks to his advice. Li venis kune kun sia frato = He came together (along) with his brother. Li estas for de tie ĉi = He is away from here. Oni plantis arbon proksime de la puto = They planted a tree near the well. Metu vian manon for de mia kolo! = Take your hand off (away from) my neck.
(a). A few adverbs, used as prepositional expressions, are sometimes followed by a suitable preposition and sometimes not; in the latter case the complement is in the accusative, to show the omission (par. 253).
Examples.—Koncerne tiun aferon (or, Koncerne je tiu afero) = Concerning that matter. Konforme tion (or, Konforme al, kun or, je tio) = In conformity with that. Rilate lian karakteron (or, Rilate al lia karaktero) = With regard to (relative to, as regards, referring to) his character (par. 247)
N.B.—These phrases are alternatives for simple prepositions. We might, in some cases, use pri for koncerne je or rilate al, and laŭ for konforme al.
(b). Two prepositions sometimes are used.
Examples.—“Eniru!” ekkriegis voĉo de en la pordo = “Come in!” shouted a voice from within (inside) the door. Li rampis de sub la sofo = He crept from under the sofa. La ŝtono havis la alton (or, altecon) de ĉirkaŭ ok centimetroj kaj la larĝon (or, larĝecon) de ĉirkaŭ kvin centimetroj = The stone had the height of about eight centimetres and the width of about five centimetres. El sub la tirkestaro la muso kuris sub la liton = Out from under the chest of drawers the mouse ran under the bed. Ne rapidu foriri de antaŭ li = Do not hasten to leave his presence (go away from before him).
In the following remarks on prepositions the examples given of their use are placed under the various classes that their English rendering would assign to them; but we must bear in mind that, in accordance with Rule 14, every Esperanto preposition, except je, has a defined and constant meaning (par. 250). This defined meaning is given at the head of each preposition. The meanings given in the classes are only the various English renderings that can be given to the preposition (see English prepositions, pars. 260, 261).
REMARKS ON THE PREPOSITIONS.
Denotes approximation or addition.
Approximation = To, towards.
Examples.—Li venis al ni = He came to (or towards) us. Mi iras al Parizo, or, Mi iras Parizon = I am going to Paris. If al be omitted, Parizon must be in the accusative of direction. Ni ne vidas, ĉar la lumo estas kaŝata al ni per la kurtenoj = We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains.
N.B.—Kaŝata al, not de, which, after a passive participle, means “by”; but independently of this, al is logically used after kaŝi, in the sense of “to hide from”; as:—Sed pro kio kaŝi al li vian amon? = But why conceal from him your love?
Addition = To.
Examples.—Mi donis akvon al la birdoj = I gave water to the birds. La rozo apartenas al Teodoro = The rose belongs to Theodore. Donu vestaĵon al la malriĉuloj = Give clothing to the poor.
N.B.—With some verbs al is often used with the complement in the nominative, when in English we omit the preposition, as:—Li konsilis al mi fari tion = He advised me to do that. Ordonu al li (or, Ordonu lin), ke li ne faru tion = Order him not to do that.
Al is also sometimes used with personal pronouns in a possessive sense, as:—Li lavis al si la manojn, or, Li lavis siajn manojn = He washed his hands (see par. 134).
As a prefix, al signifies “to,” “towards,” as:—Alveni = To come to, arrive. Alpreni = To take to, adopt. Alpaŝi = To step towards, approach.
259 (2). Anstataŭ = Instead of.
One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (see remarks on Infinitive, pars. 177, 179).
Substitution = Instead of, for, in place of, as a substitute for, in room of.
Examples.—Anstataŭ li, oni sendis lian fraton = Instead of him, they sent his brother. Anstataŭ kafo li donis al mi teon = Instead of coffee he gave me tea. Anstataŭ eliri, li restis en la domo = Instead of going out, he remained in the house. Anstataŭ unu el la oficistoj = In place of one of the officials.
Although, in the first two examples given in the preceding paragraph, anstataŭ, being a preposition, is followed by the nominative, nevertheless, the accusative is often used in such cases when its use helps to remove ambiguity; the accusative being due to the omission of a verb understood. Compare: Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ Vilhelmo = Peter beat Paul instead of William doing so, with Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ (bati) Vilhelmon, Peter beat Paul instead of (beating) William.
As a root-word, Anstataŭi = To replace (intrans.). Anstataŭigi = To replace (trans.), to substitute. Anstataŭulo = A proxy (person instead of).
259 (3). Antaŭ = Before, in front of.
Denotes place or time. May take accusative of direction.
Place = Before, in front of.
Examples.—Oni metis antaŭ mi manĝilaron = They put before me a table service. Morgaŭ mi petos permeson veni antaŭ viajn reĝajn okulojn = To-morrow I shall beg permission to come before your royal presence (kingly eyes). Antaŭ nia militistaro staris pafilegoj = In front of our army were (stood) cannon.
Time = Before, ago.
Examples.—Antaŭ ne longe = Not long ago. Antaŭ kelkaj semajnoj = Some (a few) weeks ago.
N.B.—Since antaŭ and also post are frequently used both in the sense of “time” and “place,” care must be taken to word a phrase so that no ambiguity may arise. In sentences like the following, antaŭ ol or antaŭ kiam should be used when time is implied. Examples.—La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ la gepatroj = The betrothed met before the parents (= place, viz., in the presence of the parents). La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ ol (or, antaŭ kiam) la gepatroj alvenis = The betrothed met before the parents arrived (= time, viz., before the parents arrived). Johano venis antaŭ la juĝiston, sed Jozefo estis elirinta el la juĝejo antaŭ ol Johano alvenis = John came before the judge, but Joseph had left the court before John’s arrival.
As a prefix, Antaŭdiri = To foretell. Antaŭiri = to precede.
259 (4). Apud = Beside, close by.
Place = By, near, near to, close by.
Examples.—La batalo apud Farsalo ŝanĝis multajn aferojn en Romo = The battle near Pharsalia changed many things in Rome. Li estas apud la pordo = He is near the door. Li staris apud Johano = He stood by John. Mi vespermanĝos ĉe tiu tablo apud la fenestro = I shall dine at that table close by the window.
As a root-word or prefix, we have:—Apudeco = Contiguity. Apudesti = To be present, or near.
Marks the situation of a thing or action. Denotes coincidence, either of place, time, or connection.
Place = At, with, to, on.
Examples.—Li estas ĉe ni = He is with us (at our house). Ni estis ĉe via patro = We were at your father’s. Ŝi estas ĉe la pordo = She is at the door. Ĉe la alia flanko de la strato = On the other side of the street. Mi gastas ĉe miaj amikoj, Gesinjoroj Smith = I am staying with (am a guest at) my friends, Mr. and Mrs. Smith).
Time = At, on.
Example.—Ĉe nia alveno la hundo bojis = At (on) our arrival the dog barked.
Connection = In, to, with, on.
Examples.—Brakon ĉe (or, en) brako = Arm in arm. Koron ĉe koro = Heart to heart. Mi kredas, ke ĉe ĉiu vorto, kiun vi diras.... = I believe that with every word you say.... Ĉe la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion “ol” = With the comparative the conjunction “ol” is used. Por elpagi mian konton ĉe vi, mi sendas.... = To settle my account with you, I send.... Ĉe tia vetero, vi estos baldaŭ resanigita = With such weather, you will soon be restored to health. Ĉe tio = On that.
As a prefix, Ĉeesti = To be present. Inter la ĉeestantoj ni rimarkis.... = Amongst those present we observed....
259 (6). Ĉirkaŭ = About, around.19
Denotes place, time, manner, quantity.
Place = About, around, round.
Examples.—Je ĉirkaŭ tri paŝoj = At about three paces. La hundoj ludis kaj saltis ĉirkaŭ ŝi = The dogs played and jumped around her.
Time = About.
Example.—La koncerto daŭris ĉirkaŭ tri horojn (or, dum ĉirkaŭ tri horoj) = The concert lasted about three hours.
Manner = Round.
Example.—Li premis sian edzinon ĉirkaŭ la talio = He squeezed his wife round the waist.
Quantity = About.
Example.—Mi volas aĉeti ĉirkaŭ kvar funtojn = I wish to buy about four pounds.
As a prefix or root-word, ĉirkaŭ has the signification of “encircling,” as:—Ĉirkaŭfrazo = Periphrase, circumlocution. Ĉirkaŭpreni = To embrace. Ĉirkaŭi, ĉirkaŭigi = To surround.
Footnote
Used only after words denoting quantity, measure, weight, number, etc. Between two words, da shows that the first word measures the second.
Quantity = Of.
Examples.—Granda nombro da ideoj = A great number of ideas. Dudeko da homoj = A score of people. Funto da teo = A pound of tea. Sur la arbo sin trovis multo (or, multe) da birdoj = On the tree were (found themselves) many (of) birds.
Often de and da may be equally correct. Funto da teo emphasizes the quantity required (funto); funto de teo emphasizes the thing required (teo).
Do not use da before definite words like la, tiu, numbers, or pronouns. Funto de la teo, de tiu teo, de mia teo, de ĝi. Note the difference between “He ate a piece of bread” and “He ate a piece of the (particular) bread.” The former is Li manĝis pecon da pano, and the latter Li manĝis pecon de la pano, de tiu pano.
N.B.—Glaso da vino = A glass of wine. Glaso de (or, por) vino, or, vinglaso = A wineglass. Alportu al mi tetason, kaj elverŝu por mi tason da teo = Bring me a teacup, and pour me out a cup of tea.
Note.—Particular attention should be paid to the prepositions da, de, and el, all of which are often translated by the English preposition “of.” Note the following examples:—
Da.—Cento da pomoj = A hundred (of) apples. Dekduo da kuleroj = A dozen (of) spoons. Miliono da loĝantoj = A million (of) inhabitants. Kvar metroj da ŝtofo = Four metres of material. Ducent kilometroj da longo = Two hundred kilometres in (of) length.
De.—Tri estas duono de ses = Three is half of six. Ok estas kvar kvinonoj de dek = Eight is four-fifths of ten. La domo de mia frato = The house of my brother, or, My brother’s house. Doktoro de juro = A doctor of laws.
El.—Ĉiu el la infanoj = Each of the children. Unu el ni = One of us. Ni faru uzon el tio = Let us make use of that. Domo konstruita el ŝtono = A house built of stone. La plej bela floro el la ĝardeno = The most beautiful flower of the garden.
De denotes origin, possession, place, time, cause, agency, and disconnection or abstraction. It serves to form the genitive or possessive case. These are all variations of the one primary idea: origin.
De is not used in speaking of places, etc., when English uses the preposition “of,” where nomata = named might be inserted between two substantives.
Examples.—La urbo Londono = The City of London. La monato Julio = The month of July (par. 106 (d)).
Care must be taken not to confuse de with da.
Possession = Of.
Examples.—La libro de Petro = The book of Peter, or, Peter’s book. La domo de mia kara patro = My dear father’s house.
Origin or Dependence = Of, on, from.
Examples.—Ĝi dependas de la nombro de vortoj = It depends on the number of words. Tio venis de (or, el) lia unua eraro = That came from his first error. Li estas doktoro de medicino = He is a doctor of medicine. Li venis de (or, el) Parizo kaj nun iras al Berlino = He came from Paris and is now going to Berlin. Kaj Dio diris: “Kolektiĝu la akvo de sub la ĉielo en unu lokon” = And God said: “Let the waters (water) (from) under the heaven be gathered together (collect itself) into one place.”
Place = From, of, to.
Examples.—For de tie ĉi, fripono! = Away from here, rascal! Li forestas de tie ĉi = He is away from here. Li staris meze de la malamikoj = He stood in the midst of the enemy. Proksime de la domo staris arbo = Near (to) the house stood a tree. Ne malproksime de la dometo staris preĝejo = Not far from the cottage was (stood) a church.
Time = From, since, for.
Examples.—De tiu tempo = From (since) that time. De la kreo de la mondo = Since the creation of the world. De tri semajnoj mi estas malsana = For three weeks I have been (am) ill.
Cause = From, of, with.
Examples.—Li eksaltis de surprizo = He started (jumped) with surprise. Li mortis de febro = He died of (from) fever. Kaŭze de tio = Because of (due to) (owing to) that.
Agency = By (after a passive verb, to show the agent). To show the means per is used.
Examples.—Mi estas amata de mia patro = I am loved by my father. La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = The house built by my father is covered with slates.
Disconnection or Abstraction = From.
Example.—Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno = Separate the straw from the hay.
As a prefix, de signifies “off,” “from,” as:—Li deprenis la libron de la breto (or, li prenis la libron for de sur la breto) = He took the book off the shelf. Li demetis la ĉapelon = He took off his (the) hat.
Dum, whether used as a preposition or conjunction, always relates to duration of time (see note below).
Time = During.
Examples.—Dum la tuta tago (or, La tutan tagon) li restis sola = During the whole day he remained alone, or, He remained alone the whole day. Dum (or, En la daŭro de) kelkaj monatoj, ŝi ne eliradis el sia ĉambro = During (for the space of, for) some months she did not leave (go out of) her room. Li dormis dum la tuta koncerto, or, Li dormis la tutan koncerton = He was sleeping during the whole (all through the) concert. Dum ilia konsiliĝo (or, Dum ili konsiliĝis) mi restis en la apuda ĉambro = During their consultation (or, whilst they were consulting) I remained in the adjoining room.
Note.—Dum, although frequently used as a conjunction by Dr. Zamenhof, is rarely, if ever, used by him as a preposition. For our preposition “during” he generally uses the accusative of duration, or the prepositional expression en la daŭro de, or simply en, or turns the phrase by employing an adverbial present participle.
Place = Outside. Ekster is the opposite of en = in.
Examples.—Li iris en la domon, sed mi restis ekster ĝi = He went into the house, but I remained outside it. Li loĝas ekster la urbo = He lives outside the town.
Connection or Disconnection. Ekster is sometimes used as a synonym of krom (par. 259 (17)).
Examples.—Ekster tiuj ĉi leĝoj, ekzistas aliaj = Outside (besides, or, in addition to) these laws others exist. Ekster tiuj ĉi leĝoj ne ekzistas aliaj = Outside (beside, or, apart from) these laws others do not exist.
As a root-word or prefix, we have:—Eksteraĵo = The exterior, outside. Eksterlande = Abroad.
El is the opposite of en = in, but only when movement in and out is implied.
Care must be taken not to confuse el with da or de, both of which also signify “of,” that English preposition with so many meanings. El means essentially “out of,” denoting that the noun specified is a portion of something, or is made of some particular material, or issues from something (see par. 259 (7)).
Origin or Dependence = Of, with, from.
Examples.—Mi estas la plej riĉa el ĉiuj = I am the richest of all. Unu el ni estos elektata = One of us will be chosen. Li faris uzon el ĉio = He made use of everything. Mi faros uzon el la okazo = I shall take (make use of) the opportunity. Kion ni faros el hundo? = What shall we do with (make out of) a dog? El la dirita regulo sekvas, ke... = From the said rule, it follows that... Mi ricevis leteron el Parizo = I received a letter from Paris.
Disconnection = Out of, from.
Examples.—Tri musoj elsaltis el la tirkesto = Three mice jumped out of the drawer. Mi eliris el la domo ĝuste kiam li eniris en la veturilon = I went out of the house just as (when) he entered the carriage. La violono falis el la violonujo = The violin fell out of the violin case. El sub la lito = Out of (out from under) the bed.
As a prefix, el signifies “out,” and also denotes something done thoroughly well or completely, as:—Elpensi = To think out, to invent. Elfosi = To dig out. Elirejo = An exit, way out. Ellabori = To work out thoroughly, to achieve, elaborate. Eltrinki = To drink up. Ellerni = To master, to learn thoroughly (to study).
May take after it the accusative of movement, and has then the meaning of “into.”
Place = In, into, within, at.
Examples.—Li estas en la ĝardeno = He is in the garden. Li iris en la ĝardenon = He went into the garden. Mi loĝas en Parizo = I live in Paris. La birdo flugas en la ĉambro (ĝi estas en la ĉambro, kaj flugas en ĝi) = The bird is flying within the room (it is in the room, and is flying in it). La birdo flugas en la ĉambron (ĝi estis ekster la ĉambro, kaj nun flugas en ĝin) = The bird is flying into the room (it was outside the room, and now is flying into it). Helpu min porti tiujn ĉi kestojn en mian fiakron = Help me to carry these trunks to (into) my cab. Li iris en la domon, sed mi mem restis ester ĝi = He went into the house, but I myself remained outside of it. La ĉefa vorto staras en la fino = The chief word stands at the end.
Time = In, on, at, during.
Examples.—En printempo floroj aperas = In (during) spring flowers appear. En la tago = On the day. En la unua tempo = At the outset (first time), at first. Mi finos la tasketon en dek tagoj, se mi laboros en ĉiu tago po ok horoj = I shall finish the job (little task) in 10 days if I work 8 hours a day (lit., if I shall work in each day at the rate of 8 hours).
Origin or Dependence = Of, into.
Examples.—Apartamento konsistanta en (or, el)20 unu manĝoĉambro, unu salono, kaj tri dormoĉambroj = A flat (apartment), consisting of one dining-room, one drawing-room, and three bedrooms. Aleksandro ŝanĝiĝis en polvon = Alexander was turned into dust.
Footnote
Connection = In.
Example.—Manon en mano = Hand in hand.
259 (13). Ĝis = Till, as far as.
Place = To, down to, up to, as far as.
Examples.—Ni akompanis ilin ĝis ilia domo = We accompanied them as far as (to) their house. Iru ĝis la rivero = Go to (down to, as far as) the river.
Time = Till, until, to.
Examples.—De sabato ĝis mardo = From Saturday till (to) Tuesday. Ni devas atendi ĝis Junio = We must wait till June. Ĉu ne estus pli bone atendi ĝis ni havos la hundon? = Would it not be better to wait till we have the dog? Ĝi povas kuŝi ok ĝis naŭ jarojn = It can lie eight to nine years.
N.B.—Jarojn is the accusative of duration (par. 68 (b)), for ĝis has here no influence over it, being simply an item in the phrase; but if a preposition be placed before ok, then the preposition will influence its complement “jaroj,” which will be in the nominative; as:—Ĝi povas kuŝi dum (or, je) ok ĝis naŭ jaroj = It can lie during eight (up) to nine years.
259 (14). Inter = Between, among.
Inter differs from en, in that en implies that something is actually in, or within, something else, while inter implies that something is between, or among, some other things.
Place = Between, among.
Example.—Inter Rusujo kaj Francujo estas Germanujo = Between Russia and France is Germany.
Time = Between.
Example.—Inter la deka kaj dek-unua matene, mi renkontis mian amikon = Between 10 and 11 o’clock in the morning I met my friend.
Manner = Among, amongst.
Example.—Ili dividis inter si dek du pomojn = They divided amongst themselves twelve apples.
As a prefix, inter has much the same meaning as in English, as:—Intermeti = To interpose. Intermiksi = To intermingle. Interkonsenti = To agree mutually.
The preposition je has no fixed meaning. It is used only when we have to employ a preposition and we do not know which one the sense requires. We can, however, use the accusative case in place of it (Rule 14, pars. 251, 253).
The following are a few of the examples in which it has been used:—
Cause = At, over, of.
Example.—Mi enuas je la hejmo, or, Mi enuas la hejmon = I am weary (tired) of home.
Manner = By, on.
Examples.—Li tenis lin je la maniko per unu mano, kaj per la alia li batis lin sur la vizaĝon (or, li frapis al li la vizaĝon) = He held him by (at) the sleeve with one hand, and with the other he struck him on the face (struck to him the face). Mi gratulas vian princan moŝton je (or, pri) la reveno Danujon = I congratulate your Royal (Princely) Highness on (regarding) your (the) return to Denmark.
Time = At, on.
Examples.—Je la kvara horo = At 4 o’clock. Je la lasta fojo (or, La lastan fojon) mi vidis lin ĉe vi = On the last occasion (last time) I saw him with you.
Measure = Of, by.
Example.—Longa je dek futoj, or, Longa dek futojn = Ten feet long.
259 (16). Kontraŭ = Against, opposite.
Never used in the sense of “by the side of.” May take the accusative of direction.
Place = Towards, overlooking, against, facing, opposite.
Example.—La fenestro kontraŭ la strato = The window overlooking (towards) the street.
Opposition = To, against, from.
Examples.—Vizaĝon kontraŭ vizaĝo = Face to face. Kontraŭ min mem, sin turnis mia ruzo = Against myself my cunning turned (itself) (Hamlet, V, 2). Kien ili iras? Kontraŭ Polujon = Whither are they going? Against Poland (Hamlet, IV, 4). Mi sidis sur ŝtono, kie mi estis ŝirmata kontraŭ la orienta vento = I was sitting on a stone where I was sheltered from (against) the east wind. Li batalis kontraŭ la grekoj = He fought with (= against) the Greeks.
As a prefix, kontraŭ denotes opposition, as:—Kontraŭdiri = To contradict. Kontraŭmeti = To oppose.
259 (17). Krom = Not including, putting aside, apart from. One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (par. 177).
Separation, Exclusion = Besides, except, save, but.
Examples.—Li estas bona, kaj, krom tio, riĉa = He is good, and, besides that, rich. Krom Esperanto, mi scias la lingvon germanan = Besides Esperanto, I know the German language. Mi estas anglo, kaj mi scias nenian lingvon krom mia propra = I am an Englishman, and I know no language except (but, besides, save) my own (see remarks on ekster (par. 259 (11)).
Never used as “with” in the sense of the instrument or means by which something is done (see per, par. 259 (22)).
Connection = With, to.
Examples.—Li paroladis kun sia amiko = He was conversing with his friend. Li fianĉiĝis kun Fraŭlino Berta = He became engaged to Miss Bertha. Resti kun leono estas danĝere = To stay with a lion is dangerous. Li promenadis kun sia amiko, kiam mi lin renkontis = He was walking with his friend when I met him.
Manner = With, of.
Examples.—Li parolas kun granda saĝeco = He speaks with great wisdom. Li estas homo kun gusto = He is a man of (with) taste. Li estis atendata kun granda senpacienco = He was expected with great impatience.
As a root-word or prefix, Kunigi = To connect. Kunulo = A companion. Kunveni = To come together, to assemble.
Manner = According to, from, in, in accordance with.
Examples.—Li agis laŭ sia opinio = He acted according to his own opinion. Tiu vazo estas farita laŭ modelo el (or, en) nia muzeo = That vase has been made according to (from) a model out of (in) our museum. Li parolas laŭ saĝa maniero = He speaks in a wise manner. Ili ĝin faris laŭvice = They did it in turn. La pli juna filino estis la plena portreto de sia patro laŭ sia boneco = The younger daughter was the complete portrait of her father in (according to) her goodness.
Place and Direction = In, along.
Examples.—Ni foriris laŭ malsamaj direktoj (or, en diversajn flankojn) = We went away in a different direction (or, in different ways). Aleksandro iris laŭ tiu ĉi rivero ĝis li venis al la palaco = Alexander went along this river till he came to the palace.
N.B.—Laŭ is used in such expressions as:—Laŭlonge = Lengthways. Laŭlarĝe = Across, athwart.
259 (20). Malgraŭ = Notwithstanding.
Opposition = In spite of, notwithstanding, for, despite.
Examples.—Li sukcesis malgraŭ la malhelpoj = He succeeded in spite of the hindrances. Li faris sian eblon, sed malgraŭ ĉio, li ne sukcesis = He did his best (his utmost), but for all that (notwithstanding) he did not succeed (see remarks on spite, par. 259 (30)).
259 (21). Per = By, by means of.
Cause = By, by means of, with, through.
Examples.—Ni flaras per la nazo, vidas per la okuloj, kaj aŭdas per la oreloj = We smell with the nose, see with the eyes, and hear with the ears. Li mortigis lin per glavo = He killed him with a sword. Tion mi eksciis per mia frato = I learnt that through my brother.
Manner = With, by, in.
Per, used after a passive verb, denotes the means or instrument; de denotes the agent.
Examples.—La domo, kiu estas aĉetita de mia patro, estas kovrita per pajla tegmento = The house, which was bought by my father, is covered with thatch (a straw roof). Li tenis lin ĉe la kolo per ambaŭ manoj = He was holding him by the neck with both hands. Li iris el la urbo per (or, laŭ) flanka vojeto = He went out of the town by a by-path. Mia onklo ne mortis per natura morto = My uncle did not die (by) a natural death. Per unu vorto (or, unuvorte), la ĉambro estis tute bela = In a word, the room was quite beautiful.
As a prefix or root-word, per is not much used. Perlabori = To acquire by one’s labour, to earn. Peri = To mediate, to interpose.
259 (22). Po = At the rate of.
Po has a distributive sense, and is used generally before numerals (see par. 123). Do not confuse po with por.
Distribution = At the rate of, in the proportion of, at.
Examples.—Mi aĉetis kvar pomojn po du pencoj = I bought four apples at the rate of twopence (each). “Por du pencoj” would mean “for twopence” (all four for twopence). Tiu ĉi libro havas sesdek paĝojn; tial, se mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek kvin paĝoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj = This book has 60 pages; therefore, if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days. Silko po 5 ŝilingoj por ulno = Silk at 5 shillings a (for a) yard (ell).
As a prefix, Poduone = By half, or, by halves. Pogrande = Wholesale.
259 (23). Por = For, for the sake (benefit) of, in order to.
One of the prepositions that may be used before the infinitive (see remarks on infinitive, par. 177).
Purpose = In order to, to, for, at, for the purpose of, of, on.
Examples.—Mi manĝas por vivi = I eat in order to live. Por mi ĝi havas bonan guston = To me it has a pleasant (good) taste. Li sin kuracis por resaniĝi = He treated himself (took remedies) in order to recover (be restored to health). La plej bona metodo (por) akiri ĝin = The best way of getting it (in order to get it). Mi havas multon por fari = I have much to do. Por miaj kvar infanoj mi aĉetis dek du pomojn = For my four children I bought twelve apples. Litoj por du personoj = Beds for two people. Tiu ĉi ringo estas por vi = This ring is for you. Por ĉio (or, pro ĉio) ni lin dankas = We thank him for everything. Por tiu ĉi prezo = At this price. Ni devas konfesi por ŝia laŭdo, ke... = We must confess to her praise that... Mi ne havas tempon por fari tion = I have not time to do that. Kiam la momento por foriri alvenis, or, Kiam la momento de foriro alvenis... = When the moment for departure arrived... Tiu libro estas facile komprenebla por ĉiuj = That book is easily comprehensible by (for) all. Li aĉetis por unu penco da teo = He bought a pennyworth (for a penny) of tea.
259 (24). Post = After, behind.
Is a preposition of place and time. Like its English equivalent “after,” care must be taken not to confuse its meaning. For instance, “He came after me” might mean (a) next in succession or behind me, (b) after my arrival, (c) in pursuit of me. In Esperanto we should say:—(a). Li venis post mi. (b) Li venis post mia alveno. (c). Li postsekvis min (see also remarks on antaŭ, which is the opposite of post (259 (3)).
Place = After, behind.
Examples.—Post la reĝo venis lia sekvantaro = After (behind) the king came his suite. “Da” post ia vorto montras, ke tiu ĉi vorto havas signifon de mezuro = “Da” after any (some) word shows that this word has the signification of measure.
Time = After, in, by, hence.
Examples.—Resendu al mi la libron (post) kiam vi estos traleginta ĝin = Send back to me the book after you have read it through. Post tri monatoj estos la edziĝo = The wedding will be three months hence (in three months). Post kvarono da horo = In a quarter of an hour. Tagon post tago = Day by day.
Manner = After, by.
Examples.—Ili sekvis unu post la alia = They followed one after another. Iom post iom ŝi pli trankviliĝis = Little by little she became more tranquil.
As a prefix, Postveni = To come after, to succeed. Posttagmezo = Afternoon. Postvivi = To survive.
259 (25). Preter = Beyond, past, by.
Differs from trans = across (beyond), in that preter shows the movement of something passing by, or alongside, something else. Trans signifies that something is on the other side of a boundary, or is crossing, or has crossed that boundary (see also tra, par. 259 (33)).
Place = Beside, by, past.
Examples.—Mi iris preter la fenestroj de la domo = I went by (past, beside) the windows of the house. Du sinjorinoj iris preter ni, kaj transiris la straton = Two ladies passed (went) by us, and crossed the street.
Preter, as a prefix, has a similar meaning.
Examples.—Mi preteriris la fenestrojn de la domo = I passed by the windows of the house. Du sinjorinoj preteriris nin = Two ladies went by (passed) us. Mi preterlasis lin = I let him pass by (I let him beyond). Li preterlasis la okazon = He let the occasion (opportunity) pass, or, he missed the opportunity.
Pri can be translated in various ways.
Reference = Concerning, respecting, regarding, as regards, with regard to, as to, as for, about, of, on.
Examples.—Pri mia lerteco, mi povas diri... = Concerning my skill, I can say... (In this sentence it will be observed that any of the above meanings of pri instead of “concerning” will give the exact sense.) Pri tio ne diru vorton = As to that, don’t say a word. Ne pensu pri ĝi = Do not think of (about) it. Li parolis pri la pentrarto = He spoke about (the art of) painting. Ili miregis pri (or, je) lia kolero = They were astounded at (about) his anger. Sed pri ŝia fratino, ni povas diri, ke... = But of her sister, we can say that... Tio estas verko pri la politiko = That is a work on politics. Vi estas prova pri tio = You are right in that.
As a prefix, Pripensi = To think about, to reflect.
See par. 258 (a) as regards the use of the prepositional expressions rilate, koncerne.
Pro always relates to the cause or reason for something happening or being done. Do not confuse it with por.
Cause = Because of, by reason of, on account of, for the sake of (cause), through, owing to, from, for, of.
Examples.—Li demandis ŝin, pro kio ŝi ploras = He asked her for what reason (because of what) she wept (weeps). Li min mokis pro mia kredemo = He ridiculed me owing to (for) my credulity. Li estas mortanta (or, ekmortas) pro (or, de) malsato = He is dying of (from) hunger. Ŝi agas pro ĵaluzemo = She acts from jealousy. Li ne povis piediri pro sia malforteco = He could not walk owing to (on account of, through) his weakness. Pro tio, mi ne povas akompani vin = On that account, I cannot accompany you. Li ĝin faris pro sia edzino = He did it because of his wife.
Pro is not used much as a prefix. Propeti = To intercede. Propekulo = A scapegoat.
Sen always denotes disconnection.
Disconnection = Without, less, minus.
Examples.—Li alvenis sen sia amiko = He arrived without his friend. Sen vi, ni estus kiel sen kapo = Without you we should be as without a head. Dek sen tri estas sep = Ten less (minus) three is seven.
Sen is frequently used as a prefix, having the same meaning as our English suffix “less,” as:—Sendube = Doubtless, without doubt. Sensenta = Senseless, without feeling. Sensenca = Senseless, without meaning. Senhonta = Shameless, without shame.
259 (29). Spite = In defiance of.21
Spite, like malgraŭ, marks opposition, but in a stronger sense. Spite means “in defiance of opposition,” whilst malgraŭ has more the sense of “notwithstanding.” Spite is not a preposition, but an adverb, and to translate the prepositional form “in spite of” it is usually better to use malgraŭ.
Opposition = In defiance of, defiantly.
Examples.—Spite ĉion, kion mi povis diri, li vangfrapis la infanon = In defiance of all I could say, he slapped the child’s face. Spite mian malamikon = In defiance of my enemy.
Footnote
Sub may be followed by the accusative of direction. It is the opposite of sur = on.
Place = Under, beneath.
Examples.—La hundo kuris sub la tablon por ekkapti la katon, kiu kuŝis sub la tablo = The dog ran under the table to seize the cat that was lying under the table. Muso estas sub la kanapo = A mouse is under the sofa.
Manner = In, on.
Examples.—Io, sub la formo de kato, transkuris la straton = Something, in the shape of a cat, ran across the street. Li iris sub la kondiĉo, ke neniu lin akompanu = He went on (under) the condition that no one should accompany him.
As a prefix, Subetaĝo = A basement (floor below). Submeti = To put under, to subdue. Subtegmento = A garret (under roof).
259 (31). Super = Over, above.
May be followed by the accusative of direction. It differs from sur, since sur generally means that something is upon or touching something else, whilst super signifies that the object is over or above something, but not in actual contact.
Place = Over, above, beyond.
Examples.—La balono estis vidata super la urbo = The balloon was seen over the town. Super mia kapo preterflugis birdo = A bird flew by, over my head. Li ĵetis ŝtonon super la muron, sed li ne havis sufiĉe da forto, kaj la ŝtono falis sur la muron = He threw a stone over the wall, but he had not sufficient (of) strength, and the stone fell upon (on to) the wall. La spirito de Dio ŝvebis super la akvo = The Spirit of God moved upon the face of (above) the waters (water). Mi konas nenion super tio = I know nothing beyond that.
Super is the root of Superi = To surpass. As a prefix, Superflui = To overflow. Superhoma = Super-human. Supervesto (or, palto) = An overcoat.
259 (32). Sur = On, upon, on to.
May be followed by the accusative of direction. See remarks on sub and super. Do not confound sur with super.
Place = On, upon (resting on, touching).
Examples.—Sur lia vizaĝo mi vidis ĝojan rideton = On his face I saw a joyful smile. Vi trovos la paperojn sur la skribtablo = You will find the papers on the writing-table. La birdo (sur)flugis sur la tegmenton = The bird flew on to the roof. Li metis la ĉapelon sur sian kapon = He put his (the) hat on his head. Li staris supre sur la monto, kaj rigardis malsupren sur la kampon = He stood above on the mountain, and looked down (below) upon the field (note the accusatives of direction, malsupren and kampon). Laŭ la komando “tri” vi ekpafos sur la arbon = At the command “three” you will shoot at (on to) the tree.
Dependence = On, to.
Examples.—Tio ĉi povas tre influi sur la sukceson de nia afero = This can have much influence on the success of our business. Sur la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn = I have rights on (to) the Danish throne.
As a prefix, Surmeti = To put on.
Tra, trans, and preter. The following compound verbs will best show the meaning of the three prepositions:—
Preterpasi = To pass by, go beyond.
Trapasi = To pass through, to traverse.
Transpasi = To pass over, to cross over.
Example.—Trapasinte la arbaron, li preterpasis la preĝejon, kaj poste transpasis la riveron per la ponto = Having passed through (traversed) the wood, he passed by the church, and then crossed the river by the bridge.
Place = Through, across.
Examples.—Li iris tra la amaso, kaj eniris en la domon = He went through the crowd and entered the house. Tra la mondo iras forta voko = Through the world goes a powerful call. Li estas tiel dika, ke li ne povas trairi tra nia mallarĝa pordo = He is so stout (thick) that he cannot go through our narrow door.
Adverb: trae = right through.
Occasionally the accusative of direction is used after tra, when this seems useful for emphasis, or to remove ambiguity.
As a prefix, Tralegi = To read through. Trapasi = To pass through, to traverse. Traguti = To percolate.
259 (34). Trans = Across; on the other side of, beyond.
May be followed by the accusative of direction.
Place = Across, beyond, on the other side of.
Examples.—La hirundo flugis trans la riveron, ĉar trans la rivero sin trovis aliaj hirundoj = The swallow flew across the river, because on the other side of (beyond) the river were (found themselves) other swallows.
As a prefix, Transiri = To go over, to cross. Transmigri = To migrate. Transvivi = To outlive, survive (a period of time).
English Prepositions
260. English prepositions are used with many various meanings. In fact, to express the sense of some of those in common use correctly, five or six or more Esperanto prepositions have to be used to give the different meanings of one English preposition. For instance, “by” has five different meanings in the following expressions:—“He went by the house.” “He was hit by a stone.” “By his advice.” “Little by little.” “He stood by the door.”
261. The following common English prepositions are given with their Esperanto equivalents and examples of their use, viz., “At, by, for, from, in, of, on, to, with.”
At.
261. (a). Represented by:—
Apud, as:—La gefianĉoj staris apud la altaro = The betrothed stood at the altar.
Ĉe, as:—Ĉe ĉiu paŝo kiun ŝi faris = At every step that she took. Ŝi estas ĉe la pordo = She is at the door.
De, as:—Li estas mirigita de la lukso de la kortego = He was astonished at the lŭury of the court.
En, as:—En la unua tempo = At (in) the outset. En Parizo = At Paris. En la fino = At the end. En la kunveno = At the meeting. En la interspaco de... = At the distance of...
Je, as:—Je la kvara horo = At four o’clock.
Po, as:—Piroj po du pencoj por funto = Pears at (at the rate of) twopence a (for a) pound.
Por, as:—Por tiu ĉi prezo = At (for) this price.
Pri, as:—Ŝi ridetis pri (je) lia kolero = She smiled at (about) his anger.
Sur, as:—Ili pafis unu sur la alian = They fired at one another.
Accusative, as:—Ŝi mokadas lian kredemon = She jeers at his credulity.
Adverb, as:—Tuj = At once. Almenaŭ = At least. Iafoje = At times. Nune = At present, etc.
By.
261 (b). Represented by:—
Apud, as:—Mi volus stari apud la patrino = I would like to stand by mother.
Ĉe, as:—Mi tenis lin ĉe la kruro per ŝnurego = I held him by the leg with a rope.
De, as:—Li estas amata de ĉiuj siaj amikoj = He is loved by all his friends.
Laŭ, as:—Mi restadas tie ĉi laŭ la konsilo de mia kuracisto = I am remaining (staying) here by (according to) the advice of my doctor.
Per, as:—Li eliris el la urbo per flanka vojeto = He left the town by a by-path.
Post, as:—Iom post iom, ŝi pli trankviliĝis = Little by (after) little she became more tranquil.
Preter, as:—En tiu momento iris preter ni du sinjorinoj = At that moment two ladies passed by (beside) us.
Adverb, as:—Legante, ni lernas = By reading, we learn. Tage = by day. Laŭtage = By the day. Mi staris apude dum li paroladis = I stood by (near to, close by) whilst he was talking.
For.
261 (c). Represented by:—
Al, as:—Ili ekiris al Berlino (or, Berlinon) = They started for Berlin.
Anstataŭ, as:—Li skribis trion anstataŭ kvaro = He wrote a three for (instead of) a four.
De, as:—Tro baldaŭ alvenis la horo de foriro = Too soon came the hour for (of) departure. De tri semajnoj mi estas malsana = For three weeks I have been (am) ill.
Dum, as:—Dum la tuta tago li restis sola = For (during) the whole day he remained alone.
Laŭ, as:—Ŝi estas granda laŭ sia aĝo = She is big for (according to) her age.
Malgraŭ, as:—Malgraŭ ĉio li ne estis feliĉa = For (notwithstanding) all that, he was not happy.
Por, as:—Tiu ĉi monujo estas por vi = This purse is for you.
Pri, as:—Li petis lin pri helpo, or, Li petis helpon de li = He asked him for help. Vi ne devas peti pri tio, kio estas nia ŝuldo = You have not to beg for that which is our obligation.
Pro, as:—Oni laŭdis lin pro lia boneco = They praised him for (because of) his goodness. La domo estis vendita pro ŝuldoj = The house was (had been) sold for debt. Mi volas esti amata pro mi mem, ne pro mia riĉeco = I want to he loved for myself, not for my wealth.
Pro tio, ke, as:—Li riproĉis min pro tio, ke mi foriris = He reproached me for having gone away (lit., because of that that I went away).
Tra, as:—Li ne povas ĝin porti tra tia interspaco = He cannot carry it for (through) such a distance.
Accusative, as:—Li restis sola la tutan tagon = He remained alone all day long (for the whole day) (see the example under dum).
From.
261 (d). Represented by:—
Al, as:—Ni ne vidas, ĉar la lumo estas kaŝata al ni per la kurtenoj = We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains.
De, as:—Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno = Separate the straw from the hay. De tiu tempo = From that time. De lundo ĝis vendredo = From Monday to Friday.
El, as:—Mi konkludis el lia mieno, ke li estas oficiro = I concluded from (out of) his appearance that he was (is) an officer.
Kontraŭ, as:—Tie mi estis ŝirmata kontraŭ la vento = There I was sheltered from (against) the wind.
Laŭ, as:—Tiu ĉi figuro estas skulptita laŭ mia modelo = This figure is sculptured (carved) from (in accordance with) my model.
Per, as:—Tion mi eksciis per mia frato = I learnt that from (by means of) my brother.
Pro, as:—Li tremis pro (or, de) timo = He trembled from (because of) fear.
Sen, as:—Ok sen du estas ses = Two from eight (lit., eight without two) is six.
In.
261 (e). Represented by:—
Ĉe, as:—Tio donas helpon ĉe la lernado de la vortoj = That gives help in the learning of the words.
Da, as:—Tri metroj da longo = Three metres in length.
En, as:—Li estas en la domo = He is in the house.
Je, as:—La suna disko ŝajne duobliĝis je grandeco = The sun’s disc apparently became doubled in size.
Laŭ, as:—Laŭ mia opinio (or, miaopinie) ili estas tute pravaj = In (according to) my opinion they are quite right. Li edukiĝis laŭ la timo al Dio = He was brought up in (according to) the fear of God.
Per, as:—La ambaŭ estis similaj per la vizaĝo kaj la karaktero = The two were alike in (by means of) features (the face) and (the) character.
Post, as:—Ni foriros post du aŭ tri tagoj = We are (shall be) going away in (after) two or three days.
Pri, as:—La instruisto povas pri nenio lin instrui = The teacher can instruct him in nothing.
Sub, as:—Io, sub la formo de homo, aperas = Something, in (under) the shape of a man, appears.
Sur, as:—Promenante sur la strato, mi falis = While walking in (on) the street, I fell.
Accusative, as:—Li estis naskita la vintron de 1902a = He was born in the winter of 1902.
Adverb, as:—Forme = In shape. Troe = In excess. Vespere = In the evening. Alivorte = In other words, etc.
Of.
261 (f). Represented by:—
Al, as:—La amo al Dio = The love of (towards) God. Ilia timo al la morto estas granda = Their fear of (to) death is great. Pro malamo al mi li foriris = Through hatred of me he went away.
Da, as:—Granda nombro da ideoj = A great number of ideas.
De, as:—La unua vorto de la linio = The first word of the line. La amo de Dio = The love of (from) God, God’s love.
Dum, as:—Vojaĝo dum dek kvin tagoj, or, Dekkvintaga vojaĝo = A journey of (during) fifteen days.
El, as:—Unu el ni estos elektata = One of (out of) us will be chosen. El ĉiuj miaj amikoj, li estas la plej forta = Of (out of) all my friends, he is the strongest.
En, as:—La plej granda ĉambro en la domo = The largest room of (in) the house.
Inter, as:—La plej malgranda inter (or, el) ĉiuj arboj en la ĝardeno = The smallest of (among) all the trees in the garden.
Kun, as:—Ŝi estas virino kun gusto = She is a woman of (with) taste.
Pri, as:—Ne pensu pri ĝi = Do not think of (about) it. Ŝi parolis pri sia frato = She spoke of (about) her brother.
Pro, as:—Li mortis pro (or, de) malsato = He died of (owing to) hunger.
Adjective, as:—Li estas sperta homo = He is a man of experience (an experienced man).
On.
261 (g). Represented by:—
Al, as:—Peston al la tranĉilo! = Plague on the knife!
Ĉe, as:—Ĉe (or better, sur) la alia flanko de la strato = On (at) the other side of the street. Ĉe tio mi eliris el la ĉambro = On that, I left the room.
Ĉirkaŭ, as:—La rado turniĝis ĉirkaŭ sia akso = The wheel turned on its axis.
De, as:—Ĝi dependas de la nombro de vortoj = It depends on (from) the number of words.
En, as:—En la tago difinita = On (in) the appointed day.
Je, as:—Mi gratulas vin je (or, pri) via reveno = I congratulate you on (concerning) your return.
Kun, as:—Ŝi ĝin donis al mi kun (or, sub) tiu kondiĉo = She gave it me on (with) that condition.
Post, as:—Post plua konsiderado = On (after) further consideration.
Pri, as:—Li gratulis min pri mia edziĝo = He congratulated me on (concerning) my marriage.
Pro, as:—Pro tio mi lin lasis = On that account I left him.
Sub, as:—Li vizitis min sub la preteksto, ke li estas parenco = He visited me on (under) the pretext that he was (is) a relation.
Sur, as:—La paperoj kuŝas sur la tablo = The papers are lying on the table.
Accusative, as:—Li ĝin donis al mi lundon = He gave it me on a Monday.
Adjective, as:—La veturilo estas luebla = The carriage is on hire (is able to be hired).
Adverb, as:—Li staris dekstre = He stood on the right. Li ĝin faris intence = He did it on purpose. Prunte = On loan.
To.
261 (h). Represented by:—
Al, as:—Mi iras al Parizo = I am going to Paris. Li diris al mi = He said to me.
En, as:—Li ridetis en si mem = He smiled to (in) himself. Li reiris en la urbon = He went back to (into) the town.
Ĝis, as:—De sabato ĝis mardo = From Saturday to (till) Tuesday. Li amis ĝis freneziĝo = He loved to frenzy.
Ke (with a personal pronoun), as:—Vi bone faris, ke vi venis = You did well to come (that you came).
Kontraŭ, as:—Vizaĝon kontraŭ vizaĝo = Face to (opposite) face.
Kun, as:—Li fianĉiĝis kun mia kuzino = He became engaged (affianced) to my cousin.
Por, as:—Mi havas multe (or, multon) por fari = I have much to do (for to do). Ŝi estis muta por ĉiuj liaj demandoj = She was dumb to (for) all his questions. Tia agado estas danĝera por ni = Such action is dangerous to (for) us.
Pri, as:—Pri tio lasu min zorgi = Let me look to that.
Sub, as:—Sub la sono de muziko = To (under) the sound of music.
Sur, as:—Iri sur la kamparon = To go to (into) the country.
Adverb, as:—Li iris dekstren = He went to the right. Morte kondamnita = Condemned to death.
Accusative, as:—Mi iris Parizon = I went to Paris.
With.
261 (i). Represented by:—
Ĉe, as:—Por esti ĉe li, mi fordonis ĉion = To be with (at) him, I gave up everything.
De, as:—Li eksaltis de surprizo = He started with (from) surprise.
El, as:—Kion ni faros el tio? = What shall we do (make) with (out of) that?
Je, as:—Li okupis sin je (or, pri) meĥaniko = He occupied himself with (concerning, about) mechanics.
Kontraŭ, as:—Li batalis kontraŭ la malamiko = He fought with the enemy.
Kun, as:—Li paroladas kun sia amiko = He is conversing (talking) with (to) his friend.
Laŭ, as:—Li kuris laŭ granda rapideco = He ran with great rapidity.
Per, as:—Li mortigis sin per glavo = He killed himself with (by means of) a sword.
Pri, as:—Pri tio mi havas nenion por diri = With regard to (concerning) that, I have nothing to say.
Sub, as:—Mi ĝin donis al li sub tiu kondiĉo = I gave it to him with (under) that condition.
Adverb, as:—Rilate vian leteron = With reference to (relating to) your letter.
Conjunctions (Konjunkcioj)
262. Conjunctions serve to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.
Examples.—Somero kaj Vintro = Summer and Winter. Tage aŭ nokte = By day or by night. Li diras, ke vi estas mallaborema = He says that you are lazy. Li estas fiera, sed vi estas humila = He is proud, but you are humble.
263. Conjunctions are of two kinds, Co-ordinating and Subordinating. They have no influence over the moods of verbs (par. 171 (b)).
264. Co-ordinating conjunctions connect two sentences, or two members of a sentence that are independent of each other. These are of five classes:—
(1). Copulative, as:—kaj = and; kaj... kaj = both... and.
(2). Alternative, as:—aŭ = or; aŭ... aŭ = either... or; nek = nor, nek... nek = neither... nor.
(3). Adversative, as:—sed = but.
(4). Causative, as:—ĉar = for.
(5). Illative, as:—tial = therefore.
265. Subordinating conjunctions introduce a clause that is dependent on another. There are six classes, viz., conjunctions of:—
(1). Manner or Degree, as:—kiel = as, kvazaŭ = as if, as though, ol = than, etc.
(2). Consequence, as:—ke = that, tiel ke = so that.
(3). Reason or Cause, as:—ĉar = because, since, tial ke = inasmuch as, since, etc.
(4). Purpose, as:—timante ke = lest, for fear that, fearing that, etc.
(5). Condition, as:—se = if, esceptinte ke, krom se = unless, except, se nur = provided that, if only, etc.
(6). Concession, as:—kvankam = though, although, tamen = however, notwithstanding, eĉ se = even if, etc.
Example.—Mi vidis lin kaj lian fraton, sed ne lian fratinon = I saw him and his brother, but not his sister.
267. The co-ordinating conjunction is sometimes omitted.
Examples.—Li venis, li vidis, li venkis = He came, he saw, he conquered! Vi iros, Johano restos tie ĉi = You will go, John will remain here.
268. Conjunctions and adverbs.—Some English words are sometimes adverbs and sometimes conjunctions, more especially those introducing clauses of time or place. Some are also prepositions as well as conjunctions and adverbs, and care must be taken to use the correct Esperanto words in such cases. For instance, in English “before,” “after,” and “since” are prepositions, adverbs, or conjunctions.
Before (prep.) = Antaŭ.
Example.—Li staris antaŭ la reĝo = He stood before the king.
Before (adv.) = Antaŭe.
Example.—La reĝo neniam lin vidis antaŭe = The king never saw him before.
Before (conj.) = Antaŭ ol.
Example.—Pripensu antaŭ ol paroli = Reflect before speaking.
After (prep.) = Post, or, malantaŭ.
Example.—Post la hundoj, venis la homoj = After (behind) the dogs came the men.
After (adv.) = Poste, or, malantaŭe.
Example.—La rajdantoj iris antaŭe, kaj la hundoj venis poste (or, malantaŭe) = The riders went in advance, and the dogs came after.
After (conj.) = Post kiam, or, kiam.
Example.—Resendu al mi la libron, post kiam (or, kiam) vi estos ĝin traleginta = Send me back the book after you (will) have read it through.
Since (prep.) = De.
Example.—De la kreo de la mondo = Since the creation of the world.
Since (adv.) = De tiu tempo; de tiam; de kiam; de la tempo, kiam.
Example.—Mi lin vidis hieraŭ, sed mi lin ne vidis de tiu tempo = I saw him yesterday, but I have not seen him since.
Since (conj.) = Ĉar.
Example.—Mi devas ĝin fari, ĉar vi insistas = I must do it, since you insist.
LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS
(Including Conjunctive Adverbs).
268. (a). The following is a list of the principal conjunctions. Some of them, according to the sense in which they are used, are employed also as adverbs or prepositions, and will be found in the lists of adverbs and prepositions in pars. 248 (b) and 259.
Alie = Otherwise, or, else.
Example.—Mi ne vidis lin, alie mi estus vin sciiginta = I did not see him, otherwise (else, or) I should have told (informed) you.
Aliflanke = On the other hand.
Example.—Kelkaj personoj diras, ke Johano estas fripono: aliflanke, aliaj diras, ke li estas naivulo = Some persons say John is a knave; on the other hand, some say he is a simpleton.
Almenaŭ = At least.
Example.—Almenaŭ li provis ĝin fari = At least he tried to do it.
Ankaŭ = Also, too, as well (also adverb).
Examples.—Mi ankaŭ ĝin vidis = I, too, saw it. Johano kaj ankaŭ Mario estis tie = John and also Mary were there.
Examples.—Antaŭ ol morti, li diris... = Before dying he said... Li vespermanĝis, antaŭ ol li foriris = He dined before he went away. Antaŭ ol ni atingos lin, li estos malproksime = Ere we (shall) reach him, he will be far away. Antaŭ ol iri Londonon, ni veturis Berlinon = Before going to London, we travelled to Berlin.
Aŭ = Or.
Example.—Oni ne scias, ĉu li ploras aŭ ridas = One does not know whether he is weeping or laughing.
Example.—Aŭ vi aŭ mi devos ĝin fari = Either you or I must (will have to) do it.
Cetere = Besides, for the rest, for the matter of that.
Example.—Li ne venis; cetere, se li estus veninta, mi ne estus vidinta (or, vidus) lin = He did not come; besides, if he had (should have) come, I should not have seen him.
Ĉar = Because, for, since.
Examples.—Tion mi scias, ĉar tie mi estas = I know that, because (for) I was there. Ĉar vi ne estis tie, vi ne povas ĝin scii = Since you were not there, you cannot know it.
Ĉiufoje kiam, ĉiun fojon kiam = Every time when, each time when.
Example.—Mi lin renkontadis ĉiufoje, kiam mi iris Londonon = I met him every time (when) I went to London.
Ĉu = Whether, or, if (see remarks on ĉu in the list of adverbs, par. 248 (b)).
Ĉu... aŭ = Whether... or.
Example.—Mi iros, ĉu li venos aŭ ne = I shall go, whether he come (will come) or not.
Ĉu... ĉu = Whether... whether.
Example.—Ĉu li skribos, ĉu li ne skribos, mi ne respondos al li = Whether he writes, whether he does not write, I shall not reply to him.
De l’ tempo kiam, or, de kiam = Since, from the time when.
Example.—De l’ tempo kiam li mortis.... = Since he died....
Des pli = So much the. Des pli is generally used with Ju pli (which see), but sometimes alone in reply to questions (par. 112).
Example.—Mi devas averti vin, ke li eble ne estos hejme = I must warn you, that perhaps he will not be (or, that he may not be) at home. Des pli bone! mi tute ne deziras lin vidi = So much the better, I don’t at all wish to see him.
Do = Then, therefore, consequently (argumentative).
Examples.—Mi do povas dormi trankvile = Then I can sleep tranquilly. Estis do vidaĵo mirinda! = It was then a wonderful sight! Kion do Johano diros? = What then will John say?
Dum (also preposition) = While, whilst (par. 259 (10)).
Examples.—Dum li estis parolanta, ni eliris el la ĉambro = Whilst he was speaking, we went out of the room. Li povas labori, dum mi estas for = He can work, whilst I am away.
Dume = Meantime, meanwhile (also adverb).
Example.—Ili ekbruligis la fajron, dume ni pretigis la manĝaĵon = They lighted the fire, meanwhile we got the food ready.
Eĉ se = Even if.
Example.—Ili ne volus iri, eĉ se ili estus invititaj = They would not wish to go, even if they were (should be) invited.
Foje kiam = Once when, one day when, once upon a time.
Example.—Foje kiam mi promenis, mi renkontis vian amikon = Once (one day), when walking, I met your friend.
Ĝis (also preposition) = Till, until (par. 259 (13)).
Example.—Atendu, ĝis mi revenos22 = Wait till I (shall) return.
Footnote
Jen = Behold, here (also an adverb and interjection).
Example.—Jen la malsameco de la rezulto klariĝas = Here the difference of the result is explained.
Jen... jen = Now... now, sometimes... at other times.
Example.—Jen li kuras rapide, jen li haltas! = Now he runs rapidly, now he stops!
Ju malpli... des malpli = The less... the less (par. 112).
Example.—Ju malpli li laboras, des malpli li enspezas = The less he works, the less he earns.
Ju malpli... des pli = The less... the more.
Example.—Ju malpli li trinkas, des pli li manĝas = The less he drinks, the more he eats.
Ju pli... des malpli = The more... the less.
Example.—Ju pli ni trinkas, des malpli ni manĝas = The more we drink, the less we eat.
Ju pli... des pli = The more... the more.
Example.—Ju pli bona vi estos, des pli vi estos amata = The better you are, the more you will be loved.
Kaj = And.
Example.—Vi kaj mi devas ĝin fari = You and I must do it.
Example.—Mi vidis tie kaj Johanon kaj Georgon = I saw both John and George there.
Kaj ceteraj = And the rest, et cetera (commonly written k.c.).
Kaj tiel plu = And so forth, and so on (commonly written k.t.p.).
Ke = That. Be careful not to use ke for the pronouns kio, kiu, tio, or tiu = that.
Examples.—Mi esperas, ke tio, kion vi havas en la mano, ne estas venena insekto = I hope that that which you have in your (the) hand is not a poisonous insect. Mi pensas, ke tiu vorto estas malĝuste tradukita = I think that that word is wrongly translated.
Kial = Wherefore, why (par. 150) (also adverb).
Example.—Demandu lin, kial li tion faras = Ask him why he does that.
Kiam = When, as, after (kiam = after, when used with the English pluperfect) (par. 151).
Examples.—Pluvis forte, kiam ni atingis (alproksimiĝis) la lagon = It rained heavily when (as) we reached the lake. Kiam mi estis kolektinta la sumon, mi aĉetis novan libron = After (when) I had collected the amount, I bought a new book.
Kiam ajn = Whenever (par. 145).
Example.—Li balbutis, kiam ajn li parolis = He stammered whenever he spoke.
Kie = Where (par. 152) (also adverb).
Example.—Sciigu min, kie li estas = Tell (inform) me where he is.
Kie ajn = Wherever (par. 145).
Example.—Mi lin trovos, kie ajn li estas = I shall find him wherever he is.
Kiel = As (in comparison) (par. 153).
Example.—Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi = He is as strong as you.
Kiel ajn malmulte = However little.
Example.—Kiel ajn malmulte vi volos (or, volas)... = However little you may (will) wish....
Kiel ankaŭ = As also, as well as.
Example.—Mia patro, kiel ankaŭ mi, pensas, ke.... = My father, as well as I, thinks that....
Kiel eble plej baldaŭ = As soon as possible (lit., as possible, most soon). Kiel eble plej should be used as follows:—
Examples.—Kiel eble plej frue = As early as possible. Kiel eble plej rapide = As quickly as possible. Sendu lin al mi kiel eble plej baldaŭ = Send him to me as soon as possible.
Kiel ekzemple = As for example.
Example.—Oni ne manĝas kelkajn birdojn, kiel ekzemple aglojn, akcipitrojn, vulturojn, cikoniojn, kaj aliajn = People do not eat some birds, as, for example, eagles, hawks, vultures, storks, and others.
Kio ajn okazos (or, ĉiuokaze) = At all events (lit., whatever shall happen).
Example.—Mi venos morgaŭ, kio ajn okazos = I shall come to-morrow whatever happens.
Kondiĉe, ke = On condition that.
Example.—Mi vin forpermesos, kondiĉe, ke vi revenu postmorgaŭ = I will give you leave of absence, on condition that you return the day after to-morrow.
Konsente, ke = It being agreed that.
Example.—Mi iros, konsente, ke vi ankaŭ estu tie = I will go, it being understood that (agreed that) you also be there.
Kontraŭe = On the contrary (also adverb).
Example.—Vi preferas la bovaĵon, mi, kontraŭe, preferas la ŝafaĵon = You prefer beef, I, on the contrary, prefer mutton.
Krom se = Unless.
Examples.—Krom se ili rapidos (or, se ili ne rapidos), ili maltrafos la vagonaron = Unless they (will) make haste, they will miss the train.
Krom tio = Besides, moreover, apart from that.
Example.—Ŝi estis krom tio tre bela knabino = She was, besides (moreover), a very beautiful girl.
Kun la kondiĉo, ke = On (with) the condition that.
Example.—Mi pruntis al li la libron kun la kondiĉo, ke li redonu ĝin al mi postmorgaŭ = I lent him the book on the condition that he should (is to) return it to me the day after to-morrow.
Kvankam = Although, though.
Examples.—Kvankam li estas riĉa, tamen li ne estas feliĉa = Although he is rich, yet he is not happy. Kvankam mi konsentas vian opinion, tamen mi ne povas akordiĝi kun vi = Though I agree with your opinion, I cannot nevertheless be in accord with you.
Kvazaŭ = As if, as though (also adverb).
Example.—Li staris, kvazaŭ li vidas teruraĵon = He stood as if he saw a terrible object.
Laŭ tio... ke = According as.
Example.—Laŭ tio, ke vi estos atenta aŭ maldiligenta, la lernejestroj vin laŭdos aŭ mallaŭdos = According as you are (will be) attentive or idle, the schoolmaster will praise or blame you.
Malgraŭ ĉio = In spite of all (everything), after all.
Example.—Li foriris malgraŭ ĉio, kion mi diris = He went away in spite of all I said.
Malgraŭ tio, ke = Notwithstanding that.
Example.—Malgraŭ tio, ke mi ne havis palton, mi eliris = Notwithstanding that I had no overcoat, I went out.
Malpli... ol = Less... than (par. 112).
Example.—Li estas malpli kuraĝa, ol lia frato = He is less courageous than his brother.
Ne nur, ne sole = Not only.
Example.—Li ne nur ŝtelis, sed li mortigis ankaŭ = He not only stole, but he committed murder (murdered) also.
Nek = Nor (par. 59 (c)).
Example.—Li ne estis tie, nek mi = He was not there, nor I.
Nek... ankaŭ = Nor... also, nor... too, nor... either.
Example.—Vi ne estis tie, nek mi ankaŭ = You were not there, nor I either.
Nek... nek = Neither... nor (par. 59 (c)).
Example.—Nek vi nek mi estis tie = Neither you nor I was there.
Ol = Than (par. 112).
Examples.—Pli bone malfrue, ol neniam = Better late than never. La libro ne kostos pli ol tri ŝilingojn = The book will not cost more than three shillings.
Per (or, pro) tio, ke = In that, since.
Example.—La akvo diferencas de la glacio per tio, ke tiu estas fluida, kaj ĉi tiu malfluida = Water differs from ice, in that the former is fluid and the latter solid.
Pli... ol = More... than (par. 112).
Example.—Li estas pli forta, ol vi = He is stronger than you.
Plie = Moreover, further (also adverb).
Example.—Plie, mi diras al vi, ke... = Moreover, I tell you that....
Por ke = In order that, so that, to the end that. Por ke is always followed by the Imperative mood, because, when used, this expression implies order (see remarks on Imperative, par. 201).
Examples.—Por ke mi rekompencu vin, konvenas, ke vi ĝin meritu = In order that I may recompense you, it is proper (fitting) that you merit it. Mi volas ĉion fari, por ke vi estu kontenta je mi = I wish to do everything, so that you may be satisfied with me, or, I will do everything to please you.
Post kiam = After.
Example.—Post kiam la suno subiris, ni revenis hejmen = After the sun set we returned home.
Same kiel = As, just as (par. 112).
Example.—Same kiel la patrino amas sian infanon, tiel mi amas vin = Just as the mother loves her child, so do I love you.
Example.—Mi ĝin faros, se mi povos = I shall do it if I can (shall be able).
Se ne = If not, otherwise, lest.
Example.—Lernu vian lecionon, se ne, mi vin vergos! = Learn your lesson, otherwise I shall cane you!
Se nur = If only, provided that.
Example.—Vi vidos Johanon, se nur vi alvenos frue = You will see John, provided that you (will) arrive early.
Se okaze = If perchance, in case, in the event of.
Example.—Se okaze vi venus malfrue, Johano ne estus tie ĉi = If perchance you should come late, John would not be here.
Se tamen = If however, if still, if though, if notwithstanding.
Example.—Se tamen vi ne povos veni morgaŭ matene, venu vespere = If, however, you are not (will not be) able to come to-morrow morning, come in the evening.
Sed = But.
Example.—Li legas, sed ne komprenas tion, kion li legas = He reads, but does not understand what he reads.
Sed ankaŭ = But also.
Example.—Ŝi donis al mi ne nur hundon, sed ankaŭ ĉevalon = She gave me not only a dog, but also a horse.
Sed eĉ = But even.
Example.—Ne sole viroj, sed eĉ infanoj estis tie = Not only men, but even children were there.
Sekve = Consequently.
Example.—Ekpluvis, sekve ni revenis domen = It began to rain, consequently we returned home.
Tamen = However, yet, still, nevertheless, but.
Examples.—Kvankam li estas riĉa, tamen li ne estas feliĉa = Although he is rich, yet (still) he is not happy. Mi ne povis veni hodiaŭ, tamen mi venos morgaŭ = I could not come to-day, however, I will come to-morrow. Kvankam li perdis monon, tamen li ne mortis malriĉulo = Although he lost money, nevertheless he did not die a poor man.
Tia, ke = Such that.
Example.—Mia teruro estis tia, ke mi ne povis paroli unu vorton = My terror was such, that I could not utter a single word.
Tial = So, therefore (par. 150) (also adverb).
Example.—Li rifuzis labori, tial mi eksigis lin = He refused to work, therefore (so) I dismissed him.
Tial, ke = Inasmuch as, since, because.
Example.—Mi vin ne mallaŭdas, tial, ke tio ne estis via eraro = I do not blame you, inasmuch as (since) it (that) was not your mistake.
N.B.—Do not confuse tial, ke with tiel, ke = so that.
Tiam, kiam = Then when, when (par. 151).
Example.—Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa, or, Kiam mi estis riĉa, (tiam) mi ne estis feliĉa = When I was rich, (then) I was not happy.
Tiamaniere, ke = In such a manner that, so that.
Example.—Parolu tiamaniere (or, tiel), ke mi povu vin kompreni = Speak in such a manner (so) that I can (may be able to) understand you.
Tiel, ke = So that.
Example.—Estis muro inter ili, tiel, ke ili ne povis vidi unu la alian = There was a wall between them so that they could not see one another.
Tiel... ke = So... that.
Example.—Li estas tiel bona, ke li ĉion pardonas = He is so good that he pardons everything.
Tiel... kiel = As... as (par. 112).
Example.—Ŝi estas tiel bona, kiel (ŝi estas) bela = She is as good as she is beautiful.
Timante, ke, or, pro la timo, ke = For fear that, fearing that, lest.
Example.—Mi tion diris, timante, ke li venos = I said that, fearing that (lest) he would (will) come. Note the use of the future tense here. “What is my fear?” I fear he will perhaps come.
Tio estas (t.e.) = That is, that is to say, to wit. The initial letters are nearly always used just as we say id est = i.e.
Tiom... ke = So many... that, so much... that.
Example.—Mi havis tiom da pomoj, ke mi devis ilin fordoni = I had so many apples that I was obliged to give them away.
Tiom... kiom = As much... as, as many... as.
Example.—Donu al mi tiom, kiom vi povas = Give me as much (many) as you can.
Tuj kiam = As soon as, immediately when, directly.
Example.—Mi fermis la pordon, tuj kiam li eliris = I shut the door as soon as (directly) he went out.
Interjections and Exclamations
269. Interjections (interjekcioj) and interjectional expressions vary so considerably in force and meaning in different languages that it is impossible to translate some of them. If we translated our English interjections literally into Esperanto, many of them would have no meaning to a foreigner. The following short list appears at present to be in use, but, no doubt, as the language becomes more widely spoken, more will be added.
Adiaŭ! = Adieu! farewell! good-bye!
Ah! Aha! = Ah! hah!
Aj! = An exclamation of disgust.
Antaŭen! = Forward!
Atentu! = Look out! Take care! Attention!
Aŭskultu! = Hark! hist!
Bis! = Encore!
Bone! = Good!
Bonvenu! Bonvenon! = Welcome!
Brave! = Bravo! capital! splendid!
Certe! = Certainly!
Ĉu estas eble! = Is it possible!
Ĉu ne! = Isn’t it! etc. Ĉu! = Is it! etc.
Ĉu ne vere! = Is it not so!
Dio gardu! = God save us!
Dio mia! = God bless me!
Dio min savu! = God save me!
Dio volu! = Would to God! may God!
Efektive! = Really!
Fi! = Fie! for shame!
For! = Away! be off!
For de tie ĉi! = Begone! be off! avaunt!
Ha! = Ah! ha!
Haltu! = Stop!
He! = Halloo! hey!
Helpon! Helpu! = Help!
Ho! = O! oh! ho!
Ho ve! = Alack! alas! oh dear! welladay!
Hontu! = For shame!
Hura! = Hurrah! huzza!
Ja! = Indeed!
Jen! = Lo! there! behold! see!
Kial do! = Why indeed! why then!
Kiel abomene! = How abominable!
Kion! = What! Kion do! = What then!
Kompreneble! = Of course!
Kuraĝe! = Courage!
Ne! = No!
Nu! = Well!
Nu do! = Well then!
Pacience! Paciencu! Paciencon! = Be quiet! Patience!
Peston! = Plague on’t!
Pluen! Daŭrigu! = Proceed! Go on!
Pro Dio! = For God’s sake!
Rapidu! Rapide! = Quick!
Silentu! Silenton! = Hist! hush!
Ŝŝ! = ’Sh! Hush!
Ts! = Hist!
Ve! = Woe!
Vere! = Really! True!
Verege! Tre vere! = Very true!
Vivu! = Long live!
269 (a). When adjectives are used as interjections, the adverbial form in E is used, because there is neither noun nor pronoun with which they can agree, as:—Neeble! = Impossible! (par. 245).
Remarks on the Suffixes and Prefixes
270. Suffix -AĈ-. Prefixes FI- and FUŜ-.
The suffix -aĉ- denotes badness of quality or condition, and is used with any part of speech to show disparagement, contempt. Fuŝi, to botch, bungle, do blunderingly, is sometimes used as a prefix with a similar meaning, though it is less frequently used than -aĉ.
Aĉa = nasty; domaĉo = a hovel; veteraĉo = vile weather; ĉapelaĉo = a shabby hat; fuŝkonstrui, or, konstruaĉi = to jerry-build.
The exclamation Fi = fie! for shame! is used as a prefix to denote shamefulness, disgustingness, nastiness. Fi- denotes moral rather than physical badness, and is stronger than -aĉ-, which has a more general sense.
Fidomo = a house of ill repute; fivorto = a naughty word; firakonto = a low story.
270 (1). Suffix -AD-. (Ex. 19.)
(a). This suffix marks that an action is being continued or is habitual. It marks an action of some duration, not momentary. Thus, pafo = a shot from a gun (the gun is fired, and the action is over); but pafado = a fusillade (a continuance of shots of more or less duration).
Thus dancado = dancing, desegnado = designing, drawing, kantado = singing, legado = reading, pentrado = painting, skulptado = (the art of) sculpture, skribado = writing. These words signify not momentary acts, but habitual actions; in fact, they are used to denote arts or practices, as the art of painting, singing, etc. Kanto = A song. Ŝia kanto plaĉas al mi = Her song pleases me. Ŝia kantado ĉarmas min = Her singing charms me.
(b). If we wish to speak of the faculties of hearing, smelling, touching, thought, feeling, will, we say aŭdado, flarado, palpado, pensado, sentado, volado; but if we speak of isolated acts of such faculties, we say aŭdo, flaro, palpo, penso, sento, volo.
(c). Sometimes the word arto is used when we wish to specify that some -ado is an art.
Examples.—Danc-arto (dancado) = the art of dancing, kant-arto (kantado) = the art of singing, pentr-arto (pentrado) = the art of painting.
N.B.—The hyphens are not necessary.
(d). The difference in meaning of words with and without the suffix is seen in such words as:—
Movo = a motion, movado = movement (general), progreso = a step of progress, progresado = progress (general), parolo = word (spoken), parolado = speech, discourse, fumo = smoke, fumado = smoking (habit of smoking), verko = a work (literary or musical), verkado = composition (lit.).
(e). In the verb itself we use this suffix to show that the action is not merely momentary, but is being continued, repeated, or is habitual; an aspect of the verb which is, in English, often expressed by the words “keep on,” “used to,” etc.
Examples.—Mi saltadis la tutan tagon de loko al loko = I jumped (about) all day long from place to place (kept on jumping). Viziti = To visit. Vizitadi = To frequent, to haunt.
(f). Where the root plus o denotes the name of an object, the ending -ado introduces the idea of action, thus: krono = a crown; kronado = coronation; martelo = a hammer; martelado = hammering, etc.
(g). Do not therefore use -AD- without thinking of its significance, or merely for the sake of euphony.
271. Suffixes -AĴ- and -EC-. (Ex. 20).
(a). -AĴ- denotes something having the quality denoted by the root, or made or derived from that which is named by the root. It is also used to denote the flesh of animals intended for food.
Examples.—Ĉasi = to hunt, ĉasaĵo = game. Armi = to arm, armaĵo = armour. Bovo = an ox, bovaĵo = beef. Ovo = an egg, ovaĵo = an omelet.
(b). -EC- denotes an abstract quality, similar to the English suffixes, -nce, -ncy, -ness, -tude, -ity.
Examples.—Pura = clean, pureco = purity, cleanness. Feliĉa = happy, feliĉeco = happiness, felicity. Sen = without, seneco = dearth, want. Kuraĝa = courageous, kuraĝeco = fortitude. Danki = to thank, dankeco = gratitude, thankfulness. Riĉa = rich, riĉeco = wealth.
(c). Both suffixes apply to good or bad qualities. They can be used as roots, as aĵo = a thing, eco = a quality, a distinctive mark.
(d). A comparison of the following words will best illustrate their meaning.
Amiko = a friend, amikaĵo = a friendly act, amikeco = friendship. Bona = good, bonaĵo = a good (action or thing), boneco = goodness. Fortika = solid, robust, fortikaĵo = a stronghold, fortikeco = robustness. Mola = soft, molaĵo = a soft substance, pulp, moleco = softness. Sprita = witty, spritaĵo = a witticism, spriteco = wittiness. Malsprita = dull, stupid, malspritaĵo = a stupidity, a bêtise, malspriteco = stupidity, a state of silliness.
(e). To express an idea itself, namely, one that is neither concrete (-AĴ-) nor abstract (-EC-), we add only the grammatical termination to the root. For instance, la bono = the good, good (itself), and from this arises bonaĵo = a good action, or, something good, the abstract quality being boneco = goodness. Again, acido = an acid, acidaĵo = an acid thing, something which has an acid taste, acideco = acidity. So, heroo = a hero, heroaĵo = an exploit (something heroic), heroeco = heroism. The student should guard against the tendency of some writers to over-use -ec-: e.g., to use feliĉeco, kuraĝeco, boneco, rapideca, in cases where the sense does not call for a qualitative suffix, and simple feliĉo, kuraĝo, bono, rapida, would be more appropriate. In other words, use eco only when you wish to accentuate the abstractness, the “nessness” of the idea.
Examples.—La bono, kiun vi faras estas rimarkinda, ĉar via boneco ĉiam instigadas vin fari bonaĵojn = The good that you are doing is remarkable, for your goodness is always prompting you to do kind acts. Vitriolo estas acido, sed vinagro estas nur acidaĵo, kvankam ambaŭ posedas acidecon = Vitriol is an acid, but vinegar is only a sour fluid, although both possess acidity. La heroo de la heroaĵo montris grandan heroecon = The hero of the exploit showed great heroism. La amiko montras sian amikecon per amikaĵoj = A friend shows his friendship by friendly acts.
These four suffixes relate to individuals. When combined with a root, one or other of them serves to show a person’s country, religion, profession, occupation, character, etc. Each has its distinct meaning, and care must be taken not to confuse them. The feminine suffix -IN- is added to denote females.
(a). Like the English -an, -man, -AN- denotes a member of something, such as a club, society, etc.; an inhabitant of a place or country; a partisan; an adherent to a party, faction, religion, etc.
Examples.—Klubo = a club, klubano = a member of a club. Senato = senate, senatano = a senator. Ameriko = America, amerikano = an American. Londono = London, londonano = a Londoner. Parizo = Paris, parizano = a Parisian. Urbo = a town or city, urbano = a townsman or citizen. Kamparo = country (rural), kamparano = a countryman. Vilaĝo = a village, vilaĝano = a villager. Insulo = an island, insulano = an islander. Kristo = Christ, Kristano = a Christian. Partio = a party, partiano = a partisan.
(b). The suffix -AN- itself is used as a root. Ano = a member, anaro = a band (a collection of members of something).
(c). -IST-, like the English affix -ist, denotes a person following a profession or trade, or some occupation by which he gains his livelihood, or who is habitually engaged in science, art, etc. In short, it denotes habitual occupation (not necessarily for the sake of gain).
Examples.—Juĝi = to judge, juĝisto = a judge. Kuraci = to treat the sick, kuracisto = a doctor. Drogo = a drug, drogisto = a druggist. Maro = sea, maristo = a sailor (by occupation). Rabi = to rob, rabisto = a robber. Ŝteli = to steal, ŝtelisto = a thief. Pentri = to paint, pentristo = a painter (art). Kolorigi = to colour, paint, kolorigisto = a painter (house). Servi = to serve, servisto or servistino = servant (male or female). Astrologio = astrology, astrologiisto (or, astrologo) = an astrologer.
(d). -IST- is used only when there is a root to which it may be added to form the name of someone engaged in a trade, occupation, etc., as shown in the above examples. Thus, from Kudri = to sew, ŝuo = a shoe, boto = boot, we get kudristino = a seamstress or dressmaker, ŝuisto = a shoemaker, botisto = a bootmaker. When there is no such root, Esperanto provides an independent root, as:—Tajloro = a tailor, lakeo = a lackey, or valet.
(e). When the person is engaged in a temporary occupation, or is not a professional, but an amateur, a participle is often used.
Examples.—Juĝanto = a judge (of something), juĝisto, a judge (by occupation or profession). Amanto = a lover, amisto = a lover, a sweetheart, a gallant. Fotografanto = a photographer, one who is now photographing, fotografisto = a professional photographer. Laboranto = a person working, laboristo = a labourer, or man who works for a livelihood.
(f). -ESTR- denotes a person who is a chief, leader, ruler, principal, or head of a State, party, body, etc. In the same way as the suffix -AN- denotes a member of some profession, body, etc., so -ESTR- would designate the head of it, as:—Urbo = a city, urbano = citizen, urbestro = a mayor, a chief citizen.
Examples.—Imperio = an empire, imperiestro = an emperor, imperiestrino = an empress. Regno = (the) State, regnestro = a ruler, head of (the) State. Ŝipo = a ship, ŝipestro = a captain of a merchant vessel, a skipper. Lernejo = a school, lernejestro = a schoolmaster, head master (a teacher would be instruisto). From polico = police, we get policano = a policeman (a member of the police force), policisto = an officer of police (one who has made the police his profession), policestro = chief of police.
(g). Ĉefo = chief, head, is used as a prefix as an equivalent of the English chief, main, head-, prime.
Examples.—Episkopo = a bishop, ĉefepiskopo = archbishop. Anĝelo = an angel, ĉefanĝelo = archangel.
Compare -estro (the one in command over) with ĉef- (principal in honour, in comparison with the others). Ĉefŝipo = principal ship, ŝipestro = ship’s captain.
(h). -UL- denotes a person characterized by the idea contained in the root, the root being used in an adjectival sense to express that an individual is “rich,” “poor,” “just,” “good,” etc.
Examples.—Riĉa = rich, riĉulo = a rich man. Malriĉa = poor, malriĉulo = a poor man, a pauper. Justa = just, justulo = a just or righteous man. Bona = good, bonulo = a good man. Bela = beautiful, belulino = a beauty, a beautiful woman. Paca = peaceful, paculo = a man of peace. Juna = young, junulo = a youth, junulino = a young woman. Avara = avaricious, avarulo = a miser.
(i). Primary words can be used also as roots when applicable.
Examples.—Tie = there, tieulo = an aborigine (a man of there). Tiam = then, at that time, tiamulo = a contemporary (a man of that time). Kun = with, kunulo = a companion (a person with you).
(j). Since words like legi = to read, viziti = to visit, etc., are not adjectival in character, we use with them (in describing a person) by preference not -UL- but -IST- or a participial termination.
Examples.—Leganto = a reader (who is reading), leginto = a reader (who has read), legonto = a reader (who is about to read), legisto = a reader (by habitual occupation). But legemulo = a person who is fond of reading.
273. Suffixes -AR- and -ER-. (Ex. 22.)
Aro = a collection, and ero = an item; therefore aro da eroj might be termed “a collection of items.”
(a). -AR- denotes a reunion or a collection of the idea contained in the root; a whole formed from a union of the parts.
Examples.—Vorto = a word, vortaro = a collection of words, a dictionary. Homo = a man, homaro = mankind. Arbo = a tree, arbaro = a wood, arbareto = a small wood, clump of trees. Arbeto = shrub, small tree, arbetaro = shrubbery, a grove. Insulo = an island, insularo = an archipelago. Vagono = a (railway) carriage, vagonaro = a train. Sekvanto = a follower, sekvantaro = suite, cortège, retinue. Nomo = a name, nomaro = list of names, a register. Ŝtupo = a step, ŝtuparo = a staircase, ŝtupetaro = a ladder, succession of small steps. Aristokrato = an aristocrat, aristokrataro = (the) aristocracy. Aro = a collection, a flock, a herd. If we wish to specify the animals, we can add the suffix to the name, as:—Bruto = cattle, brutaro = a herd of cattle. Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafaro = a flock of sheep. Abelo = a bee, abelaro = a swarm of bees.
(b). -ER- denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small fragment, one of many similar parts which together form the whole.
Examples.—Sablo = sand, sablero = a grain of sand. Hajlo = hail, hajlero = a hailstone. Fajro = fire, fajrero = a spark. Mono = money, monero = a coin. Polvo = dust, polvero = an atom or speck of dust. Pulvo = gunpowder, pulvero = a grain of gunpowder. Sukero = sugar, sukerero = a grain of sugar.
274. Suffixes -ĈJ- and -NJ-. (Ex. 23.)
(a). -ĈJ- is an affectionate diminutive to the Christian name of a man. It is placed after any letter of the name not later than the fifth (occasionally, the sixth).
Examples.—Vilhelmo = William, Vilhelĉjo = Willie, Vilheĉjo = Will, Vilĉjo = Billy, Viĉjo = Bill. Petro = Peter, Peĉjo = Pete. Johano = John, Johanĉjo = Johnnie, Joĉjo = Jack. Nikolao = Nicholas, Nikolĉjo = Nickie, Nikoĉjo, Nikĉjo, or Niĉjo = Nick. Ernesto = Ernest, Erneĉjo, Ernĉjo, or Erĉjo = Ernie. Patro = father, patreto, paĉjo = papa.
(b). -NJ- is a similar diminutive for a female Christian name.
Examples.—Mario = Mary, Marinjo = Molly, Manjo = Polly. Klaro = Clara, Klanjo = Clarrie. Sofio = Sophia, Sonjo = Sophy. Patrineto, patrinjo, panjo = mamma, mammy, ma.
(a). These three suffixes, when used as roots, form the words ebla = possible; emo = propensity, tendency; indo = worth, merit, value. As suffixes they are mostly used to form adjectives or adverbs, and the following three, from kredi = to believe, will give an idea of their different shades of meaning. Kredebla = credible, possible of belief, believable; kredema = credulous, having a tendency to believe; kredinda = worthy of belief.
(b). -EBL- denotes possibility, or what is likely to happen, similar to the English suffix -able, -ible.
Examples.—Pagi = to pay, pagebla = payable. Fleksi = to bend, fleksebla = flexible. Rompi = to break, rompebla = breakable. Fidi = to rely upon, fidebla = reliable. Kompreni = to understand, komprenebla = comprehensible, kompreneble = of course, comprehensibly.
(c). Do not confuse -EBL- with -EM- or -IND- in words which in English end in -able or -ible, but have two distinct meanings. For instance, “readable” may mean either “able to be read” or “worth reading.” In Esperanto there is no such confusion, for legebla = readable, legible, but leginda = readable, worth reading. Hence we see that -EBL- must always denote possibility. It is possible to love or to honour all persons, whether they merit this or not; but when, in English, we talk of a lovable or honourable individual, we imply not possibility, but worthiness; therefore, in Esperanto, aminda = lovable, and honorinda = honourable. -EBL- is sometimes used for the infinitive.
Examples.—Tiuj ĉi vortoj ne estas troveblaj en la vortaro = These words are not to be found (findable) in the dictionary. Tia amo estas malfacile imagebla = It is difficult to imagine such love.
(d). -EM- denotes propensity, tendency, inclination, disposition, similar to the English suffix, -ful.
Examples.—Paco = peace, pacema = peaceful. Helpi = to help, helpema = helpful, obliging. Trompi = to deceive, trompema = deceitful, trompemo = duplicity. Servi = to serve, servema = obliging, servemo = inclination to serve. Labori = to work, laborema = laborious. Pura = clean, pure, purema = cleanly, purigebla = cleanable. Babili = to chatter, babilema = talkative, chattering. Koleri = to be angry, kolerema = irascible, ekkolerema = quick-tempered. Dormi = to sleep, dormema = disposed to sleep, sleepy, drowsy.
(e). Do not confuse -EM- with -IND- (or with -AM- (love) in compound words). For instance:—
Envii = to envy, enviema = envious, inclined to envy, enviinda = enviable, worthy or deserving of envy. Honti = to be ashamed, hontema = bashful, inclined to be ashamed, hontemo = bashfulness, hontinda = shameful, deserving of shame, impudent. Dormi = to sleep, dormema = drowsy, dormama = fond of sleep.
(f). -IND- denotes worthiness, worthy of.
Examples.—Inda = worthy, malinda = unworthy. Laŭdi = to praise, laŭdinda = praiseworthy. Memori = to remember, memorinda = memorable, worthy of being remembered. Estimi = to esteem, estiminda = esteemable, or estimable. If we use “estimable” in the sense of “able to be valued,” we must form the word from taksi = to estimate, to value, taksebla = estimable, appraisable.
276. Suffix -EDZ-. (Exs. 25, 34.)
-EDZ- denotes a married person, and can scarcely be called a suffix, although classed as such, since it is generally used as a root.
Examples.—Edzo = a husband, a married man, edzino = a wife, a married woman, edzeco = matrimony, a state of marriage, edziĝo = a wedding, nuptials, edziĝa = nuptial, geedzoj = a married couple, husband and wife.
When reference is made to a woman, the feminine suffix -IN- is added to verbs as well as nouns and adjectives.
Examples.—Doktoredzino = a doctor’s wife; kudristinedzo = a seamstress’s husband; laboristedzino = a labourer’s wife; lavistinedzo = a washerwoman’s husband; tajloredzino = a tailor’s wife; edzigi (trans.) = to marry a couple, or to marry (a man to a woman), edzinigi (trans.) = to marry a woman to a man; edziĝi (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (man), edziniĝi (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (woman). Note the following sentences:—Li edziĝis kun sia kuzino, kvankam liaj gepatroj volis edzigi lin kun alia sinjorino = He was married to (with) his cousin, although his parents wished to marry him to (with) another lady. Ŝi edziniĝis kun sia kuzo, kvankam ŝiaj gepatroj volis edzinigi ŝin kun alia sinjoro = She was married to her cousin, although her parents wished to marry her to another gentleman.
(a). These two suffixes are opposites, -EG- denoting augmentation, and -ET- diminution of degree. When employed in adjectives, the adverb “very” is often loosely used to denote the degree, as:—Grandega (very large), malgrandega (very little), but a better translation of these words is grandega = huge, enormous; malgrandega = tiny (see remarks on degrees of intensity of adjectives, par. 114). If we cannot find English adjectives as equivalents of -EG- or -ET-, we should use not the adverb “very,” but a stronger term, as “excessively,” “enormously,” etc.
(b). In the case of nouns we must be careful to use the right words to express the English meaning.
Examples.—Montego = a huge mountain, granda monto = a big mountain, monto = a mountain, malgranda monto = a small mountain, monteto = a hill, altaĵo = an eminence, altaĵeto = a hillock. Again:—Riverego = a huge river, larĝa rivero = a wide river, rivero = a river, malgranda rivero = a small river, rivereto = a brook, stream, malgranda rivereto = a streamlet.
(c). -EG- denotes augmentation, intensity of degree. Used as a root, ega = intense, egeco = intensity.
(d). -ET- denotes diminution of degree. Equivalent to the English suffixes -let in “streamlet,” -ule in “globule,” “pustule.” Used as a root, eta = little, tiny, etulo = a little one.
Examples.—Pluvo = rain, pluvego = a downpour, pluveto = a shower. Ridi = to laugh, ridegi = to guffaw, rideti = to smile. Plori = to shed tears, ploregi = to weep bitterly, ploreti = to whimper. Dormi = to sleep, dormegi = to sleep heavily, dormeti = to doze, dormeto = a nap. Domo = a house, domego = a mansion, dometo = a cottage. Ŝnuro = cord, ŝnurego = rope, cable, ŝnureto = string, twine. Ami = to love, amegi = to idolize, ameti = to have some liking for.
N.B.—From the above we see that -EG- and -ET- may generally be translated by distinct words, and are not merely a substitute for adverbs, which will often more accurately express the meaning than the added suffix.
278. Suffixes -EJ-, -ING-, -UJ-. (Ex. 27.)
These suffixes are akin, since they denote either a place or thing from which the idea of the root is produced, or in which it is contained.
(a). -EJ- denotes the place of, used for, or allotted to, the idea contained in the root. As a root, ejo = a place, a locality.
Examples.—Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafejo = a sheepfold, or a place specially used for sheep. Preĝi = to pray, preĝejo = a church, a place allotted to prayer. Fruktarbo = a fruit-tree, fruktarbejo = an orchard, a place used for fruit trees. Kafo = coffee, kafejo = a café. Vinbero = a grape, vinberejo = a vineyard. Armilo = a weapon, armilejo = an armoury. Tombo = a tomb, grave, tombejo = a cemetery. Manĝi = to eat, manĝejo = a refectory, manĝaĵo = food, manĝaĵejo = a larder. Planti = to plant, plantejo = nursery. Mallibera = captive, malliberejo = a prison. Bovino = a cow, bovinejo = cowshed. Lerni = to learn, lernejo = a school. Juĝi = to judge, juĝejo = a court of justice. Dormi = to sleep, dormejo = a dormitory. Herbo = grass, herbejo = a meadow, a field. Paperfari = to make paper, paperfarejo = a paper manufactory.
(b) -ING- denotes a thing for holding one object only. Used as a root, ingo = a socket, a sheath, a holder.
Examples.—Kandelo = a candle, kandelingo = a candlestick. Plumo = a pen, plumingo = a penholder. Fingro = a finger, fingringo = a thimble. Cigaredo = a cigarette, cigaredingo = a cigarette mouthpiece. Glavo = a sword, glavingo = scabbard, sheath (sword). Bajoneto = bayonet, bayonetingo = a scabbard (bayonet).
(c). -UJ- denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or bears. Used as a root, ujo = a receptacle, a container. It has a wide signification, for it can be used for:—
(1). The names of countries in cases where the root-word denotes the inhabitant, as being the places which contain their various races.
Examples.—Franco = a Frenchman, Francujo = France. Turko = a Turk, Turkujo = Turkey. Anglo = an Englishman, Anglujo = England. Germano = a German, Germanujo = Germany. Italo = an Italian, Italujo = Italy. Brito = a Briton, Granda Britujo = Great Britain. Hispano = a Spaniard, Hispanujo = Spain.
N.B.—Lando can be used instead of -ujo, if desired.
Where the root-word denotes not the inhabitant, but the country, uj is of course not used, e.g., Aŭstralio, Nederlando, Usono. In these cases the name of the inhabitant is formed by an from that of the country, thus: aŭstraliano. See par. 272 (a).
(2). The names of trees producing fruits.
Examples.—Pruno = a plum, prunujo = a plum-tree. Kaŝtano = a chestnut, kaŝtanujo = a chestnut-tree. Piro = a pear, pirujo = a pear-tree. Migdalo = an almond, migdalujo = an almond-tree. Moruso = a mulberry, morusujo = a mulberry-tree. Ĉerizo = a cherry, ĉerizujo = a cherry-tree.
Arbo can be used instead of ujo in such cases, and is preferable, because clearer, thus: prunarbo, ĉerizarbo.
(3). The names of receptacles commonly used for certain articles.
Examples.—Teo = tea, teujo = a tea-caddy or canister (a teapot is a vessel in which tea is made, not kept, therefore tekruĉo = a teapot, from kruĉo = a vessel for fluids). Mono = money, monujo = a purse. Papero = paper, paperujo = a portfolio. Sukero = sugar, sukerujo = a sugar-basin. Karto = a card, kartujo = a card-case. Abelo = a bee, abelujo = a, beehive. Mustardo = mustard, mustardujo = mustard-pot.
(d). The difference in meaning of these three suffixes is shown in the following examples:—
For instance, cigaro = a cigar, cigarejo = a cigar depot; but if we wish to distinguish the kind of depôt, viz., store, shop, etc., we add the word required. If it be a store, we add tenejo = a storehouse, as:—Cigartenejo = a cigar storehouse or depôt. If a shop, we add vendejo = a market, or place where things are sold, as:—Cigarvendejo = a cigar shop, or we might say also cigarbutiko. Cigaringo = a cigar holder or mouthpiece, which holds one cigar. Cigarujo = a cigar case or box, which contains several cigars. Pomo = an apple, pomejo (or, pomarbejo) = an apple orchard, pomujo, pomarbo = an apple-tree.
279. Suffix -ID-. (Ex. 25.)
-ID- denotes the young of, offspring, descendant. Used as a root, ido = offspring, descendant; idaro = issue, posterity.
Examples.—Kato = a cat, katido = a kitten. Bovo = an ox, or a general term for the animal, hence bovido = a calf; if we wished to say a cow’s calf, we make bovo feminine, viz., bovino = a cow, bovinido = a cow’s calf of either sex. A cow calf we should call bovidino, and a bull calf, to determine it exactly, would be virbovido, viz., a male calf. It is important that suffixes should follow in their natural order (see order of suffixes, par. 46). Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafido = a lamb. Cervo = a stag, cervido = a fawn. Hundo = a dog, hundido = a puppy. Ĉevalo = a horse, ĉevalido = a foal. Koko = a cock, kokido = a chicken, kokideto = a chick, a tiny chicken. Birdo = a bird, birdido = a fledgeling, a young bird. Izraelo = Israel, izraelido = an Israelite. Napoleono = Napoleon, napoleonido = a descendant of Napoleon. Reĝo = a king, reĝido = a prince, king’s son.
(a). These two are the most important and most widely used of all the suffixes. They form an infinity of words, especially verbs. Used as roots, (1). Igi = to make, to cause, as:—Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado = Make her come to our dance. Li penis igi sian amikon tuŝi la aferon = He tried to make his friend broach the subject (touch upon the matter). (2). Iĝi = to become (to be made, to get), as La vetero iĝas pli varma = The weather is getting (becoming) warmer. Li baldaŭ iĝos maljunulo = He will soon become an old man.
(b). Used as suffixes:—
(1). -IG- denotes (like the English suffix -fy) to make, to cause (to get), to render, as ruĝa = red, ruĝigi = to make red, to redden, and from this verb is formed ruĝigo = the action of reddening, ruĝiga = reddening (adj.).
(2). -IĜ- denotes to become, to get (in the sense of to become). Note the following difference in meaning of ruĝa with this suffix and with -IG- in the preceding paragraph; ruĝiĝi = to become or get red, to blush; ruĝiĝo = the action of getting red, a blush; ruĝiĝa = blushing (adj.).
(c). The above instances are words derived from an adjective, but the suffixes can be applied to almost any part of speech, as the following examples will show:—
(d). From adjectives.
Examples.—Bona = good, bonigi = to make or render good, boniĝi = to become good. Plibonigi = to make better, to improve, pliboniĝi = to become better, to improve, plibonigo = the act of making better, improvement (made), pliboniĝo = the state of becoming better, improvement (experienced). Laca = tired, fatigued, lacigi = to tire (active), laciĝi = to get tired, lacigo = the act of tiring others, laciĝo = the state of growing tired. Preta = ready, pretigi = to make ready, pretiĝi = to get (become) ready. From all these verbs nouns, adjectives, and adverbs can be formed.
(e). From nouns.
Examples.—Fianĉo = a fiancé (man), fianĉigi = to betroth, to affiance, fianĉiĝi = to become betrothed, to be engaged, fianĉiĝo = betrothal, engagement, fianĉiĝa = betrothing, fianĉiĝe = by betrothal. These words speak of the betrothal of a man, but in case of a woman we add the feminine suffix, as:—fianĉino, fianĉinigi, fianĉiniĝi, fianĉinigo, etc., etc.
(f). From verbs.
Examples.—Morti = to die, mortigi = to cause to die, to kill, mortiĝi = to die out, to expire (become dead), mortigo = killing (murder), mortiga = deadly, mortiganto = a murderer, mortige = mortally. Sinmortigo = suicide, sinmortigi = to commit suicide. Sidi = to be sitting, to sit, sidigi = to cause to sit, sidiĝi = to sit down, to seat oneself, sidigo = the act of causing to sit, seating, sidiĝo = the act of sitting down, or of seating oneself, as:—Li kondukis la rigardontojn al iliaj sidejoj, sed la sidigo de tiom da gesinjoroj estis tasko malfacila, ĉar la sidiĝo de eĉ unu sinjorino bezonas iom da tempo, kvankam ne tiom, kiom la sidiĝo de hundo, kiu ofte turnadas sin multfoje antaŭ ol sidiĝi = He conducted the (about to be) spectators to their seats, but the seating of so many ladies and gentlemen was a difficult task, since the sitting down of even one lady needs some little time, although not so much as the sitting down of a dog, which often continues turning itself round many times before seating itself. Sciigi = to cause (someone) to know, or, to make (something) known. Mi sciigis la homon pri la novaĵo, or, Mi sciigis la novaĵon al la homo = I caused the man to know (or, I informed the man, or, I made the news known to the man). Sciiĝi = to become informed, to learn. Mi sciiĝis pri la novaĵo = I learnt the news.
(g). Verbs formed by -IGI are transitive (par. 161), but those by -IĜI are intransitive, and therefore have no passive voice (par. 162); with verbs in -IĜI, therefore, we cannot use the passive participles, -ATA, etc., but only the active forms -ANTA, etc., as:—Li estis fariĝinta (or, li fariĝis) maljunulo, antaŭ ol mi lin konis = He had become an old man before I knew him.
(h). Intransitive verbs.—Some verbs, such as ĉesi = to cease, daŭri = to continue, pasi = to pass, are neuter or intransitive.
Examples.—La pluvo ĉesas fali (or, ĉesiĝas) = The rain ceases to fall (or, comes to an end). La pafado daŭris kelkan tempon = The shooting continued some time. La tempo pasas = Time passes.
In English these verbs are used both transitively and intransitively, but if we wish to give them a transitive signification in Esperanto we must add the suffix -IGI.
Examples.—Ĉesigu tion! vi surdigas min per via bruo! = Cease that, you deafen me with your noise! Daŭrigu vian rakonton = Continue your narrative. Pasigu al mi la karafon = Pass me the decanter (see par. 237 (i)).
(i). Transitive verbs.—On the contrary, fini = to finish, and komenci = to commence, are transitive, and therefore do not require the addition of -IG to make them transitive.
Examples.—Finu vian laboron = Finish your work. Ni komencis nian vojaĝon je la dua horo = We commenced our journey at 2 o’clock.
But if we wish to give an intransitive sense to these verbs we may use the suffix -IĜI.
Examples.—Lia laboro finiĝas = His work finishes. La jaro finiĝos post kelkaj tagoj = The year will end in a few days. La vojaĝo komenciĝis je la tria horo = The journey commenced at 3 o’clock (see par. 237 (i)).
(j). Numerals, prepositions, prefixes, and suffixes.—Joined to these, -IG- and -IĜ- serve to form numerous words.
Examples.—Unuigi = to unify, unuigo = union, unuiĝi = to unite together, to be combined, unuiĝo = union (undergone). Duobligi = to double, duobliĝi = to become double. Aligi al = to attribute to, aliĝi = to join (oneself) to, to adhere, aliĝo = adhesion. Eksigi = to dismiss, eksiĝi = to become ex-, to resign (a position). Disigi = to separate, disiĝi = to separate mutually, disigo = act of separating, disjunction, disiĝo = disunion, schism. Kunigi = to connect, kuniĝi = to join together, to coalesce, kunigo = connection, kuniĝo = junction. Forigi = to do away with, foriĝi = to withdraw.
281. Suffix -IL-. (Ex. 29.)
-IL- denotes the tool, instrument, or means by which something is done. As a root, ilo = a tool, an instrument, an implement, a means of.
Examples.—Kombi = to comb, kombilo = a comb. Razi = to shave, razilo = a razor. Tranĉi = to cut, tranĉilo = a knive. Haki = to hack, to chop, hakilo = an axe, a hatchet, a chopper. Kudri = to sew, kudrilo = a needle. Tondi = to shear, to clip, tondilo = shears, scissors. Presi = to print, presilo = a printing press. Fermenti = to ferment, fermentilo = yeast, leaven (a means of fermenting). Batali = to fight, batalilo = a weapon. Armi = to arm, armiloj = arms, armilejo = an arsenal (a place for arms, see -EJ-, 278).
282. Suffix -IN-. (Ex. 25.)
-IN- denotes the feminine gender. As a root, ino = a female, ina = female.
Examples.—Frato = a brother, fratino = a sister. Patro = a father, patrino = a mother. Kuzo = a male cousin, kuzino = a female cousin. Avo = grandfather, avino = grandmother. Nepo = a grandson, nepino = a granddaughter. Onklo = an uncle, onklino = an aunt. Nevo = a nephew, nevino = a niece. Patra = paternal, patrina = maternal, patrineco = maternity. Frata = brotherly, fraternal, fratina = sisterly. Ĉevalo = a horse, ĉevalino = a mare, ĉevalido = a colt, ĉevalidino = a filly. Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafino = a ewe. Hundo = a dog, hundino = a bitch. Bovo = an ox, bovino = a cow.
283. MOŜTO. (Ex. 23.)
(a). This is not a suffix, since it does not form part of a word. It is a word used by itself or added after a title to denote respect. Via moŝto is a higher expression of respect than sinjoro = sir.
(b). No special rule has been laid down for the use of moŝto, but the usual practice is to make the title an adjective and add moŝto.
(c). In speaking to persons bearing titles by birth or profession it would be well to address them by their full title first, as shown below, and afterwards use the expression via moŝto to represent “Your Majesty,” “Your Royal Highness,” “Your Grace,” “Your Lordship,” “Your Ladyship,” “Your Honour,” “Your Worship,” “Your Excellency,” “Your Eminence,” “Your Highness,” etc. The suffix -IN is hardly ever added.
Examples:—
Emperor = Via imperiestra moŝto = Your Imperial Majesty.
King = Via reĝa moŝto = Your Majesty.
Queen = Via reĝina moŝto = Your Majesty.
Royal Family = Via reĝida moŝto = Your Royal Highness.
Prince = Via princa moŝto = Your Highness, or, Serene Highness.
Duke = Via duka moŝto = Your Grace.
Duchess = Via dukina moŝto = Your Grace.
Archbishop = Via ĉefepiskopa moŝto = Your Grace.
Marquis = Via markiza moŝto = Your Lordship, My Lord.
Earl, Count = Via grafa moŝto = Your Lordship, My Lord.
Viscount = Via vicgrafa moŝto = Your Lordship, My Lord.
Lord, Baron (Judge) = Via barona moŝto = Your Lordship, My Lord.
Viceroy = Via vicreĝa moŝto = Your Excellency.
Governor = Via rega moŝto = Your Excellency.
Judge (not a Baron) = Via juĝista moŝto = Your Honour.
Mayor = Via urbestra moŝto = Your Worship.
General (Officer) = Via generala moŝto = General.
N.B.—No title beyond his rank is given to a General in England, like “Monsieur le General” in France. We usually say “General,” or “Sir,” but moŝto might be used in Esperanto.
(d). As regards addresses of letters, we can say:—
Al Lia Duka Moŝto de... or, Al Lia Duka Moŝto, la Duko de... = To His Grace the Duke of...
Al Ŝia Grafina Moŝto de... = To the Countess of...
Al Lia Rega Moŝto de... = To His Excellency the Governor of...; or if we mention him by name:—
Al Lia Moŝto, Sir Henry Smith La Reganto de... = To His Excellency, Sir Henry Smith, The Governor of...
284. Suffixes -OBL-, -ON-, -OP-. (Ex. 18.) These three suffixes are used with numerals, making them multiples, fractions, or collectives (see pars. 119, 120, 121).
(a). -OBL- added to a cardinal number denotes the number is a multiple. It is equivalent to the English suffixes “-fold” or “-uple.”
Examples.—Multoblo = a multiple, multobla = manifold. Unu = one, unuobla = single, unuoble = singly. Du = two, duobla = double, la duoblo = the double. Kvar = four, kvarobla = fourfold, quadruple, la kvaroblo = the quadruple. Cent = hundred, centoblo = a centuple. It is used in the multiplication table:—
| kvaroble tri estas (or, faras) dek du | 4 times 3 = 12 |
| kvinoble kvar estas dudek | 5 times 4 = 20 |
| sesoble kvin estas tridek | 6 times 5 = 30 |
| sepoble ses estas kvardek du | 7 times 6 = 42 |
| okoble sep estas kvindek ses | 8 times 7 = 56 |
| naŭoble ok estas sepdek du | 9 times 8 = 72 |
| dekoble naŭ estas naŭdek | 10 times 9 = 90 |
| dek-unuoble dek estas cent dek | 11 times 10 = 110 |
| dek-duoble dek unu estas cent tridek du | 12 times 11 = 132 |
(b). -ON- added to a cardinal number denotes a fraction. As a root, ona = fractional.
Examples.—Du = two, duona = half, duone = by halves, duono = a half (1⁄2). Tri = three, triona = third, triono = a third (1⁄3). Kvar = four, kvarona = quarter, kvarono = a fourth (1⁄4). Dek = ten, dekona = tenth, dekono = a tenth (1⁄10), tri dekonoj = 3⁄10ths. Dek du = twelve, dek-duona = twelfth, dek-duono = a twelfth (1⁄12), kvin dek-duonoj = 5⁄12ths. Sesdek kvin centonoj = sixty-five hundredths (65⁄100). La kvinona parto (la kvinono) de cent estas la triona parto (la triono) de sesdek, tio estas dudek = The 5th part of 100 is the 3rd part of 60, that is 20.
(c). -OP- added to a cardinal number denotes that the number must be taken in a collective sense. As a root, opa = collective.
Examples.—Du = two, duope = two together, in twos. Tri = three, triope = in threes, in triplets. Dek = ten, dekope = in tens. Dudek = twenty, dudekope = in twenties, by scores. Cent = hundred, centope = in hundreds. Mil = thousand, milope = in thousands. Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me. La soldatoj marŝis kvarope = The soldiers were marching in fours.
285. Suffix -UM-. (Ex. 30.)
-UM- has no special meaning. Its different meanings are easily suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it is joined. There are but few words in which it is used, and these should be learnt as simple words.
The following embrace nearly all:—
*Aerumi = to air, aerate. Aero = air.
*Amindumi = to court, woo. Amo = love.
Brulumo = a swelling, inflammation. Bruli = to burn.
*Buŝumo = a muzzle (for a dog), a nose-band. Buŝumi = to muzzle, to gag. Buŝo = mouth.
*Butonumi = to button. Butonumilo = a buttonhook. Butono = a button.
Cerbumi = to rack one’s brains. Cerbo = a brain.
*Gustumi = to taste (something). Gustumado = tasting, the sense of tasting. Gusto = taste.
Kalkanumo = a heel of a boot, etc. Kalkano = heel (of the foot).
*Kolumo = a shirt collar. Kolo = neck.
Kolombumi = to spoon, bill and coo. Kolombo = a dove.
*Komunumo = a commune, a community. Komuna = common.
*Krucumi = to crucify. Kruco = a cross.
*Laktumo = milt, melt, soft roe. Lakto = milk.
Lekumi = to lap. Leki = lick.
*Lotumi = to allot. Loti = to draw lots.
*Malvarmumo = a cold, chill. Malvarmumi = to catch cold. Malvarma = cold.
*Manumo = a cuff, a wristband. Mano = hand.
*Mastrumi = to manage (the household), keep house. Mastrumado = household management. Mastro = master.
*Nazumo = a pince-nez. Nazo = nose.
Okulumi = to make eyes at. Okulo = an eye.
*Palpebrumi = to wink, blink. Palpebro = an eyelid.
Partumo = a fraction (mathematics). Parto = a part, a share.
*Plenumi = to fulfil, accomplish. Plenumiĝi = to be accomplished, fulfilled. Plena = full, complete.
Proksimuma, proksimume = approximately. Proksima near.
Sapumi = to soap, lather. Sapo = soap.
*Ventumi = to ventilate, to use a fan. Ventumilo = a fan. Vento = wind.
N.B.—The 17 words marked * are given in Dr. Zamenhof’s “Fundamento de Esperanto.”
These four prefixes all denote relationship in a greater or less degree.
(a). BO- denotes relationship by marriage, and is equivalent to the English suffix -in-law, as patro = father, bopatro = father-in-law.
(b). DUON- also denotes relationship by marriage, and is also a prefix in such words as duonpago = half-pay, duonjara = half-yearly, etc. As a root, duono = a half, so properly it should signify only half-blood relationship. As, however, there are few relationships of this nature, it is used also for step relationship, as:—Duonfrato = stepbrother or half-brother.
(c). GE- denotes both sexes taken together. The words are always in the plural, and the feminine suffix is, of course, never added.
Examples.—Edzo = a husband, geedzoj = husband and wife, a married couple. Sinjoro = Sir, Mr., gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs., or, ladies and gentlemen. Patro = father, gepatroj = father and mother, parents. Mastro = a master (of a household), gemastroj = master and mistress. Frato = brother, gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s).
(d). PRA- denotes great distance of time, past or future. As regards relationship, it is the equivalent of the English prefixes “fore-,” “great,” or “grand.” As a root, praa = primeval.
Examples.—Pratempo = primitive time. Praarbarego = primeval forest. Prapatroj = forefathers, ancestors. Praonklo = grand, or great, uncle. Praavino = great-grandmother.
(e). The following are examples of these four prefixes:—
Patro = father, bopatro = father-in-law, duonpatro = stepfather, gepatroj = father and mother, parents.
Patrino = mother, bopatrino = mother-in-law, duonpatrino = stepmother.
Avo = grandfather, boavo = grandfather-in-law, duonavo = stepgrandfather, geavoj = grandparents, prageavoj = great-grandparents.
Filo = son, bofilo = son-in-law, duonfilo = stepson.
Filino = daughter, bofilino = daughter-in-law, duonfilino = stepdaughter.
Nepo = grandson, pranepo = great-grandson, genepoj = grandson(s) and granddaughter(s), grandchildren.
Nepino = granddaughter, pranepino = great-granddaughter.
Frato = brother, bofrato = brother-in-law, duonfrato = step, or half, brother, gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s), bogefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s)-in-law.
Fratino = sister, bofratino = sister in law, duonfratino = step, or half, sister.
Onklo = uncle, praonklo = grand, or great, uncle, geonkloj = uncle(s) and aunt(s).
Onklino = aunt, praonklino = grand, or great, aunt.
Nevo = nephew, pranevo = grandnephew, genevoj = nephew(s) and niece(s).
Nevino = niece, pranevino = grandniece.
Infano = child, duoninfano = stepchild.
287. Prefixes DE-, DIS-, FOR-. (Ex. 31.)
These three prefixes give the idea of separation or change of position.
(a). DE- as a preposition = from, of. As a prefix it marks the point of departure, or movement from one place or position to another.
(b). DIS- denotes a separation, in the sense of a rupture, or breaking up into parts, or in several different directions.
(c). FOR- as an adverb = away. As a prefix it denotes distance from something.
(d). Thus, birds on a tree can fly down from the tree to the ground = deflugi; or fly in different directions, viz., disperse = disflugi; or fly away altogether from the tree = forflugi.
(e) The following examples will give a good idea of the meanings of these prefixes:—
| Ŝiri = to tear, | deŝiri = to tear from, to pluck. |
| disŝiri = to tear to pieces, to lacerate. | |
| forŝiri = to tear away from. | |
| Iri = to go, | deiri = to go from (a place). |
| disiri = to go in different directions, to separate. | |
| foriri = to go away, to depart. | |
| Ĵeti =to throw, | deĵeti = to throw down, to overthrow. |
| disĵeti = to throw about, to demolish, scatter. | |
| forĵeti = to throw away, to discard. | |
| Meti = to put, | demeti = to put down, take off, doff. |
| dismeti = to disperse, to distribute. | |
| formeti = to put away, to omit. | |
| Porti = to carry, | deporti = to carry from, to deport. |
| disporti = to carry here and there. | |
| forporti = to carry away. |
EK- denotes an action just begun, of short duration, sudden, momentary.
Examples.—Kanti = to sing, ekkanti = to begin to sing, or to start singing. Ridi = to laugh, ekridi = to burst out laughing. Krii = to cry, ekkrii = to exclaim, to cry out. Lerni = to learn, eklerni = to begin to learn. Iri = to go, ekiri = to start, to set out. Plori = to shed tears, ekplori = to burst out crying. Kapti = to catch, ekkapti = to seize. Dormi = to sleep, ekdormi = to fall asleep. Vidi = to see, ekvidi = to perceive. Tremi = to tremble, ektremi = to start (with fear, etc.).
EK- is useful in such expressions as “begin to,” “come to,” frequently used in English before a verb, as:—Kiam mi ekpripensas = When I begin to (or, come to) reflect. Kiam mi ekpensas pri ĝi = When I come to think of it.
289. Prefixes MAL-, NE-, SEN-. (Ex. 33.)
(a). These three prefixes give an opposite or negative meaning to the words before which they are placed, the nature of which varies with the prefix used.
(b). MAL- is used as a root in the adjective mala = contrary, and the adverb male = on the contrary, conversely. As a prefix it signifies that the word has a meaning exactly the contrary to that which it had before MAL- was prefixed. It is never used to give the meaning of badness, unless because it is prefixed to some word signifying goodness. For instance, timulo = a coward has a bad signification, but its opposite maltimulo = a bold man has no such meaning. Bona = good, malbona = bad, simply because “bad” is the opposite of “good.”
(c). NE is a primary adverb, meaning “no,” “not,” and is often used as a prefix to give a negative signification to a word, as:—Plena = complete, full, neplena = incomplete, not full. Ne estas certe = it is not certain has the same signification as estas necerte = it is uncertain. Used as a root, it forms nei = to deny, nea = negative, etc.
(d). SEN is a preposition meaning “without,” and as a prefix it has the same signification; as ĉesi = to cease, senĉesa = without ceasing, incessant, ceaseless; senco = meaning, sense, sensenca = without meaning, senseless; senkapigi = to decapitate. Used as a root, it forms senigi je = to deprive of, seneco = want, etc.
(e). The student may at first wonder which of these three prefixes to use in a given case. He should bear in mind that MAL- denotes the exact opposite of the root, and therefore it may be much stronger in signification than the mere negative ne = not, or the privative sen = without. For instance, plena = complete, full, but neplena = incomplete, not full. Now the opposite to “complete” or “full” is not “incomplete” or “not full,” but something stronger, viz., “void” or “empty,” therefore malplena = empty, void, vacuous. Again, from riĉa = rich, we form the opposite, malriĉa = poor, which is clearly a worse state than neriĉa = not rich, or senriĉa, which, in its literal sense, means “without wealth or riches.” A man not rich might be well off, a man without riches might have enough to live upon. Fermita = shut, closed; the opposite is malfermita = opened, open. Applied to a window it would mean the window was wide open, but if it were only ajar it would be better to say nefermita = not closed.
(f) In using MAL- we must consider the strength of the word to which we are giving an opposite meaning, and not oppose a word like “destitute” to “rich,” for “destitute” is the opposite to “rolling in wealth,” the adjective for which would be “riĉega,” therefore malriĉega = destitute. So bela = beautiful, belega = splendid, magnificent; therefore their opposites are malbela = ugly, malbelega = hideous.
(g). Generally speaking, it will be right (1), to use MAL- if we wish to give a stronger idea than NE or SEN would infer; (2), to use NE in cases where a simple negative will give the meaning; (3), to use SEN if “without” is more applicable than “not,” as:—Senmova = without motion, stationary, but nemovebla = not movable, immovable. It will generally be right to employ SEN to represent the English suffix -less, as:—Sendanka = thankless, senmona = penniless, senhara = hairless, bald, senutila = useless. The opposite to “useful” is something stronger than “useless,” therefore malutila = detrimental, prejudicial.
(h). The following examples will give an idea of the use of these three prefixes:—
Venko = victory, malvenko = defeat. Videbla = visible, nevidebla = invisible. Ŝanĝebla = changeable (in the sense “able to be changed”), neŝanĝebla = unchangeable. Ofta = frequent, neofta = infrequent, malofta = scarce, rare. Simple = simple, malsimpla = intricate, complex. Permesi = to permit, malpermesi = to forbid. Helpi = to help, malhelpi = to hinder, nehelpi = to give no assistance. Sobreco = sobriety, malsobreco = intemperance, drunkenness. Saĝeco = wisdom, malsaĝeco = foolishness. Modesta = modest, nemodesta = officious, malmodesta = conceited. Justa = just, maljusta = unjust. Pura = clean, nepura = soiled, malpura = dirty. Pia = pious, malpia = impious. Agrabla = agreeable, neagrabla = unpleasant, malagrabla = disagreeable, nasty. Glata = smooth, malglata = rough. Atento = attention, malatento = negligence. Respekto = respect, nerespekto = non-respect, malrespekto = violation. Brua = noisy, senbrua = noiseless.
290. Prefix RE-. (Ex. 32.)
(a). RE-, like the English prefix re-, means “back” or “again.” It denotes (1) the repetition of an action, or (2) the return of some person or thing to the person, place, or state with whom, or in which, such person or thing originally was. As a root, ree = again, in return.
(b) (1). Repetition.
Examples.—Refari = to make afresh, to remake; rediri = to say again, to repeat (ripeti is, however, more frequently used for “repeat”); rekanti = to sing again; rejuniĝi = to grow young again; renaskiĝo = rebirth, regeneration; repagi = to repay, to reimburse; reenmeti = to put in again, to reinstate; rekunigi = to reunite; rebruligi = to rekindle; reformi = to reform, to remodel; reprodukti = to reproduce.
(2). Return, etc.
Examples.—Redoni = to give back, to restore; repreni = to take back; reĵeti = to throw back; resalti = to rebound; rebrili = to shine back, to reflect; reveni = to come back, to return; reporti = to carry back, to carry to the original place.
N.B.—In addition to the 12 prefixes given in pars. 286–290, nearly all the prepositions are in common use as prefixes. Examples of these will be found in par. 259. When prefixed to a verb, the preposition is frequently repeated before the indirect complement (see par. 254).
SIN- and MEM- are used as prefixes to translate the English -self. If the idea is reflexive, it is better to use sin-, otherwise mem-. Singardo = caution; sinmortigo = suicide; sinteno = attitude; memstara = independent; memvola = voluntary.
The prefix VIC- denotes the English vice-; vicprezidanto = a vice-president; vicadmiralo = a vice-admiral.
The suffix -ISM- was officialized in 1914 with the rather wide meaning given it by international usage in most European languages: system, doctrine, school of thought, theory, party.
Thus: absolutismo = absolutism. Similarly, we have agnostik-, alkohol-, braman-, despot-, epikur-, Esperant-, fatal-, fetiĉ-, homaran-, katolik-, kvaker-, komun-, ideal-, liberal-, mistik-, presbiter-, protestant-, puritan-, radikal-, real-, respublik-, vegetar-ismo.
It does not follow that if from any Esperanto word ending in -ism this syllable is subtracted, the remainder is an Esperanto root. Thus, -ism is not a suffix in the roots atavism, feminism, optimism, pesimism, silogism, solecism, sofism, any more than ist, in, il, ul, an, are suffixes in the roots optimist, turist; doktrin, vazelin; bacil, asimil; okul, formul; banan, turban, sultan. See par. 52 (b).
Notes
94 The following is the Complete Grammar of Esperanto, as given by Dr. Zamenhof at page 254 of his “Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo Esperanto,” which he says is “a book that should be in the hands of every earnest student who desires to acquire a correct Esperanto style.” This book contains a series of Exercises, Fables, Legends, Stories, Extracts from Scientific Articles, Articles on Esperanto, Poetry, Translations from Hamlet and The Iliad, showing how well Esperanto is adapted for every kind of subject.
96 There is no word in Esperanto for the Indefinite Article. It is, as in Latin, implied in the noun, if the sense in English requires it.
13 This is too strict. In practice the definite article is often used before proper names, and one can say (e.g.) la Alpoj, la Mediteraneo, etc.
100 The article may be used sometimes where, in English, we use a possessive pronoun.
103 A noun (in the singular number) in all its cases, except the accusative, ends in -O. The accusative is formed by the addition of N. In the plural it ends in -OJ, and the accusative plural is formed by adding N to these letters. Thus the root arb- is made into a noun with its numbers and cases as follows:—
105 Ellipsis.—The case (nominative or accusative) of words in Esperanto often depends upon the verb omitted when ellipsis occurs in a phrase, and unless we write the sentence in full, or think what the ellipsis is, we may not at first know what case to use to express our meaning. A glance at the following examples will show how easy it is to determine the case. The words in brackets show the ellipsis:—
106 Possession is (a) expressed by help of the preposition de.
107 The Adjective always ends in -A in the singular. J is added to A to form the plural. The accusative case is formed by the addition of N to the singular or plural termination.
109 Predicative Noun.—A noun also can be predicative (see par. 35).
112 Comparison of Adjectives.
113 Superlatives (Superlativoj).
114 Degrees of intensity of adjectives can also be shown by the aid of the suffixes -EG- and -ET- with or without an adverb. The suffix -EG- is stronger in its application than the adverb tre = very. For instance, take the adjective bela = beautiful, or fine. Tre bela = very beautiful, or very fine; but belega = magnificent, or superb. So, the diminutive -ET- shows more diminution than the adjective malgranda = small, or little, would show when qualifying a noun. For instance, malgranda rivero = a small river, but rivereto = a brook, or stream. The following list shows how twelve adjectives of varying shades of intensity can be formed from the root varm-, between the extremes tre varmega = broiling hot and tre malvarmega = intensely cold, supposing we were speaking of the weather:—
115 The cardinal numbers are:—
14 This use of unu is not recommended.
118 Substantives are formed from the cardinals by adding O. They have various meanings, as:—Unuo = a unit, or a one. Duo = a duet, or a two (of cards). Trio = a trio, or triplet, or a three (of cards). Kvaro, etc. = a four, etc. (of cards, etc., up to ten). Dek-duo = a dozen. Deko = half a score. Dudeko = a score. Cento = a hundred. Milo = a thousand. Miliono = a million.
119 Multiples are formed by the addition of the suffix -OBL- to the cardinals, and then adding A, E, or O to mark the adjective, adverb, or noun. They can also be formed into transitive verbs by the suffix -IGI-, or intransitive by the suffix -IĜI-.
123 Distributives are marked by the preposition po placed before the cardinals, meaning at the rate of, in the proportion of.
125 There are seven classes of Pronouns:—(1) Personal, (2) Possessive, (3) Relative, (4) Interrogative, (5) Demonstrative, (6) Distributive or Collective, (7) Indefinite.
15 This use of ĝi for a person is not recommended, and li (or tiu) would be better in a case where there is doubt as to the sex.
128 Si is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, and therefore cannot refer to the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons.16 We cannot say Mi lavas sin, or Ni, or Vi lavas sin, for “I wash myself,” “We wash ourselves,” “You wash yourself.” We must, in each of these cases, use the pronoun which is the subject of the verb, as:—Mi lavas min—Ni lavas nin—Vi lavas vin = I wash myself—We wash ourselves—You wash yourself (or if vi = you is plural), You wash yourselves. Si, therefore, is used for the 3rd person, singular or plural, when it refers to the subject of the verb. It takes the accusative termination N when necessary, and then represents “himself, herself, itself, oneself, themselves.”
134 When a possessive pronoun refers to two or more nouns, it may, as in English, be repeated or not, but if it is not repeated the possessive pronoun is usually put in the plural.
139 The 45 correlative words (see table, par. 147) form a very important part in the construction of the Esperanto language. Their uses and meanings are very easily learnt and remembered, since they have been exceedingly cleverly devised on a simple and uniform plan. They are all to be found in the list of Primary Words given in Part V.
143 The demonstrative pronouns, tio = that (thing), tiu = that one, the former, and sometimes ĉio, are followed by the separate word ĉi = near, to express the demonstrative pronoun, “this.” Ĉi is invariable, but tio and tiu can be inflected as before stated. Thus tio = that (thing), tio ĉi = this (thing) (lit., “that here”), tion ĉi (accusative) = this (thing). Tiu = that one, the former, tiu ĉi = this one, the latter. Tiuj = those, tiuj ĉi = these (lit., “those here”). Often ĉi is placed first, as:—Ĉi tiu = this one. In fact, other things being equal, it is preferable to place ĉi before rather than after the t- word, though both forms are equally correct. Ĉio ĉi = all this.
145 The interrogative or relative series (viz., those commencing with K) may be followed by the word ajn = ever, as kia ajn = whatever kind of, kial ajn = for whatever reason, kiam ajn = whenever, kie ajn = wherever, kiel ajn = however, kies ajn = whosesoever, kio ajn = whatever, kiom ajn = however much, whatever quantity, kiu ajn = whoever, whichever.
147 TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS.
150 Series ending in AL (motive, reason for), adverbial.
151 Series ending in AM (time), adverbial.
152 Series ending in E (place), adverbial.
153 Series in EL (manner), adverbial.
154 Series ending in ES (possession), pronominal; relate to thing or person, singular or plural.
156 Series ending in OM (quantity), adverbial.
158 General Remarks.—The foregoing remarks on the correlative words show the importance of a correct knowledge of their true meanings. Twenty or more of them will be found in nearly every page of the “Krestomatio.” Note the following difference in meaning of those ending in:—
161 A transitive verb has two forms or voices, the active and the passive.
162 An intransitive verb expresses an action confined to the actor, as:—Johano dormas = John sleeps, or, is sleeping. Intransitive verbs have therefore no object and no passive voice.
164 Verbs used impersonally (senpersone) express a fact or action without indicating any person as the subject or actor. In English they are used only in the third person singular, preceded by “it,” but in Esperanto they are entirely impersonal. The following are cases of their impersonal use:—
169 The following shows the compound tenses in the active and passive voices, and the compound forms of the conditional and imperative moods:—For the three persons of the plural add J to the participle (see pars. 173, 174, 235, 236).
170 CONJUGATION OF A REFLEXIVE VERB.
177 The only prepositions that can be used before the infinitive are:—(a). Por = To, or, in order to. (b). Anstataŭ = Instead of. (c). Antaŭ ol = Before. (d). Krom = Except, or, besides.
180 As in English, the infinitive is used:—
190 In the Active Voice the Conditional mood is formed by adding -US to the root of the verb for the simple form, and by ESTUS and one of the participles -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA for the compound forms. These compound forms are not often used.
192 It shows that the matter spoken of is conditional, namely, that it depends on supposition; that an act had not taken place (past), and was not taking place (present), but that it might happen or have happened if something else actually occurred. In English the pluperfect, future, and future perfect tenses of the Subjunctive mood represent the Conditional mood in Esperanto.
193 After the conjunction “if,” expressing a supposition, both the chief and dependent propositions are in the Conditional mood in Esperanto, when the act is conditional.
195 In the Active Voice the Imperative (or “U”) mood is formed by adding -U to the root of the verb, or by estu and one of the participles -ANTA, -INTA, or -ONTA for the compound forms; but the latter are very rarely used.
197 The “U” mood implies order (ordono), purpose (celo), entreaty (peto), wish (volo), obligation (devo), fitness (konveno), necessity (neceso), merit (merito), intention (intenco), etc. It will be seen that the Esperanto u has a wider application than what is usually understood by the “Imperative” mood, for it may indicate not only a direct command or order, but also desire or expediency of any degree, expressed or understood.
198 The ending u is used not only in a chief but also in a dependent proposition, and in the latter case it is usually introduced by the conjunction ke = that; but it must be borne in mind that conjunctions have no more influence in the Imperative than they have in other moods (pars. 171, 263), although when ke is followed by the Imperative we translate the phrase into English either by some tense of the Subjunctive mood, or, perhaps, more frequently, by the Infinitive.
199 In a chief proposition it is used to command or entreat, and when the verb of a chief proposition is in the Imperative, if the dependent proposition also contains an order of entreaty, its verb will, naturally, likewise be in the Imperative.
200 In a dependent proposition the ending u is also used when the verb in the chief proposition, although not in the Imperative, implies order, entreaty, wish, etc., as mentioned in par. 197. And also after such verbs as, to advise, invite, write, etc., etc., when the idea to be conveyed is in the nature of an order, wish, etc. (pars. 58 (a), 237 (m) (3)).
201 The expression por ke = in order that, to the end that, so that, etc., is always followed by the Imperative, because this expression implies “order.”
202 From the examples given of the use of the Imperative mood, we see that in Esperanto the verb in a dependent proposition is almost always preceded by the conjunction ke = that, and that the English rendering generally puts the verb in the Infinitive, the conjunction being omitted, or if it be retained, that the verb is in the Subjunctive mood. It is not generally advisable to translate this infinitive rendering literally into Esperanto, except when the actor of the first verb is also the actor of the second.
203 In the active voice the adjectival is formed by adding -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA to the root of the verb, as:—
207 Participles, like adjectives, agree in number and case with the nouns or pronouns to which they refer.
208 All the participles can be used as adjectives and also as nouns and adverbs, by substituting -O for -A for a noun, and -E for -A for an adverb. The words still retain the signification of the tense of the participle. Participial adjectives and adverbs in the active voice govern the accusative.
209 Examples in the active voice.
211 Relation of the participle to the subject.
214 The Tenses indicate the time of action, and its state of completeness or incompleteness. They are either simple or compound. The simple tenses are formed by adding -AS, -IS or -OS to the root of the verb, and the terminations remain the same for all persons and numbers. The compound tenses are formed by the auxiliary verb esti = to be, and one of the participles of the verb which must agree in number with its subject. Esti is conjugated in exactly the same way as all other verbs.
216 Duration of action of the verb.—(a). In English, to express the continuance of an action, the present participle of a transitive verb is used after the verb “to be” in all the moods and tenses—as “I am loving,” or “I was (have been, shall be, should be) loving”; imperative, “Be thou loving.” If great exactness as regards time be necessary, these forms can be represented in Esperanto word for word as they are in English, viz., by the compound forms, mi estas (estis, estos, estus) amanta, estu amanta.
217 Emphatic form of verb.—In English this form consists of the verb, preceded by “do” or “did,” and is confined to the present and past tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the imperative mood of the active voice, as:—“I do love,” “He does love,” “I did love,” “Do love.” This form in Esperanto can be represented by the adverb ja = indeed, or by suitable adverbs, such as tre, tre multe, vere, certe, efektive, etc.
226 The past tense of esti (estis) and the past participle (-INTA) of the verb correspond with the pluperfect in English. It denotes an action that was completed at a time now past. As before stated, it need not be employed when the simple past tense in -IS sufficiently expresses the meaning wished to be conveyed.
232 The future for the present indicative or subjunctive.—Be careful not to imitate English in using the present or subjunctive for the future.
17 The following is a list of the chief Esperanto verb roots whose English equivalents are used both transitively and intransitively. (E.g., wakes, in he wakes her, is transitive; in she wakes it is intransitive.) Esperanto follows international usage in giving such verbs one meaning only, either transitive or intransitive.
243 No influence on case.—Adverbs exercise no influence on the case of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns. If such be in the accusative, it is not by the influence of the adverb. For example:—Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mian fraton = I love John as warmly as my brother. Here kiel exercises no influence on mian fraton, for both mian fraton and Johanon are governed by the verb amas. Therefore the meaning is that the speaker loves my brother and John equally warmly. Or, we can place mian fraton in the nominative, as:—Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mia frato = I love John as warmly as my brother (does). Ask yourself the question, “as my brother does what?” and the answer is “loves John.” In English we are obliged to add “does” or “loves him,” but in Esperanto the meaning is quite clear from the case of the noun (see also pars. 247 and 105).
245 Subject not expressed.—When, in a sentence in Esperanto, there is no noun or pronoun which the adjective can qualify (as in case of verbs in the infinitive, or used impersonally), the adverb is used in Esperanto in place of the adjective.
18 These usages are seldom employed.
247 Adverbs and the accusative case.—Adverbs exercise no influence on case (see par. 243), but used adverbially, participles of active verbs are followed by the accusative if used without a preposition (see par. 66 (b)).
248 Comparatives and superlatives.—These are marked in the same way as adjectives (see pars. 112–114).
250 Every preposition, but one, in Esperanto has a fixed and definite signification, and great care must be taken to use the preposition which gives the meaning we wish to convey. A careful examination of the list of prepositions in par. 259 will show the errors we should make by translating the English preposition into its apparent corresponding one in Esperanto.
251 The preposition je is the only one in Esperanto without a definite meaning. It should be used only when we have to employ a preposition and are uncertain which we ought to select. We can, however, omit the preposition, and put its complement (noun or pronoun) in the accusative case, provided no ambiguity is likely to arise through the presence of other accusatives in the sentence, as:—Li ĝojas je tio, or, Li ĝojas tion = He rejoices at (or, over) that. There is no Esperanto preposition which gives exactly the English meaning of “at” or “over” in this sense. We might, perhaps, say that these words are part of the verb “to rejoice at,” or, “to rejoice over.” The nearest Esperanto preposition would be pri or pro = about, or, because of, and we could say Li ĝojas pro tio = He rejoices because of that (see Rule 14, par. 94).
252 Adverb for preposition.—An adverb is often used instead of a preposition and its complement (par. 248 (c)).
253 Preposition omitted.—Not only the preposition Je (par. 251), but also other prepositions, are frequently omitted in Esperanto where we use them in English; but in such case (as stated in par. 68) their complements must be in the accusative to show the omission. Care, however, must be taken that the omission does not make the phrase ambiguous.
254 Prepositions as prefixes.—Prepositions are frequently used as prefixes, and when the compound word is a verb, the preposition is often repeated before the indirect complement of the verb.
257 Prepositions denoting movement.—The following two prepositions denote movement, and consequently their complement is never in the accusative:—Al = To, towards. Ĝis = Up to, as far as.
258 Prepositional expressions.—Adverbs are not unfrequently followed by prepositions, thus forming prepositional expressions which take the nominative case, like simple prepositions.
259 The relation of prepositions to their complement.—English grammarians divide prepositions into various classes, but in Esperanto, with the exception of those mentioned in par. 257, denoting motion and rest, there are but two classes to which we need pay special attention, viz., those which relate to both place and time; and of these, two only, viz., antaŭ = before, and post = after, require care in making their meaning clear.
19 It will be seen from the examples that the preposition ĉirkaŭ may be followed by the accusative of direction: Jakobo metis sakon ĉirkaŭ siajn lumbojn (Rabistoj, 52, 2); La virino ĵetis ambaŭ brakojn ĉirkaŭ la kolon de la knabino (Marta, p. 8); Ĵetante siajn brakojn ĉirkaŭ lian kolon (Faraono, II, 57).
20 El is preferable. En cannot be correctly used here.
21 The root spit is often used as a verb: spiti, to brave, flout, act in defiance of. Amason ne spitu (Prov. 1191). Se vi malgraŭ tio spitos min (Lev. 26, 21). From this root we get the adjective spitema (Ps. 37, 35) and the adverb spite. Hence there are often found in the literature such forms as spite al vi, spite de tio; and, consequently (with the accusative instead of the preposition), spite vin, spite tion, spite mian malamikon (par. 247).
266 Conjunctions connect the same cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. When there is a diversity of case, it is due to ellipsis (see par. 105).
22 N.B.—Some writers would say ĝis kiam. Zamenhof never did—the second word appears superfluous.
272 Suffixes -AN-, -IST-, -ESTR-, -UL-. (Ex. 21).
275 Suffixes -EBL-, -EM-, -IND-. (Ex. 24.)
277 Suffixes -EG- and -ET-. (Ex. 26.)
280 Suffixes -IG- and -IĜ-. (Ex. 28.)