Orthography

Part Two Letters, Sounds, Syllables, Words, Principles of Pronunciation, and Rules of Spelling

Seventh Year

(First Month.) — Terms to Be Defined

An elementary sound is the simplest sound of spoken language.

There are forty-four elementary sounds in the English language. As there are only twenty-six letters in the alphabet some letters represent more than one sound. Certain marks or distinguishing characters used with the letters to indicate the various sounds are called DIACRITICAL MARKS.

Phonotypy is a method of representing each of the elementary sounds by a distinct printed character or letter.

The VOCALS or TONICS are those elementary sounds made by an unmodified or uninterrupted tone of the voice; as ā, ĕ.

The SUBVOCALS or SUBTONICS are those elementary sounds made by the tone of the voice modified by the organs of speech, making an undertone; as b, d, g, r.

The ASPIRATES or ATONICS are those elementary sounds made by merely breathing modified by the organs of speech; sometimes called breath sounds; as p, t, s.

Table of Elementary Sounds. — [From Swett’s Normal Word Book.]

I. Vocals

a	ā-le,	āi-m
ä	ä-lms,	ä-rt
a̤	a̤-ll,	b-a̤-ll
ă	ă-n,	m-ă-n
â	c̵-â-re,	â-ir
ȧ	ȧ-sk,	f-ȧ-st
ē	ē-ve,	b-ē
ě	ě-nd,	m-ě-n
ẽ	h-ẽ-r,	ẽ-rr
ī, ȳ	ī-ce,	b-ȳ
ĭ, y̆	ĭ-t,	h-y̆-mn
ō	ō-ld,	n-ō
ǒ	ǒ-n,	n-ǒ-t
o̤, o͞o	m-o̤-ve,	m-o͞o-n
ū	ū-se,	m-ū-şe
ǔ	ǔ-p,	b-ǔ-t
û	û-rge,	b-û-rn
ụ, o͝o	f-ụ-ll,	w-o͝o-l
oi, oy	oi-l,	b-oy
ou, ow	ou-t,	ow-l

II. Subvocals

b	b-i-b,	b-a-be
d	d-i-d,	d-ea-d
ḡ	ḡ-i-ḡ,	ḡ-a-ḡ
j	j-ar,	j-et
l	l-u-ll,	te-ll
m	m-ai-m,	c̵a-me
n	n-u-n,	n-o-ne
ng, ṉ	ri-ng,	i-ṉ-k
r	r-oa-r,	r-ea-r
th	th-ese,	wi-th
v	val-ue,	v-ain
w	w-ell,	w-eb
y	y-es,	y-et
z	z-one,	z-est
zh, z	a-z´-ure,	sei-z´-ure

III. Aspirates

f	f-i-fe,	o-ff
h	h-at,	h-ome
k	k-ite,	k-ill
p	p-i-pe,	to-p
s	s-un,	s-ame
t	t-en-t,	t-ar-t
ch	ch-ur-ch,	ch-ild
sh	sh-all,	wi-sh
th	th-in,	th-ree
wh	wh-ere,	wh-y

Note.—The foregoing forty-four sounds are those most employed in the English language. Some of these sounds are represented by other letters, as shown in the following:

IV — Table of Equivalents. [Dictionary Work — Metcalf & DeGarmo.]

CHAR.EQUIV.	CHAR. EQUIV.	CHAR. EQUIV.
ē = ī	ĭ = y̆	ī = ȳ
ẽ = ĩ = û	ŭ = ȯ	oi = oy
ā = ̱e		ou = ow
â = ê		ū = ew
ô = ̤a (broad a)	ŏ = ạ
o̤ = o͞o = ṳ	ọ = o͝o = ụ
CHAR. EQUIV.	CHAR.EQUIV.	CHAR. EQUIV.
j = ġ (soft)	k = c̵ = ̵ch	ṉ = ng
g = ḡ (hard)	f = ph	x = ks
z = ṣ̱	s = ç (cedilla c)	x̄ = gz
	sh = çh

Cognate sounds are such as are produced by the same organs of speech in a similar position. The cognates are in pairs, as follows: Vowels: ā ĕ, ē ĭ, â ă, ä ȧ, a̤ ŏ, û ŭ, ōō o͝o; consonants: g´ k, b p, d t, j ch, th th, v f, z s.

[Second Month.] — Letters

A letter is a mark or character used to represent a sound,—usually an elementary sound.

An ALPHABET is an orderly arrangement of all the letters of a language.

The NUMBER OF LETTERS in the different alphabets vary, as follows: English 26, Arabic 28, French 25, German 26, Greek 24, Hebrew 22, Italian 21, Russian 33, Spanish 27, Sanskrit 49. The Chinese have no alphabet, but about 20,000 syllabic characters.

The POWER OF A LETTER is the elementary sound for which it stands.

Letters as to form are either script or print.

There are many different STYLES OF LETTERS; as, Roman, Italic, Old English, and Script.

As to SIZE letters are both capital and lower case.

[Third Month.] — Vowels

A vowel sound is a free and uninterrupted sound of the voice. The vowel sounds are formed by the voice modified, but not interrupted, by the various positions of the tongue and lips.

A CONSONANT sound is an articulate sound made by the obstructed voice, and which in utterance is usually combined with a vowel sound.

There is no absolute division between vowels and consonants. Certain vowels are so open as to be only vowels, certain consonants are so close as to be only consonants; but there are yet others which have the value now of vowels and now of consonants; as, i, u, w, and y.

“Y as a vowel is a substitute for i, and i is a consonant as a substitute for y. W and y are vowels: (1) When they end words or syllables, (2) when they are not followed by a vowel in the same syllable, (3) when they are followed by a silent vowel in the same syllable. W and y are consonants when they begin words or syllables and are immediately followed by a vowel. I is a consonant when it represents the consonant y, as in alien. U is a consonant when it represents the consonant w, as in quick, language.”—Irish’s Orthography.

A DIPHTHONG is produced by running together two vowel sounds in the same syllable.

A diphthong is PROPER if both the vowels are sounded; as o and i in boil.

An IMPROPER DIPHTHONG or DIGRAPH is merely a collection of two vowels in the same syllable, of which only one is sounded; as in rain, teach.

The diphthongs in the following words are all that are in common use, viz.: toil, toy, sound, cow, peal, oil, audible, awning, say, seine, people, feud, obey, eschew, believe, loan, hoe, hue, juice. Of these oi, oy, ou, and ow are the only proper diphthongs.

A TRIPHTHONG is produced by running together three vowel sounds in the same syllable.

A triphthong is PROPER if all three of the vowels are sounded. (But there are no proper triphthongs that I know of.)

A triphthong is IMPROPER or is called a TRIGRAPH if one or two of the three vowels is silent; as in adieu, beauty.

[Fourth Month.] — Consonants

Consonants are divided on three different bases; as follows:

I. Mutes and SEMIVOWELS.

The mutes represent an explosive sound, and are so called because the mouth organs are closed just before the sound is uttered and the voice is momentarily mute.

The four subvocals b, d, j, g, and their cognates, p, t, ch, and k, are generally classed as mutes. Pronounce them and see if they do not represent explosive sounds.

All other consonants are semivowels, and are pronounced with a continuous sound. The sound may be continued so long as the breath lasts; but in the case of mutes the sound must stop with the explosive utterance.

II. The SUBVOCALS and ASPIRATES are shown in the vertical columns of the table below. The subvocals are sometimes called voice consonants and the aspirates breath consonants. These are fit terms, for they indicate the basis of classification.

III. Labials, LINGUA-DENTALS, and PALATALS constitute a classification of the consonants with respect to the place of formation. Bead the table from left to right. The lips have most to do with making the labial sounds; the lingua-dentals are formed at the point of the tongue in contact with the teeth, the palatals between the tongue and hard and soft palate.

Consonant Table

	Subvocals. (Voice.)								Aspirates. (Breath.)
Labials. (Lips.)	{	b	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	p
		v	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	f
		w	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	wh
		m
Lingua- Dentals. (Point of tongue.)	{	d	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	t
		z	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	s
		th	(sonant)		...	...	(non-sonant)			th
		l
		n
		r
Palatals. (Between tongue and palate.)	{	zh	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	sh
		j	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	ch
		g	...	...	...	...	...	...	...	k
		y
		h
		ng

Eighth Year

[First Month.] — Syllables

Syllable literally means taken together.

A spoken syllable is an elementary sound, or a combination of elementary sounds, uttered together, or with a single impulse of the voice. It constitutes a word or a part of a word.

A WRITTEN or printed syllable is a part of a word separated from the rest, and capable of pronunciation by a single impulse of the voice.

As to where a word shall be divided in making it into syllables depends upon the PURPOSE OF SYLLABICATION. When the purpose is to show the derivation the division is made with reference to the component parts (roots, prefixes, and suffixes); but if the purpose is to indicate correct pronunciation, the result may be very different. For illustration, the following words are divided, first, to show derivation: abs-tract, bene-vol-ent, pre-de-cess-or, e-duc-ate, phon-o-typ-y, pro-gress, e-lig-ible; and, second, to indicate correct pronunciation: ab-stract, be-nev-o-lent, pred-e-ces-sor, ed-u-cate, pho-not-y-py, prog-ress, el-i-gi-ble.

While in the illustrations here given the syllables formed for one purpose are very different from those formed for the other, yet in the majority of words the resulting syllables are the same whether divided for one purpose or for the other.

In the United States the prevailing purpose of syllabication is to indicate pronunciation.

The ULTIMATE syllable of a word is the last (ultimus = last); the PENULTIMATE is next to the last (pen = almost); the ANTEPENULTIMATE is the third from the last (literally, before almost the last); the PREANTEPENULTIMATE is the fourth from the last (literally, before the one that is before the one almost last).

[Second Month.] — Accent

Accent is stress of voice on a particular syllable in pronouncing a word.

In long words two, and sometimes three, syllables are accented. But one syllable is always accented more strongly than the others are. The stronger accent is called the PRIMARY accent, the weaker is called the SECONDARY. Thus, in am´ mu ni´ tion the primary accent falls on the third syllable and the secondary on the first.

The “PRINCIPLES” which govern the placing of accent are complicated. The International Dictionary says there are no principles by which to determine the accent in English. Another high authority says: “All attempts to assign rules for the place of the accent in English only serve to render the subject hopelessly intricate and confounded.”

There are, however, certain tendencies which mature pupils might profitably consider, but the limited scope of this book will not permit me to attempt to set them forth.

In the words of the following list the accent changes with a change of meaning. When nouns or adjectives these words are accented on the first syllable; when verbs, on the second:

abstract	contrast	ferment	prefix
accent	converse	forecast	present
compound	convict	frequent	produce
conflict	desert	incense	project
concert	escort	insult	record
contract	export	permit	survey

[Third Month.] — Words

A word is a sign of an idea. It may be either spoken or written.

A PRIMITIVE, OR ROOT, word is one not derived from any other word of the language; as, fix, strike, man.

A DERIVATIVE is a word formed from a primitive by changing it internally, or by adding a prefix or suffix; as, men, suffix, strikers.

A SIMPLE WORD is a single word. It may be either primitive or derivative.

A COMPOUND WORD is a combination of two or more simple words; as, buck-saw, well-behaved, school-room.

A word of one syllable is a monosyllable (mono = one); of two syllables, a dissyllable (dis = two); of three syllables, a trisyllable (tri = three); of three or more syllables, a polysyllable (poly = many).

The ROOT of a word is its fundamental or elementary part which carries the primitive notion or significance with it, without prefix or suffix; as, ge (earth), graph (write), vol (wish).

A PREFIX is a significant syllable joined to the beginning of a word; as, autograph, circumvent, amphitheater.

A SUFFIX is a significant syllable joined to the end of a word; as, man ly, fert ile, ment ion.

AFFIX is a general term for prefixes and suffixes; it may be applied to either or to both together.

Seventh Year

[Fifth Month.] — Silent Letters

Silent letters have at least four uses:

1. To modify sounds of other letters in the same syllable.

Drop final silent e from such words as the following and note the effect on the sound of the other vowel in the same syllable: bare, pure, ripe, lame.

2. To indicate pronunciation.

In the four words last given, for illustration, the pronunciation changes when the final silent e is dropped.

Another class of words ending in ce and ge retain the final silent e on adding a suffix beginning with a or o to preserve the soft sound of c and g, and with it the correct pronunciation of the word; as, serviceable, noticeable, changeable, courageous.

3. To show the meaning of words.

Illustrations: clime, climb, plumb, belle, butt, dyeing, singeing, guilt, damn.

4. To show the derivation of words.

Numerous illustrations are found in words derived from the Greek. In chronic, and chronology, the h is silent, but serves to indicate that the root of those words is identical with the Greek root chron, which means time. Similarly the g in gnostic, the e in eulogy, p in pneumonia, the h in chromatic.

In honour and favour u is silent, and therefore a useless letter, so far as sound is concerned. The u signifies that the word came to us through the French, instead of directly from the Latin. The question is, whether we shall go to the trouble of writing the extra letter in a large class of such words for the sake of the historical association. Perhaps one in a thousand would choose to do so, but others of us are more intent on saving time and ink. When the spelling reform idea becomes operative with English speaking people, a great many silent letters will go the way of the u in labour, favour, and the like.

The following are some of the numerous classes of silent letters together with the principle found to be operative through them.

[Sixth Month.]

“E final is silent when preceded by another vowel in the same syllable.”

change	sense	adverse	Chinese	condense
brace	quite	bade	oppose	deceive
force	scribe	burlesque	embrace	machine
crease	measure	canine	emerge	endorse
cease	absolve	caprice	examine	advise

[Seventh Month.]

“Bis usually silent before t or after m in the same syllable.”

lamb	tomb	numb	debt	bomb
comb	thumb	dumb	doubt	crumb
limb	climb	plumb	redoubt	jamb

[Eighth Month.]

“Cis silent before k in the same syllable. C is silent in czar, victuals, muscle, corpuscle, indict, and Connecticut.”

back	deck	lack	stack	Patrick
buck	duck	hack	stick	reckon
burdock	chick	luck	suck	thicken
clock	click	lick	beckon	Cossack

Eighth Year

[First Month.]

“Dis silent before g in the same syllable.”

edge	hedge	ridge	lodge	misjudge
wedge	budge	bridge	sledge	judgment
pledge	drudge	fudge	begrudge	lodgment

[Second Month.]

“Gis silent before m or n in the same syllable.”

phlegm	malign	gnaw	campaign	gnash
arraign	paradigm	feign	foreign	gnu
benign	diaphragm	reign	design	seignior
resign	gnat	assign	gnarl	consign

[Third Month.]

“His silent when it follows g or r in the same syllable.”

ghost	myrrh	rheumatism	rhapsody	rhinoceros
aghast	hemorrhage	rhyme	rhythm	Rhine
gherkin	rhubarb	rhombus	rhomboid	catarrh

[Fourth Month.]

“Kis silent before n in the same syllable.”

knack	kneel	knot	knap sack	knob
knave	knife	knock	knowledge	knucks
knead	knight	knoll	knuckle	knarl
knee	knit	know	knell	knout

[Fifth Month.]

“N final after l or m is silent.”

hymn	contemn	solemn	limn	damn
kiln	condemn	column	autumn

[Sixth Month.]

“Tis silent before ch in the same syllable.”

hitch	pitch	match	notch	catch
kitchen	botch	hatch	scratch	patch
latch	Dutch	watch	Mitchell	satchel
thatch	ditch	witch	batch	Scotch

[Seventh Month.]

“Wis silent before r in the same syllable.”

wrestle	wren	wrist	writing	wreak
wrong	wrote	wreck	wrest	writ
wring	wraith	awry	write	wrought
wrath	wretch	wreath	wrinkle	wrangle

[Eighth Month.]

“Gh is always silent after i and, when not a substitute for f or k, is also silent after au and ou.”

sight	plight	weigh	fraught	through
light	wright	weight	caught	although
fight	height	freight	thought	slaughter
might	wight	aught	daughter	laughter

Seventh Year. — Principles of Pronunciation With Illustrations

[Sixth Month.]

“A constituting or ending an unaccented syllable is short Italian a.”

again	America	banana	fatality	papa
alas	amuse	canine	fatigue	parasol
algebra	apparatus	China	lapel	pica
alkali	area	data	massacre	sacrament
amass	arena	drama	ornament	valise

[Seventh Month.]

“E constituting or ending a syllable is long.”

depot	memento	obedience	really	society
event	museum	penal	recess	superior
feline	nausea	precedence	resource	theater
frequent	negro	precise	sacrilegious	theology
mechanic	notoriety	pretense	secretary	veto

[Eighth Month.]

“O constituting or ending a syllable is long.”

broken	explosive	melodeon	poem	spoken
chosen	gondola	melody	police	tobacco
composition	licorice	open	potato	trophy
coquet	location	opponent	promotion	zodiac
cupola	locust	pantomime	proviso	zoölogy

Eighth Year

[Fourth Month.]

“I constituting or ending an unaccented syllable, not initial, is always short, and is usually short even in initial syllables, if unaccented.”

divide	tirade	sentinel	fidelity	residence
direct	intimate	continent	digest	levity
finance	indivisible	defensible	hilarious	reticent
imitate	equidistant	predicate	maritime	reticule
piazza	nobility	finance	invitation	direction

In the initial syllables i, bi, chi, cli, cri, pri, tri, however, i is generally long.

idea	biology	climatic	primeval	tripod
idle	Chinese	criterion	triangular	triune
isothermal	chirography	biennial	binomial	priority

[Fifth Month.]

E before terminal n should always be silent in participles, and also in most other words.

given	stolen	ridden	bidden	forsaken
taken	proven	shaken	woven	gotten
broken	driven	written	shaven	risen
spoken	frozen	arisen	chidden	smitten
fallen	hidden	beaten	eaten	stricken

also

heaven	oaken	happen	burden	leaven
often	leaden	seven	garden	brazen
widen	golden	even	eleven	christen

But in the following words e should be sounded:

hyphen	chicken	marten	lichen	sudden
linden	linen	gluten	mitten	aspen

E should also be sounded in any word (not a participle) in which terminal en is immediately preceded by l, m, n, or r.

women	Ellen	Helen	omen	pollen
barren	linen	woolen	Allen	Warren

[Sixth Month.]

“E before terminal l should usually be sounded.”

Abel	model	morsel	cancel	marvel
level	travel	rebel	gravel	barrel
nickel	apparel	towel	channel	kennel
chapel	citade	revel	Mabel	libel
camel	laurel	bevel	funnel	parcel

But in the following words and in their derivatives e before terminal l should not be sounded:

easel	weasel	ravel	mantel	shekel
navel	chattel	shrivel	drivel	snivel
shovel	grovel	mussel	hazel	teasel

[Seventh Month.]

“In most words i before terminal l or n should be sounded.”

Latin	vigil	anvil	goblin	coffin
cavil	cabin	council	rosin	origin
javelin	pencil	axil	assassin	tranquil
resin	bobbin	violin	peril	moccasin
retail	satin	utensil	pistil	daffodil

In the following words i should not be sounded:

devil basin evil cousin weevil raisin

[Eighth Month.]

“I accented in most words from the French has the sound of long e.”

pique	quarantine	police	critique	unique
machine	routine	ravine	regime	intrigue
caprice	suite	valise	Bastile	magazine
guillotine	fatigue	antique

Seventh Year. — Rules of Spelling

Many people think that rules of spelling are of no value, because they are hard to remember and because of numerous exceptions. This is certainly true of a great many such rules (and there are a great many); but three or four of these rules apply to so many words difficult to spell, and they have such a small number of exceptions that they are well worth while. Several hundred words are spelled according to the first rule given below. The rule itself is short, and all of the exceptions could be learned “for keeps” by a pupil in an hour. But pupils must have drill in applying the rules or they may be able to repeat the rules perfectly and glibly and not be able to spell the words coming under them.

Since the rule given for the work of the first month, seventh year, and that given for the second month, are counterparts, each of the other, I prefer to take them together. Knowing that “silent final e is dropped when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added”, we naturally infer its counterpart, viz.: “Silent final e is retained when a suffix beginning with a consonant is added.”

To bring about the necessary drill and insure attention to the application of the rule, I suggest that a class of pupils, reciting by turns, spell at least twenty-five words according to the following model. [The words are on the board in this form: love + able, care + less.]

“The suffix able begins with the vowel a; therefore when it is added to the word love the final silent e is dropped, and the word is spelled lovable.” Or,

“The suffix less begins with the consonant l; therefore, when it is added to the word care the final silent e is not dropped, and the word is spelled careless.”

Words to be spelled according to this model should be mixed,—those in which the suffix to be added begins with a vowel mixed with those in which the suffix begins with a consonant. Exceptions ought to be thrown into the mixture, and when a pupil comes to an exception, he can proceed according to the model, concluding with, “but this word is an exception to the rule”.

Fifty words are here given to illustrate this rule, but pupils who want to do thorough work should spell several such fifties.

[First Month.]

love–able	adventure–ous	decide–ing
care–less	change–ing	ice–berg
blame–able	extreme–ly	house–keeper
achieve–ment	fickle–ness	idle–ness
brake–man	fdore–cast	excite–ment
cure–able	compare–able	console–able
discourage–ment	continue–ally	endure–ance
prove–able	contrive–ance	amaze–ment
move–able	guide–ance	fierce–ness
acquire–ing	forgive–ness	peace–ful
else–where	hate–ful	deface–ment
enlarge–ment	believe–ing	disgrace–ful
admire–able	converse–ed	blue–ish
abide–ing	hedge–hog	lodge–ing
advertise–ment	achieve–ing	amuse–ment
eye–brow	hoarse–ness	dine–ing
pursue–ing	argue–ing	revenge–ful

Exceptions

Words ending in ce and ge retain the e when a suffix beginning with a or o is added.

changeable	challengeable	pronounceable
exchangeable	peaceable	advantageous
chargeable	serviceable	outrageous
manageable	traceable	courageous
marriageable	noticeable	vengeance

Other Exceptions

hoeing	singeing	seer	nursling	truly
shoeing	tingeing	seeing	loathsome	duty
toeing	freeing	agreeable	awful	wisdom
dyeing	fleeing	mileage	duly	wholly

Five other exceptions, to be remembered together: argument, judgment, lodgment, abridgment, acknowledgment.

The exceptions here given, which are practically all of the exceptions to this rule, should be reviewed until they cannot be forgotten. The value of the rule depends much on a thorough committal of the exceptions.

[Third Month.]

Rule II: “When a suffix is added to a word ending in y, preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i, unless the suffix begins with i.”

Model for drill on this rule (supply + ed, display + ed are written on the board):

“The y in supply is preceded by a consonant, therefore, when the suffix ed is added the y is changed to i and the word is spelled, supplied.” Or,

“The y in display is preceded by a vowel, therefore when the suffix ed is added the y is not changed, and the word is spelled, displayed.”

carry + ed	study + es	espy + ed	juicy + est
hurry + es	destroy + ed	deny + ing	homely + est
marry + ing	pity + ing	survey + ed	pity + ful
decay + ed	pity + less	employ + ing	rally + es
annoy + s	joy + less	noisy + est	pretty + est
copy + ed	city + es	mighty + er	pity + able

Exceptions y does not change before ’s; as in

la´dy’s en´e my’s ba´by’s coun´try’s

Other exceptions to the rule, or to what is inferred from it:

staid (or stayed)	slain	dry´ly	la´dy like
paid	dai´ly	dry ness	la dy bug
laid	sly ly	(but, dri´er,	la dy ship
said	sly ness	dri´est)	ba by hood
saith	shy ly	shy ness	ba by house

[Fourth and Fifth Months.]

Rule III: “Monosyllables or words accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel.” This rule carries with it the inference that the final consonant is not doubled unless these conditions are all complied with.

Model for drill on this rule:

“Refer is not a monosyllable, but it is accented on the last syllable; it ends in a single consonant r, preceded by a single vowel e; therefore, on adding the suffix ed, beginning with the vowel e, the final consonant r is doubled, and the word is spelled, referred.”

refer + ed	gallop + ed	suspend + ed	suffer + ing
omit + ed	abhor + ence	kidnap + ed	travel + ed
cheat + ed	join + ing	admit + ing	rebel + ious
flatter + ed	benefit + ed	differ + ence	fertil + izer
prefer + ing	permit + ed	enamel + ed	quarrel + ing
remit + ance	map + ing	drug + ist	brag + art
heap + ing	connect + ing	emit + ed	unfit + ed
confer + ing	offer + ed	conceal + ed	parallel + ed
acquit + ed*	commit + ee	shelter + ed	stir + ing
root + ed	squeal + ing	intermit + ent	equal + ed
depend + ent	begin + er	cheer + ed	vigor + ous
occur + ed	shovel + ed	forgot + en	regret + ed
submit + ed	transmit + ed	drum + er	spin + ing

Exceptions

The final consonant is not doubled when, in the derivative, the accent is thrown from the last syllable of the primitive; as, re fer´, ref´er ence.

ref´er ence	def´er ence	ref er ee´
pref er ence	in fer ence	ref´er a ble or
con fer ence	pref er a ble	re fer´ri ble

Other Exceptions

gas es	(but gassy)	tranquillity
gas eous	humbug ging	trans fer able
crystallize	humbug ged	ex cellence
chagrined

Note.—There is a large class of words ending in l, and accented on some other syllable than the last, in whose derivatives the l is doubled by many writers; but it accords more with the analogy of the language not to double the l. Such words are the following: apparel, cancel, channel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, enamel, equal, gambol, grovel, jewel, libel, marshal, marvel, metal, model, panel, peril, quarrel.

Reference Table of Suffixes able, see ble

age, that which, having

ain, see ian

al, pertaining to

an, pertaining to, one who

ant, one who, that which, quality of, condition of ary, one who, that which, place where, condition of, quality of, pertaining to ate, act of, state of, shaped like ble, capable of, fit to be cle, little, that which ed, condition of ee, one who ence, see ant ent, see ant er, one who, that which es, see er et, little ful, full of, having fy, to make ial, see al ian, one who ible, see ble ic, pertaining to il, see ile ile, capable of, quality of ion, act of, state of, that which ious, see ous ish, act of is, that which ise, see ize ism, state of, doctrine of ist, one who ity, that which, state of being, quality of ive, that which, quality of ize, act of lent, full of less, without ly, state of being ment, that which oid, form or, one who ory, see ary ous, full of, quality of, having tic, see ic tude, quality of ty, see ity ure, that which, act of y, that which This index is to be used as a cross-reference by means of which, words in different parts of the book having a common root may be associated.

act	*fort	nov
ambl	*fract, frang	numer
anim	*frater	opo, opt
*ann	fresh	*pater
aqua	fuse	path
arch	fy	*ped, pod
*art	gam	*pel, puls
*aster	*ge	*pend, pens
*aud	gnost	*phon
bi, be	gon	ple, plen
brev	grad, gress	*polis
burse	*graph	*pon, pos
*capt, caput	*grat, grac	*port
*ced, cess	*greg	preci
*cent	hale	roy
cept	hypnot	*rupt
*chron	itio, it	sal
cep, cip	*ject	scend
*civ	journ	*scop
clam, claim	junct	*scrib, scrip
clud, clus	juven	secu
cogn	laps	sect
*cord, card	lect	soci
*corpus, corpor	*leg	solv
*cura, curo	*liber	son
*curr	*liter	*spec
cuspid	loc	sta, sist
cycl	*log, logy	struct
*dent	loqu	surrect
*dict	luc	*tang, tact
*doc, doct	luna	*tempor
dors	lut, luv	*ten, tain
dote	*manu	*terr
*duc	mar	thesis
dur	*mater	*tors, tort
*fac, fec, fic	matur	*tract
femin	*ment	trude
*fer, lat	meridi	une
*fest	*meter	use, uti
fid	mingle	vade
*fin	*mit	*ven
*firm	moni	*vers, vert
fix	mort	via, vi
*flex, flect	mot	vir
flor	mut	viv
*flu	nat	vol
*foli	nomi	zoo
form	*norm

* Given in the Illinois State Course of Study.

Notes

* After q, u is a consonant.