Nouns
+21. Classes of Nouns.+—Nouns are divided into two general classes: proper nouns [Esther] and common nouns [girl].
Common nouns include abstract nouns [happiness] and collective nouns [army].
Any word mentioned merely as a word is a noun: [And is a conjunction].
+22. Inflection.+—A change in the form of a word to denote a change in its meaning is termed inflection.
+23. Number.+—The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to denote one or more than one is termed number. A noun that denotes but one object is singular in number. A noun that denotes more than one object is plural in number.
The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s and es to the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes].
Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:—
1. The irregular plural in en [child, children].
2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese].
3. Fourteen nouns ending in f or fe change the f or fe into yes [leaf, leaves].
4. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and add es [enemy, enemies].
5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding ‘s:[You have used too many i’s].
6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena].
7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number. (a) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the plural [sheep, deer]. (b) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks]. (c) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh]. (d) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles, news, politics].
8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls].
9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters. The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs. Harrisons.]
10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth, cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence].
+24. Case.+—Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun bears to some other word in the sentence.
Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting case is termed declension. There are three cases in the English language: the nominative, the possessive, and the objective; but nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and objective cases have the same form.
+25. Formation of the Possessive.+—Nouns in the singular, and those in the plural not already ending in s, form the possessive regularly by adding ‘s to the nominative [finger, finger’s; geese, geese’s].
In case the plural already ends in s, the possessive case adds only the apostrophe [girls’].
A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the ‘s would make an unpleasant sound [Moses’].
Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding ‘s to the last word.
This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used:
[Bradbury and Emery’s Algebra].
Notice that in the following expression the ‘s is affixed to the second noun only: [My sister Martha’s book].
Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to denote possession: [The hardness of the rock, not The rock’s hardness].
+26. Gender.+—Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex. Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the masculine gender; those denoting females are of the feminine gender; and those denoting things without animal life are of the neuter gender.
+27. Person.+—Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to be in the first, second, or third person. Nouns and many pronouns are not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what persons they represent.
+28. Constructions of Nouns.+—The following are the usual constructions of nouns:—
(a) The possessive case of the noun denotes possession.
(b) Nouns in the nominative case are used as follows:—
1. As the subject of a verb: [The western sky is all aflame]
2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous season of the year].
3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor soul, it could not be!].
4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my baby!].
5. Absolutely: [The rain being over, the grass twinkled in the sunshine].
6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a native of Genoa, discovered America].
(c) Nouns in the objective case are used as follows:—
1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the object complement: [I saw a host of golden daffodils].
2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him king].
3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave Ethel a ring].
4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of New England].
5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded the man (him)to go without delay].
6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive to be: [I thought it to be John (him)].
7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last week].
8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone, the great explorer].
+29. Equivalents for Nouns.+
1. Pronoun: [John gave his father a book for Christmas].
2. Adjective: [The good alone are truly great].
3. Adverb: [I do not understand the whys and wherefores of the process].
4. A gerund, or infinitive in ing: [Seeing is believing].
5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, to think is to act].
6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe that she took the money]. Noun clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and appositive.
7. A prepositional phrase: [Over the fence is out].